Did people of more modest means attempt to arrange marriages for their
children
in similar ways?
Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome_nodrm
What are some of the actions that he thinks could be taken to reduce household expenses?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e Strepsiades is portrayed as wrestling with some serious debt and family problems. Do you think his situation was typical of that which confronted many fifth-century Athenians of his socioeconomic group?
e Strepsiades seems to be making a point about differences in social status when he remarks that his wife had expectations that Phidippides would one day drive a chariot in the prestigious Panathenaic festival, whereas Strepsiades thinks it more likely that the boy would be herding goats in the Rocky Bottom. How do you suppose an Athenian audience would react to the comparison between the Panathenaic festival and Rocky Bottom? Of the two possible futures in store for Phidippides (chariot driv- ing or goat herding), which one do you think would be more likely to occur? Why?
e Satire, whether ancient or modern, almost always contains elements of exaggeration. What portrayals (of people or events) in the document seem exaggerated to you? Can you think of any modern satirists to whom Aristophanes might be compared?
Further Information
Dover, Kenneth J. Aristophanic Comedy. Berkeley, CA, 1972.
Ehrenberg, Victor. The People of Aristophanes: A Sociology of Old Attic Comedy. Oxford,
1943.
Harriott, Rosemary. Aristophanes, Poet and Dramatist. Baltimore, 1986. Murray, Gilbert. Aristophanes: A Study. Oxford, 1933.
Strauss, Leo. Socrates and Aristophanes. Chicago, 1996.
Websites
The Clouds: An Analysis of the Play by Aristophanes. http://www. theatrehistory. com/ ancient/bates025. html
On Satire in Aristophanes's The Clouds [especially section "J"]. http://records. viu. ca/~johnstoi/ introser/clouds. htm
Bibliography for Document
Dover, Kenneth J. Aristophanes. Clouds. Oxford, 1968.
Feder, Lillian. Apollo Handbook of Classical Literature. New York, 1964.
Henderson, Jeffrey (tr. ). Aristophanes: Clouds; Wasps; Peace. [LCL. ] Cambridge and London,
1998.
Marchant, E. C. (tr. ). Xenophon: Memorabilia and Oeconomicus. [LCL. ] Cambridge and
London, 1923.
A Failure to Launch, in an Athenian Family
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3. EVEN IN ANCIENT ROME, THE DOG WAS MAN'S --AND WOMAN'S--BEST FRIEND
INTRODUCTION
The Romans enjoyed keeping all manner of creatures as pets, but dogs seemed to be one of their favorite choices for four-footed companionship. The naturalist Pliny the Elder provides an account of these noble animals.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. Pliny, as a scientist, writes in an objective, nonemotional style, but a careful reading of his canine descriptions reveals an author who appreciated and respected the intel- ligence and loyalty of these animals.
2. In addition to their role as domestic pets, many dogs were put to work, especially on farms, in hunting, and as watchdogs.
3. Pliny the Elder's writings often contain a mixture of scientific data and supporting anecdotal information that illustrates or confirms the data. His discussion of dogs conforms to that pattern.
Document: Pliny Expounds on Canine Appeal
Many . . . domestic animals are worth studying, and before all, the one[s] most faithful to man: the dog, and the horse. We are told of a dog that fought against brigands in defense of his master and although covered with wounds would not leave his corpse, driving away birds and beasts of prey; and of another dog in Epirus [in Greece] that recognized his master's murderer in a gathering and by snapping and barking made him confess the crime. [Here follows an account of heroic dogs in other cultures. ]
Among ourselves, the famous Vulcatius, Cascellius's tutor in civil law, when returning on his cob from his place near Rome after nightfall was defended by his dog from a highwayman; and so was the senator Caelius, an invalid, when set upon by armed men at Piacenza [a northern Italian town], and he did not receive a wound till the dog had been [done away with]. But above all cases, in
? ? ? ? ? 13
Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
our own generation, it is attested by the National Records that in the consulship [28 CE] of Appius Julius and Publius Silius when as a result of the case of Germanicus's son Nero, punishment was visited on Titius Sabinus and his slaves, a dog belonging to one of them could not be driven away from him in prison and when he had been flung out on the Steps of Lamentation would not leave his body, uttering sor- rowful howls to the vast concourse of the Roman public around, and when one of them threw it food, it carried it to the mouth of its dead master. Also, when his corpse had been thrown into the Tiber, it swam to it and tried to keep it afloat, a great crowd streaming out to view the animal's loyalty.
Dogs alone know their master, and also recognize a sudden arrival as a stranger. They alone recognize their own names, and the voice of a member of the house- hold. They remember the way to places however distant, and no creature [except for humans] has a longer memory. Their onset [i. e. , an attack] and rage can be mollified by a person sitting down on the ground. Experience daily discovers very many other qualities in these animals, but it is in hunting that their skill and sagacity is most outstanding. A hound traces and follows footprints, dragging by its leash the tracker that accom- panies it towards his quarry. And on sighting it how silent and secret but how significant an indication is given first by the tail and then by the muzzle! Consequently, even when they are exhausted with old age and blind and weak, men carry them in their arms, sniffing at the breezes and scents and pointing their muzzles towards cover. [Tr. H. Rackham. Pliny: Natural History. (8. 144-147). Volume III. LCL, 1940. Page numbers: 101, 103, 105. ]
AFTERMATH
Pliny goes on to describe other canine topics, including breeding. He claims that in India, the inhabitants breed dogs with tigers, while Gauls (modern France) cross dogs with wolves. He discusses gestation periods, puppy litters, and methods of determining which newborn puppy will turn out to be the "pick of the litter. " He also relates a lengthy anecdote about a huge hound given to Alexander the Great by the king of Albania. This dog was reportedly so ferocious that it could take down a lion or even an elephant. Alexander decided to test the claim, and the dog did not disappoint; it crushed the lion, and brought the elephant to the ground with a thunderous crash.
