No More Learning

C. 168) he dedicated on the
Decreto, ut Judices jurejurando obligentur, ad Alban mount the temple to Juno Moneta, which
Munus sancte obeundum ; " " Encomium ad Impe- he had rowed in his battle with the Corsicans five
(Andronicum II. ); “Querela adversus years before. (Liv. xli. 33, xlii. 1, 7, 21, 26
Niphonem ob male administratam Patriarchatus xlv. 17, 15. )
sui Provinciam ;" “ Oratio funebris in Theoleptum CI'CERO, the name of a family, little distin-
Metropolitam Philadelphiae ;" " Ad Imperatorem guished in history, belonging to the plebeian Clau-
de Obitu Despotae et Filii ejus," a letter to Andro- dia gens, the only member of which mentioned
nicus II. the elder, on the death of his son, the is C. Claudius Cicero, tribune of the plebs in B. C.
despot John, who had married Irene, the daughter 454. (Lir. ii. 31. ) The word seems to be con-
of Chumnus ; " De Charitate, erga Proximum, et nected with cicer, and may have been originally
omnia reliquenda ut Christum sequamur, &c. ;" applied by way of distinction to some individual
" De Mundi Natura ;” “ De Primis et Simplicibus celebrated for his skill in raising that kind of
Corporibus ;” “ Quod Terra quum in Medio sit, pulse, by whom the epithet would be transmitted
infra se nihil habeat ;" “ Quod neque Materia ante to his descendants. Thus the designation will
Corpora, neque Formae seorsim, sed haec ipsa be precisely analogous to Bulbus, Fabius, Lentulus,
simul constent;" “Contra Plotinum de Anima Piso, Tubero, and the like.
(W. R. ]
rationali Quaestiones variae, ubi de Metempsychosi, CI'CERO, the name of a family of the Tullii.
de Belluis, utrum Intellectu praeditae sint, nec ne, The Tullii Cicerones had from time immemorial
de Corporum Resurrectione, et aliis disseritur ;" been settled at Arpinum, which received the full
“ De Anima sensitiva et vegetiva ;" “Quod non franchise in B. c. 188; but they never aspired
impossibile sit, etiam secundum physices Rationes, to any political distinction until the stock was
collocatam esse Aquam in Firmamento, tum, quum raised by the great orator from that obscurity
Orbis Terrarum creatus sit, eamque ibi esse et into which it quickly relapsed after his death.
perpetuo manere,” &c. There are also extant | His genealogy, so far as it can be traced, is repre-
“Oratio in Laudem Imperaturis Andronici Senioris," sented in the following table.
1. M. Tullius Cicero. Married Gratidia.
1
ratorem
3
79
3. L. Tullius Cicero.
2. M. Tullius Cicero.
Married Helvia.
4. L. Tullius Cicero.
6. Q. Tullius Cicero.
Married Pomponia.
6. M. Tullius Cicero,
the orator.
Married. 1. Terentia.
2. Publilia.
2 2 2