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? cob: a breed of horse, asturco, which, according to Pliny [8. 166], does not display "the usual paces in run- ning but a smooth trot, straighten- ing the near and off-side legs alternately, from which the horses are taught by training to adopt an ambling pace. " [Pliny the Elder. Natural History 8. 166; tr. Rackham. ]
National Records: This is probably a reference to the acta diurna populi Romani, the "daily news of the Roman people," probably the clos- est that the Romans ever came to putting out a daily newspaper. Julius Caesar initiated the publica- tion of the acta during his consul- ship in 59 BCE. It was probably originally an account only of the official acts of the Roman senate and other government entities, but eventually it also included social news and information about other events. According to the his- torian Tacitus, the publication was read not only in Rome but throughout the provinces.
Steps of Lamentation: According to the lexicographers Lewis and Short, the Steps of Lamentation were "steps on the Aventine Hill [one of the famous Seven Hills of Rome] lead- ing to the Tiber [River], to which the bodies of executed criminals were dragged by hooks, to be thrown into the Tiber. "
Vulcatius, Cascellius: Vulcatius (alt. Vulcacius) Sedigitus was a second- century BCE poet and literary critic who compiled a "top ten" list of the greatest comic poets in the his- tory of Roman literature. The two names on the list most familiar to us today, Plautus and Terence, ranked second and sixth, respec- tively. Cascellius was a first- century BCE jurist and politician.
? ? ? ? ? 14
Even in Ancient Rome, the Dog Was Man's--and Woman's--Best Friend
? ? ? ? TRIMALCHIO'S MUTT
In the fancifully lavish dinner party thrown by Trimalchio, the first-century CE buffoonish epicure described by the satirist Petronius in The Satyricon, an incident occurs where the host's outsized dog Scylax causes a scene. Trimalchio had noticed that one of the children who frequented his household was trying to force a half loaf of bread down the gullet of an enormously obese puppy; as fast as the child stuffed in the bread, the animal vomited it. Trimalchio, observing the drama, ordered to be brought in his own dog, Scylax, the praesidium domus familiaque, "guardian of my home and family. " He tossed the mutt a chunk of bread, adding that no one in the entire household was more devoted to him than the dog. That is when the trouble started.
The child, when he saw the attention and affection which Trimalchio lavished on Scylax, put his plump pup down on the floor, and egged it on to a confrontation with the master's dog. Naturally, Scylax took up the challenge, and, with a cacophony of barking, began pursuing his tormenter around the dining room. During the chase, the two canines managed to collide with a glass lampstand; they smashed the glass, and spilled hot oil (such lamps were fueled by burning olive oil) all over some of the guests.
Big-hearted Trimalchio ignored the melee, and the mess, and instead dipped into the exquisite buffet which adorned the dining room, inviting his guests to do likewise.
? ? ? ASK YOURSELF
1. What are some of the characteristics of dogs that--according to Pliny--set them apart from other animals?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e The Romans did not recognize the wide variety of dog breeds that we do today, but some breeds were distinctive. What were these? Was any one breed prized more highly than the others?
e Pliny attributes to dogs some characteristics that might be questionable, especially their incisive memory--"no creature [except for humans] has a longer memory"--and their inclination to leave off from attacking a per- son, if the person sits down on the ground. Are these characteristics accu- rately assigned to dogs? What about some of the other canine attributes he describes?
Further Information
Beagon, Mary. Roman Nature: The Thought of Pliny the Elder. Oxford, 1992.
Healy, John F. Pliny the Elder on Science and Technology. Oxford, 1999.
Murphy, Trevor Morgan. Pliny the Elder's Natural History: The Empire in the Encyclopedia.
Oxford, 2004.
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Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
16
Website
Names for Roman Dogs. http://www. unrv. com/culture/names-for-roman-dogs. php
Bibliography for Document
Lewis, Charlton T. and Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary. London, 1879.
Rackham, H. (tr. ). Pliny: Natural History. Volume III. [LCL. ] Cambridge and London,
1940.
Sullivan, J. P. (tr. ). Petronius: The Satyricon and the Fragments. Baltimore, 1965.
4. A PREARRANGED MARRIAGE
INTRODUCTION
Roman marriages were sometimes prearranged, especially in the upper socioeconomic groups of citizens. Pliny the Younger wrote a letter to his friend Junius Mauricus, who was seeking a suitable husband for his niece. Pliny had the perfect candidate in mind!
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. This was not the only time in which Pliny had helped his friend Mauricus. He also offered to conduct a search for a tutor for the children of Mauricus's brother. Mauricus was exiled from Rome by the emperor Domitian in 93 CE, but was recalled five years later by the subsequent emperor, Nerva. It seems likely that Pliny wrote this letter early in the second century CE.
2. The document, about a marriage arrangement, gives us a window into the world of the wealthier Roman upper classes, and the manner in which they might go about the task of finding suitable spouses for their children.
Did people of more modest means attempt to arrange marriages for their children in similar ways? Or at all? These questions are more difficult to answer.
Document: Pliny the Younger
as a Matchmaker
You request me to look for a husband for your niece, and it is fitting for you to give me this commission rather than anyone else. For you know how much I esteemed and loved that great man, her father, and with what encouragement he helped me in my youth, and how he caused me to appear to deserve the praises he used to bestow upon me. You could not give me a more important or more pleasant commission, nor could I undertake a more honorable task than to choose a young man worthy of begetting the grandchildren of Rusticus Arulenus [the brother of Mauricus].
? ? ? ? ? 17
Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
Such a person would take a long time to find, were not Manicius Acilianus ready at hand, almost as if by pre- arrangement. While he loves me very warmly with the affection usual between young men (for he is just a few years younger), he reveres me as he would an old man. For he is as desirous of modeling himself on me and of being instructed by me as I was by you and your brother.
He is a native of Brixia, a city of that Italy of ours, the Italy which that still retains and preserves much of the modesty, the frugality, and even the rustic simplicity of the olden days. His father is Minicius Macrinus, one of the leading men of the equestrian order, who desired no higher status; for though elevated to praetorian rank by the deified Vespasian [emperor who reigned 69-79 CE], he very steadfastly preferred an honorable repose to this display--or shall I call it rank--of ours. His maternal grandmother is Serrana Procula, of the municipality of Padua. You are acquainted with the manners of the place; yet Serrana is even to the Paduans a model of strictness. He is fortunate in having also Publius Acilius as his uncle, a man of almost unequaled gravity, wisdom, and integrity. In short, there is nothing in his entire family which that would not please you as if it were in your own. As for Acilius himself, he has great energy as well as great application, joined with a high degree of modesty. He has already passed with the greatest credit through the offices of quaestor, tribune, and praetor [three political offices of the Republic, whose practical significance in Pliny's time had probably diminished], so that he has already spared you the necessity of canvassing for him. He has the look of a gentleman, fresh-colored and blooming, and a natural handsomeness in his whole build, together with a certain senatorial grace. I think that these factors should not be slighted in the least, for this is a kind of reward that should be given to the chastity of maidens.
I don't know whether to add that his father is very rich. For when I consider the kind of person you are, for whose niece I am seeking a husband, I feel it is unneces- sary to mention wealth. But when I look at the public morality and even the laws of the state, according to which a person's wealth claims paramount attention, it certainly merits some notice. And indeed, where children--in fact, a goodly number of them--are thought of, this consideration too is to be weighed in arranging matches. You may perhaps think that I have indulged my affection and exaggerated beyond the merits of the case. But I stake my integrity that you will find everything far greater than what I am telling you in advance . . .
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? application: This is the translation of the Latin word industria, which con- notes diligent, purposeful activity. So Acilius not only possessed abstract character traits like integrity and wisdom, but he also was focused and productive in his work habits.
Brixia: A city in northern Italy, modern Brescia. Brixia was located not far from Comum, Pliny's hometown.
equestrian order: The prosperous upper middle class in ancient Roman society, called "equestrian" because in the earliest days of Roman history, these were the peo- ple wealthy enough to buy and maintain a horse.
Manicius Acilianus: Although this young man is Pliny's candidate for the husband-to-be, there is no information about him elsewhere.
Minicius Macrinus: Six of Pliny's let- ters to this individual are extant, including one [8. 17] that describes a horrific storm and the flooding that resulted, and Pliny's hope that his friend survived with life and property intact.
Padua: Known as Patavium in Roman times, this town was the birthplace of the eminent Roman historian Livy (Titus Livius, 59 BCE-17 CE).
praetorian rank: Apparently because of his distinguished background and accomplishments, he was granted the privileges of an ex- magistrate (a praetor), even though he had never held that office.
rustic simplicity of the olden days:
The Latin rusticitas, here translated as "rustic simplicity," is a word with an interesting combination of posi- tive, neutral, and negative connota- tions. It can mean "rustic charm" or "country-born" or "lacking sophistication. " Pliny undoubtedly
? ? ? 18
Farewell. [Lewis, Naphtali and Meyer Reinhold (eds. ). Roman Civilization: Sourcebook II, The Empire. Reprinted by Harper Torchbooks, 1966. 1. 14, page numbers: 252-253. ]
AFTERMATH
We have no follow-up to this letter, so it is not possible to know whether the proposed marriage ever took place. However, given Pliny's status in society and his sound judgment in such matters, it seems likely that the union occurred.
ASK YOURSELF
1. Why does Pliny claim that it was fitting for Mauricus to give him "this commission [to find a husband for his friend's niece] rather than anyone else"? What qualifica- tions does Pliny have that make him uniquely suited for this undertaking?
2. What personal and family attributes does Minicius Acilianus possess that would make him a suitable match for Junius Mauricus's niece?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e How common was it for Roman marriages to be arranged in the manner that Pliny describes in this letter?
e Whatcanyoufindoutaboutthehistory,culture,andsignificanceofsome of the northern Italian towns that Pliny mentions in the letter? Were there any other famous names in Roman history (in addition to Pliny and Livy) who came from this region?
e Does it seem a bit odd that Pliny devotes the biggest portion of the letter not to the intended groom, Minicius Acilianus, but to Acilianus's family, and especially his uncle and his father? Why do you suppose he placed the emphasis on these two family members?
e Plinywritesthat"he[theuncle,Acilius]hasalreadypassed. . . through the offices of quaestor, tribune, and praetor, so that he has already spared you the necessity of canvassing for him. " The noted commentator John H. Westcott suggests that "there was only one more office to obtain, the consulship, and that was in the [form of a] gift of the emperor. " What do you think Pliny was implying by his statement? Is there an implicit expectation that Minicius Acilianus would somehow have assisted his uncle in his political career, but that since the uncle had already held all the important offices, "the necessity of canvassing for him" would not be an issue?