## p. 708 (#728) ############################################

708
CICERO.
CICERO
a
8. Q. Tullius Cicero.
Tullia.
7. M. Tullius Cicero.
Married, 1. C. Piso Frugi.
2. Furius Crassipes.
3. P. Cornelius Dolabella.
country town.
Lentulus.
1. M. TULLIUS Cicero, grandfather of the 5. M. Tullius Cicero, the orator, eldest son of
orator, appears to have taken a lead in his own No. 2. In what follows we do not intend to enter
community, and vigorously opposed the projects of deeply into the complicated political transactions of
his fellow-townsman and brother-in-law, M. Grati- the era during which this great man flourished,
dius, who had raised a great commotion at Arpi- except in so far as he was directly and personally
num by agitating in favour of a law for voting by interested and concerned in the events.
The com-
ballot. The matter was referred to the consul plete history of that momentous crisis must be ob-
M. Aemilius Scaurus (B. c. 115), who complimented tained by comparing this article with the biogm-
Cicero on his conduct, declaring that he would phies of ANTONIUS, AUGUSTUS, BRUTUS, CAESAR,
gladly see a person of such spirit and integrity Catilina, Cato, Clodius Pulcher (CLAUDIUS),
exerting his powers on the great field of the metro- CHASSUS, LEPIDU's, Pompeius, and the other
polis, instead of remaining in the seclusion of a great characters of the day.
The old man was still alive at the
1. BIOGRAPHY OF CICERO.
birth of his eldest grandson (B. c. 106), whom he
little resembled in his tastes, for he was no friend M. Tullius Cicero was born on the 3rd of Jannary,
to foreign literature, and was wont to say, that his B. c. 106, according to the Roman calendar, at that
contemporaries were like Syrian slaves, the more epoch nearly three months in advance of the true
Greek 'they knew, the greater scoundrels they time, at the family residence in the vicinity of
were. (Cic. de Leg. ii. 1, iii. 16, de Orat. ii. 66. ) | Arpinum. No trustworthy anecdotes have been
2. M. Tullius Cicero, son of the foregoing, preserved with regard to his childhood, for little
and father of the orator. He was a member of the faith can be reposed in the gossiping stories col-
equestrian order, and lived upon his hereditary lected by Plutarch of the crowds who were wont
estate, in the neighbourhood of Arpinum, near the to flock to the school where he received the first
junction of the Fibrenus with the Liris, devoted to rudiments of knowledge, for the purpose of seeing
literary pursuits, till far advanced in life, when he and hearing the young prodigy ; but we cannot
removed to Rome for the purpose of educating his doubt that the aptitude for learning displayed by
two boys, Marcus and Quintus, and became the pro himself and his brother Quintus induced their fa-
prietor of a house in the Carinae. His reputation ther to remove to Rome, where he conducted their
as a man of learning procured for him the society elementary education according to the adrice of
and friendship of the most distinguished charac- L. Crassus, who pointed out both the subjects to
ters of the day, especially the orators M. Antonius which their attention ought chiefly to be devoted,
and L. Crassus, and the jurists Q. Scaevola and and also the teachers by whom the information
C. Aculeo, the latter of whom was his brother-in- sought might be best imparted. These instructors
law, being married to the sister of his wife Helvia. were, with the exception perhaps of Q. Aelius, the
Although naturally of a delicate constitution, by grammarian (Brut. 56), all Greeks, and among the
care and moderation he attained to a good old age, number was the renowned Archias of Antioch,
and died in the year B. c. 64, while his son, whose who had been living at Rome under the protection
rapid rise he had had the happiness of witnessing, of Lucullus ever since B. c. 102, and seems to have
was canrassing for the consulship with every pros- communicated a temporary enthusiasm for his own
pect of success. (De Leg. ii. 1, de Orat. ii. 1, de pursuits to his pupil, most of whose poetical at-
Off. iii. 19, ad Att. i. 6. )
tempts belong to his early youth. In his sixteenth
3. L. Tullius Cicero, brother of the foregoing. year (B. C. 91) Cicero received the manly gown,
He accompained M. Antonius the orator to Cilicia and entered the forum, where he listened with the
in B. c. 103 as a private friend, and remained with greatest avidity to the speakers at the bar and from
him in the province until his return the following the rostra, dedicating however a large portion of
year. He must have lived for a considerable time his time to reading, writing, and oratorical exer-
after this period, since he was in the habit of giving cises. At this period he was committed by his
his nephew many particulars with regard to the father to the care of the venerable Q. Mucius
pursuits of Antonius. (De Orat. ii. 1. )
Scaevola, the augur, whose side he scarcely crer
4. L. Tullius Cicero, son of the foregoing. quitted, acquiring from his lips that acquaintance
He was the constant companion and schoolfellow with the constitution of his country and the prin-
of the orator, travelled with him to Athens in B. c. ciples of jurisprudence, and those lessons of practical
79, and subsequently acted as his assistant in col- wisdom which proved of inestimable value in his
lecting evidence against Verres. On this occasion future career. During B. C. 89, in accordance with
the Syracusans paid him the compliment of voting the ancient practice not yet entirely obsolete which
him a public guest (hospes) of their city, and trans required every citizen to be a soldier, he served his
mitted to him a copy of the decree to this effect first and only campaign under Cn. Pompeius Strabo
engraved on a tablet of brass. Lucius died in B. c. (father of Pompeius Magnus), then enmiged in
68, much regretted by his cousin, who was deeply prosecuting with vigour the Social war, and was
atunched to him. (De Fin. v. I, c. Verr. iv. 11, present at the conference between his commander
61, 64. 65, ad Atl. i. 5. )
and P. Veitius Scato, general of the Marsi, by