Further Information
Radice, Betty. The Letters of Pliny the Younger. London, 1963.
Sherwin-White, A. N. The Letters of Pliny: A Social and Historical Commentary. Oxford,
1966.
A Prearranged Marriage
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? intends to convey here the positive connotation. By "olden days," he probably refers to the bygone times of the Roman Republic, an era to which many Romans nostalgically hearkened back as a sort of golden age of deportment, respect, and hard work.
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 19
Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
20
Websites
Marriage in Ancient Rome. http://victorian. fortunecity. com/lion/373/roman/romarriage . html
Pliny the Younger (3). http://www. livius. org/pi-pm/pliny/pliny_y3. html
Bibliography for Document
Lewis, Naphtali and Meyer Reinhold (eds. ). Roman Civilization. Sourcebook II: The Empire. New York, 1955.
Westcott, John H. (ed. ) Selected Letters of Pliny. Norman, OK, new edition 1965.
5. AN EXTREMELY DEVOTED WIFE
INTRODUCTION
Certainly one of our best sources of information about the role of a wife in a Roman house- hold comes from a lengthy eulogy, preserved in the form of an inscription. The honoree was a first-century BCE lady by the name of Turia; the document is generally known as the Laudatio Turiae (In Praise of Turia). The speaker was her husband, Quintus Lucretius Vespillo.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. Turia and her husband lived through some of the most tumultuous years in Roman history: the unsettled times after the assassination of Julius Caesar (44 BCE). Vespillo's name was placed on a proscription list in 43, but he was later exonerated, and even served a term as consul in 19.
2. Although Roman law and custom placed the husband above the wife as the absolute ruler of the household, it seems clear from the document that Turia exercised a good deal of her own judgment and engaged in actions independent of her husband's approval or permission.
3. There is some scholarly skepticism as to whether this lengthy inscription actually does refer to Turia, since the inscription is fragmentary and pieces are missing in places, and the name "Turia" does not appear on the extant sections. However, the document does contain detailed information that is consistent with information about Vespillo from other ancient sources, and so it seems very likely that the wife in question is Turia. The first-century CE Roman historian Valerius Maximus [6. 7] writes: "When Quintus Lucretius [Vespillo] was proscribed by the triumvirs [Octavian, Lepidus, Mark Antony] his wife Turia hid him in her bedroom above the rafters. A single maidservant knew the secret. At great risk to herself, she kept him safe from imminent death. So rare was her loyalty that, while the other men who had been proscribed found themselves in foreign, hostile places, barely manag- ing to escape the worst tortures of body and soul, Lucretius was safe in that bed- room in the arms of his wife. " [Valerius Maximus. Memorable Doings and Sayings 6. 7; tr. Bailey. ]
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Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
? Document: Turia's Devotion
Marriages of such long duration, not dissolved by divorce, but terminated by death alone, are indeed rare. For our union was prolonged in unclouded happiness for forty-one years. Would that our long marriage had come to its final end by my death, and that I as the older--which was more just--had yielded to fate.
Why recall your natural qualities, your modesty, deference, affability, your amiable disposition, your faithful attendance to household duties, your enlight- ened religion, your unassuming elegance, the modest simplicity of your attire? Need I speak of your attach- ment to your kindred, your affection for your family-- when you cherished my mother as you did your own parents--you who share countless other virtues with Roman matrons who cherish their fair name? These qualities which I claim for you are your own; few have possessed the like and been able to hold on to and main- tain them; the experience of men teaches us how rare they are.
With joint zeal we have preserved all the patrimony which you received from your parents. Entrusting it all to me, you were not troubled with the care of increasing it; thus did we share the task of administering it, that I undertook to protect your fortune, and you to guard mine. On this point I pass by many things in silence, for fear of attributing to myself a portion of your deserts. Suffice it for me to have indicated my sentiments.
You gave proof of your generosity not only towards very many of your kin, but especially in your filial devo- tion. . . You brought up in our home. . . some worthy young girls of your kinship. And that these might attain to a station in life worthy of your family, you provided them with dowries. Gaius Cluvius [Turia's brother-in- law] and myself, by common accord, executed your intention, and approving of your generosity, in order that your patrimony might suffer no diminution, offered our own family possessions instead, and gave up our own estates to provide the dowries settled upon by you. This I have related not to sing my own praises,
but to show that we held ourselves in honor bound to execute from our property those obligations incurred by you out of the fullness of your heart . . .
[Vespillo next devotes several lengthy passages to Turia's role in saving his life during the proscriptions which were issued following the assassination of Julius Caesar. ]
When all the world was again at peace and the Republic reestablished, peaceful and happy days followed for us. We longed for children, which an
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? divorce: The essayist Aulus Gellius reports (4. 3) that for the first 500+ years after the founding of Rome in 753 BCE, divorce was unknown. The first documented divorce occurred in 231, when a distin- guished man named Spurius Carvilius Ruga separated from his wife because she failed to bear children. According to Gellius, Carvilius loved his wife very much, but he divorced her because of a legally binding oath he had taken, in which he publicly professed that he had married in order to father children.
dowries: Unfortunately, Vespillo does not specify how many "worthy young girls" received dowries from Turia and/or Vespillo, but it is probable that the total value of these dowries was considerable, since the family seems to have been fairly wealthy.
the Republic reestablished: This is most likely something of an over- statement. Although the future emperor Augustus claimed to have restored the Roman Republic after the civil war following Caesar's assassination, the reality of the sit- uation was that the Republic remained in name only, and that Augustus had become the sole ruler--for life.
? ? ? 22
envious fate denied us for some time. Had Fortune permitted herself to smile on us in the ordinary fashion, what had been lacking to complete our happiness? But advancing age put an end to our hopes. . .
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e Strepsiades is portrayed as wrestling with some serious debt and family problems. Do you think his situation was typical of that which confronted many fifth-century Athenians of his socioeconomic group?
e Strepsiades seems to be making a point about differences in social status when he remarks that his wife had expectations that Phidippides would one day drive a chariot in the prestigious Panathenaic festival, whereas Strepsiades thinks it more likely that the boy would be herding goats in the Rocky Bottom. How do you suppose an Athenian audience would react to the comparison between the Panathenaic festival and Rocky Bottom? Of the two possible futures in store for Phidippides (chariot driv- ing or goat herding), which one do you think would be more likely to occur? Why?
e Satire, whether ancient or modern, almost always contains elements of exaggeration. What portrayals (of people or events) in the document seem exaggerated to you? Can you think of any modern satirists to whom Aristophanes might be compared?
Further Information
Dover, Kenneth J. Aristophanic Comedy. Berkeley, CA, 1972.
Ehrenberg, Victor. The People of Aristophanes: A Sociology of Old Attic Comedy. Oxford,
1943.
Harriott, Rosemary. Aristophanes, Poet and Dramatist. Baltimore, 1986. Murray, Gilbert. Aristophanes: A Study. Oxford, 1933.
Strauss, Leo. Socrates and Aristophanes. Chicago, 1996.
Websites
The Clouds: An Analysis of the Play by Aristophanes. http://www. theatrehistory. com/ ancient/bates025. html
On Satire in Aristophanes's The Clouds [especially section "J"]. http://records. viu. ca/~johnstoi/ introser/clouds. htm
Bibliography for Document
Dover, Kenneth J. Aristophanes. Clouds. Oxford, 1968.
Feder, Lillian. Apollo Handbook of Classical Literature. New York, 1964.
Henderson, Jeffrey (tr. ). Aristophanes: Clouds; Wasps; Peace. [LCL. ] Cambridge and London,
1998.
Marchant, E. C. (tr. ). Xenophon: Memorabilia and Oeconomicus. [LCL. ] Cambridge and
London, 1923.
A Failure to Launch, in an Athenian Family
? ? 11
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3. EVEN IN ANCIENT ROME, THE DOG WAS MAN'S --AND WOMAN'S--BEST FRIEND
INTRODUCTION
The Romans enjoyed keeping all manner of creatures as pets, but dogs seemed to be one of their favorite choices for four-footed companionship. The naturalist Pliny the Elder provides an account of these noble animals.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. Pliny, as a scientist, writes in an objective, nonemotional style, but a careful reading of his canine descriptions reveals an author who appreciated and respected the intel- ligence and loyalty of these animals.
2. In addition to their role as domestic pets, many dogs were put to work, especially on farms, in hunting, and as watchdogs.
3. Pliny the Elder's writings often contain a mixture of scientific data and supporting anecdotal information that illustrates or confirms the data. His discussion of dogs conforms to that pattern.
Document: Pliny Expounds on Canine Appeal
Many . . . domestic animals are worth studying, and before all, the one[s] most faithful to man: the dog, and the horse. We are told of a dog that fought against brigands in defense of his master and although covered with wounds would not leave his corpse, driving away birds and beasts of prey; and of another dog in Epirus [in Greece] that recognized his master's murderer in a gathering and by snapping and barking made him confess the crime. [Here follows an account of heroic dogs in other cultures. ]
Among ourselves, the famous Vulcatius, Cascellius's tutor in civil law, when returning on his cob from his place near Rome after nightfall was defended by his dog from a highwayman; and so was the senator Caelius, an invalid, when set upon by armed men at Piacenza [a northern Italian town], and he did not receive a wound till the dog had been [done away with]. But above all cases, in
? ? ? ? ? 13
Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
our own generation, it is attested by the National Records that in the consulship [28 CE] of Appius Julius and Publius Silius when as a result of the case of Germanicus's son Nero, punishment was visited on Titius Sabinus and his slaves, a dog belonging to one of them could not be driven away from him in prison and when he had been flung out on the Steps of Lamentation would not leave his body, uttering sor- rowful howls to the vast concourse of the Roman public around, and when one of them threw it food, it carried it to the mouth of its dead master. Also, when his corpse had been thrown into the Tiber, it swam to it and tried to keep it afloat, a great crowd streaming out to view the animal's loyalty.
Dogs alone know their master, and also recognize a sudden arrival as a stranger. They alone recognize their own names, and the voice of a member of the house- hold. They remember the way to places however distant, and no creature [except for humans] has a longer memory. Their onset [i. e. , an attack] and rage can be mollified by a person sitting down on the ground. Experience daily discovers very many other qualities in these animals, but it is in hunting that their skill and sagacity is most outstanding. A hound traces and follows footprints, dragging by its leash the tracker that accom- panies it towards his quarry. And on sighting it how silent and secret but how significant an indication is given first by the tail and then by the muzzle! Consequently, even when they are exhausted with old age and blind and weak, men carry them in their arms, sniffing at the breezes and scents and pointing their muzzles towards cover. [Tr. H. Rackham. Pliny: Natural History. (8. 144-147). Volume III. LCL, 1940. Page numbers: 101, 103, 105. ]
AFTERMATH
Pliny goes on to describe other canine topics, including breeding. He claims that in India, the inhabitants breed dogs with tigers, while Gauls (modern France) cross dogs with wolves. He discusses gestation periods, puppy litters, and methods of determining which newborn puppy will turn out to be the "pick of the litter. " He also relates a lengthy anecdote about a huge hound given to Alexander the Great by the king of Albania. This dog was reportedly so ferocious that it could take down a lion or even an elephant. Alexander decided to test the claim, and the dog did not disappoint; it crushed the lion, and brought the elephant to the ground with a thunderous crash.
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? cob: a breed of horse, asturco, which, according to Pliny [8. 166], does not display "the usual paces in run- ning but a smooth trot, straighten- ing the near and off-side legs alternately, from which the horses are taught by training to adopt an ambling pace. " [Pliny the Elder. Natural History 8. 166; tr. Rackham. ]
National Records: This is probably a reference to the acta diurna populi Romani, the "daily news of the Roman people," probably the clos- est that the Romans ever came to putting out a daily newspaper. Julius Caesar initiated the publica- tion of the acta during his consul- ship in 59 BCE. It was probably originally an account only of the official acts of the Roman senate and other government entities, but eventually it also included social news and information about other events. According to the his- torian Tacitus, the publication was read not only in Rome but throughout the provinces.
Steps of Lamentation: According to the lexicographers Lewis and Short, the Steps of Lamentation were "steps on the Aventine Hill [one of the famous Seven Hills of Rome] lead- ing to the Tiber [River], to which the bodies of executed criminals were dragged by hooks, to be thrown into the Tiber. "
Vulcatius, Cascellius: Vulcatius (alt. Vulcacius) Sedigitus was a second- century BCE poet and literary critic who compiled a "top ten" list of the greatest comic poets in the his- tory of Roman literature. The two names on the list most familiar to us today, Plautus and Terence, ranked second and sixth, respec- tively. Cascellius was a first- century BCE jurist and politician.
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Even in Ancient Rome, the Dog Was Man's--and Woman's--Best Friend
? ? ? ? TRIMALCHIO'S MUTT
In the fancifully lavish dinner party thrown by Trimalchio, the first-century CE buffoonish epicure described by the satirist Petronius in The Satyricon, an incident occurs where the host's outsized dog Scylax causes a scene. Trimalchio had noticed that one of the children who frequented his household was trying to force a half loaf of bread down the gullet of an enormously obese puppy; as fast as the child stuffed in the bread, the animal vomited it. Trimalchio, observing the drama, ordered to be brought in his own dog, Scylax, the praesidium domus familiaque, "guardian of my home and family. " He tossed the mutt a chunk of bread, adding that no one in the entire household was more devoted to him than the dog. That is when the trouble started.
The child, when he saw the attention and affection which Trimalchio lavished on Scylax, put his plump pup down on the floor, and egged it on to a confrontation with the master's dog. Naturally, Scylax took up the challenge, and, with a cacophony of barking, began pursuing his tormenter around the dining room. During the chase, the two canines managed to collide with a glass lampstand; they smashed the glass, and spilled hot oil (such lamps were fueled by burning olive oil) all over some of the guests.
Big-hearted Trimalchio ignored the melee, and the mess, and instead dipped into the exquisite buffet which adorned the dining room, inviting his guests to do likewise.
? ? ? ASK YOURSELF
1. What are some of the characteristics of dogs that--according to Pliny--set them apart from other animals?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e The Romans did not recognize the wide variety of dog breeds that we do today, but some breeds were distinctive. What were these? Was any one breed prized more highly than the others?
e Pliny attributes to dogs some characteristics that might be questionable, especially their incisive memory--"no creature [except for humans] has a longer memory"--and their inclination to leave off from attacking a per- son, if the person sits down on the ground. Are these characteristics accu- rately assigned to dogs? What about some of the other canine attributes he describes?
Further Information
Beagon, Mary. Roman Nature: The Thought of Pliny the Elder. Oxford, 1992.
Healy, John F. Pliny the Elder on Science and Technology. Oxford, 1999.
Murphy, Trevor Morgan. Pliny the Elder's Natural History: The Empire in the Encyclopedia.
Oxford, 2004.
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Website
Names for Roman Dogs. http://www. unrv. com/culture/names-for-roman-dogs. php
Bibliography for Document
Lewis, Charlton T. and Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary. London, 1879.
Rackham, H. (tr. ). Pliny: Natural History. Volume III. [LCL. ] Cambridge and London,
1940.
Sullivan, J. P. (tr. ). Petronius: The Satyricon and the Fragments. Baltimore, 1965.
4. A PREARRANGED MARRIAGE
INTRODUCTION
Roman marriages were sometimes prearranged, especially in the upper socioeconomic groups of citizens. Pliny the Younger wrote a letter to his friend Junius Mauricus, who was seeking a suitable husband for his niece. Pliny had the perfect candidate in mind!
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. This was not the only time in which Pliny had helped his friend Mauricus. He also offered to conduct a search for a tutor for the children of Mauricus's brother. Mauricus was exiled from Rome by the emperor Domitian in 93 CE, but was recalled five years later by the subsequent emperor, Nerva. It seems likely that Pliny wrote this letter early in the second century CE.
2. The document, about a marriage arrangement, gives us a window into the world of the wealthier Roman upper classes, and the manner in which they might go about the task of finding suitable spouses for their children.
Did people of more modest means attempt to arrange marriages for their children in similar ways? Or at all? These questions are more difficult to answer.
Document: Pliny the Younger
as a Matchmaker
You request me to look for a husband for your niece, and it is fitting for you to give me this commission rather than anyone else. For you know how much I esteemed and loved that great man, her father, and with what encouragement he helped me in my youth, and how he caused me to appear to deserve the praises he used to bestow upon me. You could not give me a more important or more pleasant commission, nor could I undertake a more honorable task than to choose a young man worthy of begetting the grandchildren of Rusticus Arulenus [the brother of Mauricus].
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Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
Such a person would take a long time to find, were not Manicius Acilianus ready at hand, almost as if by pre- arrangement. While he loves me very warmly with the affection usual between young men (for he is just a few years younger), he reveres me as he would an old man. For he is as desirous of modeling himself on me and of being instructed by me as I was by you and your brother.
He is a native of Brixia, a city of that Italy of ours, the Italy which that still retains and preserves much of the modesty, the frugality, and even the rustic simplicity of the olden days. His father is Minicius Macrinus, one of the leading men of the equestrian order, who desired no higher status; for though elevated to praetorian rank by the deified Vespasian [emperor who reigned 69-79 CE], he very steadfastly preferred an honorable repose to this display--or shall I call it rank--of ours. His maternal grandmother is Serrana Procula, of the municipality of Padua. You are acquainted with the manners of the place; yet Serrana is even to the Paduans a model of strictness. He is fortunate in having also Publius Acilius as his uncle, a man of almost unequaled gravity, wisdom, and integrity. In short, there is nothing in his entire family which that would not please you as if it were in your own. As for Acilius himself, he has great energy as well as great application, joined with a high degree of modesty. He has already passed with the greatest credit through the offices of quaestor, tribune, and praetor [three political offices of the Republic, whose practical significance in Pliny's time had probably diminished], so that he has already spared you the necessity of canvassing for him. He has the look of a gentleman, fresh-colored and blooming, and a natural handsomeness in his whole build, together with a certain senatorial grace. I think that these factors should not be slighted in the least, for this is a kind of reward that should be given to the chastity of maidens.
I don't know whether to add that his father is very rich. For when I consider the kind of person you are, for whose niece I am seeking a husband, I feel it is unneces- sary to mention wealth. But when I look at the public morality and even the laws of the state, according to which a person's wealth claims paramount attention, it certainly merits some notice. And indeed, where children--in fact, a goodly number of them--are thought of, this consideration too is to be weighed in arranging matches. You may perhaps think that I have indulged my affection and exaggerated beyond the merits of the case. But I stake my integrity that you will find everything far greater than what I am telling you in advance . . .
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? application: This is the translation of the Latin word industria, which con- notes diligent, purposeful activity. So Acilius not only possessed abstract character traits like integrity and wisdom, but he also was focused and productive in his work habits.
Brixia: A city in northern Italy, modern Brescia. Brixia was located not far from Comum, Pliny's hometown.
equestrian order: The prosperous upper middle class in ancient Roman society, called "equestrian" because in the earliest days of Roman history, these were the peo- ple wealthy enough to buy and maintain a horse.
Manicius Acilianus: Although this young man is Pliny's candidate for the husband-to-be, there is no information about him elsewhere.
Minicius Macrinus: Six of Pliny's let- ters to this individual are extant, including one [8. 17] that describes a horrific storm and the flooding that resulted, and Pliny's hope that his friend survived with life and property intact.
Padua: Known as Patavium in Roman times, this town was the birthplace of the eminent Roman historian Livy (Titus Livius, 59 BCE-17 CE).
praetorian rank: Apparently because of his distinguished background and accomplishments, he was granted the privileges of an ex- magistrate (a praetor), even though he had never held that office.
rustic simplicity of the olden days:
The Latin rusticitas, here translated as "rustic simplicity," is a word with an interesting combination of posi- tive, neutral, and negative connota- tions. It can mean "rustic charm" or "country-born" or "lacking sophistication. " Pliny undoubtedly
? ? ? 18
Farewell. [Lewis, Naphtali and Meyer Reinhold (eds. ). Roman Civilization: Sourcebook II, The Empire. Reprinted by Harper Torchbooks, 1966. 1. 14, page numbers: 252-253. ]
AFTERMATH
We have no follow-up to this letter, so it is not possible to know whether the proposed marriage ever took place. However, given Pliny's status in society and his sound judgment in such matters, it seems likely that the union occurred.
ASK YOURSELF
1. Why does Pliny claim that it was fitting for Mauricus to give him "this commission [to find a husband for his friend's niece] rather than anyone else"? What qualifica- tions does Pliny have that make him uniquely suited for this undertaking?
2. What personal and family attributes does Minicius Acilianus possess that would make him a suitable match for Junius Mauricus's niece?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e How common was it for Roman marriages to be arranged in the manner that Pliny describes in this letter?
e Whatcanyoufindoutaboutthehistory,culture,andsignificanceofsome of the northern Italian towns that Pliny mentions in the letter? Were there any other famous names in Roman history (in addition to Pliny and Livy) who came from this region?
e Does it seem a bit odd that Pliny devotes the biggest portion of the letter not to the intended groom, Minicius Acilianus, but to Acilianus's family, and especially his uncle and his father? Why do you suppose he placed the emphasis on these two family members?
e Plinywritesthat"he[theuncle,Acilius]hasalreadypassed. . . through the offices of quaestor, tribune, and praetor, so that he has already spared you the necessity of canvassing for him. " The noted commentator John H. Westcott suggests that "there was only one more office to obtain, the consulship, and that was in the [form of a] gift of the emperor. " What do you think Pliny was implying by his statement? Is there an implicit expectation that Minicius Acilianus would somehow have assisted his uncle in his political career, but that since the uncle had already held all the important offices, "the necessity of canvassing for him" would not be an issue?
Further Information
Radice, Betty. The Letters of Pliny the Younger. London, 1963.
Sherwin-White, A. N. The Letters of Pliny: A Social and Historical Commentary. Oxford,
1966.
A Prearranged Marriage
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? intends to convey here the positive connotation. By "olden days," he probably refers to the bygone times of the Roman Republic, an era to which many Romans nostalgically hearkened back as a sort of golden age of deportment, respect, and hard work.
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 19
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Websites
Marriage in Ancient Rome. http://victorian. fortunecity. com/lion/373/roman/romarriage . html
Pliny the Younger (3). http://www. livius. org/pi-pm/pliny/pliny_y3. html
Bibliography for Document
Lewis, Naphtali and Meyer Reinhold (eds. ). Roman Civilization. Sourcebook II: The Empire. New York, 1955.
Westcott, John H. (ed. ) Selected Letters of Pliny. Norman, OK, new edition 1965.
5. AN EXTREMELY DEVOTED WIFE
INTRODUCTION
Certainly one of our best sources of information about the role of a wife in a Roman house- hold comes from a lengthy eulogy, preserved in the form of an inscription. The honoree was a first-century BCE lady by the name of Turia; the document is generally known as the Laudatio Turiae (In Praise of Turia). The speaker was her husband, Quintus Lucretius Vespillo.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. Turia and her husband lived through some of the most tumultuous years in Roman history: the unsettled times after the assassination of Julius Caesar (44 BCE). Vespillo's name was placed on a proscription list in 43, but he was later exonerated, and even served a term as consul in 19.
2. Although Roman law and custom placed the husband above the wife as the absolute ruler of the household, it seems clear from the document that Turia exercised a good deal of her own judgment and engaged in actions independent of her husband's approval or permission.
3. There is some scholarly skepticism as to whether this lengthy inscription actually does refer to Turia, since the inscription is fragmentary and pieces are missing in places, and the name "Turia" does not appear on the extant sections. However, the document does contain detailed information that is consistent with information about Vespillo from other ancient sources, and so it seems very likely that the wife in question is Turia. The first-century CE Roman historian Valerius Maximus [6. 7] writes: "When Quintus Lucretius [Vespillo] was proscribed by the triumvirs [Octavian, Lepidus, Mark Antony] his wife Turia hid him in her bedroom above the rafters. A single maidservant knew the secret. At great risk to herself, she kept him safe from imminent death. So rare was her loyalty that, while the other men who had been proscribed found themselves in foreign, hostile places, barely manag- ing to escape the worst tortures of body and soul, Lucretius was safe in that bed- room in the arms of his wife. " [Valerius Maximus. Memorable Doings and Sayings 6. 7; tr. Bailey. ]
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? Document: Turia's Devotion
Marriages of such long duration, not dissolved by divorce, but terminated by death alone, are indeed rare. For our union was prolonged in unclouded happiness for forty-one years. Would that our long marriage had come to its final end by my death, and that I as the older--which was more just--had yielded to fate.
Why recall your natural qualities, your modesty, deference, affability, your amiable disposition, your faithful attendance to household duties, your enlight- ened religion, your unassuming elegance, the modest simplicity of your attire? Need I speak of your attach- ment to your kindred, your affection for your family-- when you cherished my mother as you did your own parents--you who share countless other virtues with Roman matrons who cherish their fair name? These qualities which I claim for you are your own; few have possessed the like and been able to hold on to and main- tain them; the experience of men teaches us how rare they are.
With joint zeal we have preserved all the patrimony which you received from your parents. Entrusting it all to me, you were not troubled with the care of increasing it; thus did we share the task of administering it, that I undertook to protect your fortune, and you to guard mine. On this point I pass by many things in silence, for fear of attributing to myself a portion of your deserts. Suffice it for me to have indicated my sentiments.
You gave proof of your generosity not only towards very many of your kin, but especially in your filial devo- tion. . . You brought up in our home. . . some worthy young girls of your kinship. And that these might attain to a station in life worthy of your family, you provided them with dowries. Gaius Cluvius [Turia's brother-in- law] and myself, by common accord, executed your intention, and approving of your generosity, in order that your patrimony might suffer no diminution, offered our own family possessions instead, and gave up our own estates to provide the dowries settled upon by you. This I have related not to sing my own praises,
but to show that we held ourselves in honor bound to execute from our property those obligations incurred by you out of the fullness of your heart . . .
[Vespillo next devotes several lengthy passages to Turia's role in saving his life during the proscriptions which were issued following the assassination of Julius Caesar. ]
When all the world was again at peace and the Republic reestablished, peaceful and happy days followed for us. We longed for children, which an
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? divorce: The essayist Aulus Gellius reports (4. 3) that for the first 500+ years after the founding of Rome in 753 BCE, divorce was unknown. The first documented divorce occurred in 231, when a distin- guished man named Spurius Carvilius Ruga separated from his wife because she failed to bear children. According to Gellius, Carvilius loved his wife very much, but he divorced her because of a legally binding oath he had taken, in which he publicly professed that he had married in order to father children.
dowries: Unfortunately, Vespillo does not specify how many "worthy young girls" received dowries from Turia and/or Vespillo, but it is probable that the total value of these dowries was considerable, since the family seems to have been fairly wealthy.
the Republic reestablished: This is most likely something of an over- statement. Although the future emperor Augustus claimed to have restored the Roman Republic after the civil war following Caesar's assassination, the reality of the sit- uation was that the Republic remained in name only, and that Augustus had become the sole ruler--for life.
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envious fate denied us for some time. Had Fortune permitted herself to smile on us in the ordinary fashion, what had been lacking to complete our happiness? But advancing age put an end to our hopes. . .