## p. 709 (#729) ############################################

CICERO.
709
CICERO.
whom the Romans had been signally defeated, a | habitants of which in the recent troubles had been
few months before, and the consul P. Rutilius deprived of the rights of citizenship. But Cicero
Lupus slain.
denounced the act by which she and her fellow-citi-
For upwards of six years from the date of his brief zens had been stripped of their privileges as utterly
military career Cicero made no appearance as a public unconstitutional and therefore in itself null and
man. During the whole of the fierce struggle between void, and carried his point although opposed by the
Marius and Sulla he identified himself with neither eloquence and experience of Cotta.
It does not
party, but appears to have carefully kept aloof from appear probable, notwithstanding the assertion of
the scenes of strife and bloodshed by which he was Plutarch to the contrary, that Cicero experienced
surrounded, and to have given himself up with in- or dreaded any evil consequences from the dis-
defatigable perseverance to those studies which pleasure of Sulla, whose power was far too firmly
were essential to his success as a lawyer and ora- fixed to be shaken by the fiery harangues of a
tor, that being the only path open to distinction in young lawyer, although other circumstances com-
the absence of all taste or talent for martial achieve- pelled him for a while to abandon the field upon
ments. Accordingly, during the above period he which he had entered so auspiciously. He had
first imbibed a love for philosophy from the dis- now attained the age of twenty-seven, but his
courses of Phaedrus the Epicurean, whose lectures, constitution was far from being vigorous or his
however, he soon deserted for the more congenial health robust. Thin almost to emaciation, with a
doctrines instilled by Philo, the chief of the New long scraggy neck, his general appearance and
Academy, who with several men of learning had habit of body were such as to excite serious alarm
fled from Athens when Greece was invaded by the among his relations, especially since in addition to
troops of Mithridates. From Diodotus the Stoic, his close application to business, he was wont to
who lived and died in his house, he acquired a exert his voice, when pleading, to the uttermost
scientific knowledge of logic. The principles of without remission, and employed incessantly the
rhetoric were deeply impressed upon his mind by most violent action. Persuaded in some degree
Molo the Rhodian, whose reputation as a forensic by the earnest representations of friends and phy-
speaker was not inferior to his skill as a teacher; sicians, but influenced still more strongly by
while not a day passed in which he did not apply the conviction that there was great room for im-
the precepts inculcated by these various masters in provement in his style of composition and in his
declaiming with his friends and companions, some mode of delivery, both of which required to be
times in Latin, sometimes in Greek, but more fre softened and tempered, he determined to quit Italy
quently in the latter language. Nor did he omit for a season, and to visit the great fountains of arts
to practise composition, for he drew up the treatise and eloquence. Accordingly (B. c. 79) he repaired
commonly entitled De Inventione Rhetorica, wrote in the first instance to Athens, where he remained
his poem Marius, and translated Aratus together for six months, diligently revising and extending
with the Oeconomics of Xenophon.
his acquaintance with philosophy by listening to
But when tranquillity was restored by the final the famous Antiochus of Ascalon, studying rhetoric
discomfiture of the Marian party, and the business under the distinguished and experienced Deme-
of the forum had resumed, in outward appearance trius Syrus, attending occasionally the lectures
at least, its wonted course, the season seemed to of Zeno the Epicurean, and enjoying the society
have arrived for displaying those abilities which of his brother Quintus, of his cousin Lucius,
had been cultivated with so much assiduity, and and of Pomponius Atticus, with whom he now
accordingly at the age of twenty-five Cicero came cemented that close friendship which proved one
forward as a pleader. The first of his extant of the chief comforts of his life, and which having
speeches, in civil suit, is that for P. Quinctius endured unshaken the fiercest trials, was dissolved
(B. C. 81), in which, however, he refers to some only by death. After quitting Athens he made a
previous efforts; the first delivered upon a criminal complete tour of Asia Minor, holding fellowship
trial was that in defence of Sex. Koscius of Ameria, during the whole of his journey with the most
charged with parricide by Chrysogonus, a freed illustrious orators and rhetoricians of the East, -
man of Sulla, supporied, as it was understood, by Menippus of Stratoniceia, Dionysius of Magnesia,
the influence of his patron. No one being dis- Aeschylus of Cnidus, and Xenocles of Adramyt-
posed to brave the wrath of the all-powerful dictator tium, — carefully treasuring up the advice which
by openly advocating the cause of one to whom he they bestowed and profiting by the examples
was supposed to be hostile, Cicero, moved partly which they afforded. Not satisfied even with this
by compassion and partly by perceiving that this discipline and these advantages, he passed over to
was a noble opportunity for commencing bis career Rhodes (B. C. 78), where he became acquainted
as a protector of the oppressed (see de Off
. ii. 14), with Posidonius, and once more placed himself
and establishing at considerable apparent but little under the care of Molo, who took great pains to
real risk his character as a fearless champion of restrain and confine within proper limits the ten-
innocence, boldly came forward, pronounced a most dency to diffuse and redundant copiousness which
animating and powerful address, in which he did he remarked in his disciple.
not scruple to animadvert distinctly in the strongest At length, after an absence of two years, Cicero
terms upon the cruel and unjust measures of the returned to Rome (B. c. 77), not only more deeply
favourite, and by implication on the tyranny of skilled in the theory of his art and improved by
those by whom he was upheld, and succeeded in practice, but almost entirely changed. His general
procuring the acquittal of his client. Soon after health was now firmly established, his lungs had
(B. C. 79) he again came indirectly into collision acquired strength, the habit of straining his voice
with Sulla ; for having undertaken to defend the to the highest pitch had been conquered, his exces-
interests of a woman of Arretium, a preliminary sive and unvarying vehemence had evaporated, the
objection was taken against her title to appear in whole form and character of his oratory both in
court, inasmuch as she belonged to a town the in- | matter and delivery had assumed a steady, sub-


## p. 710 (#730) ############################################

710
CICERO.
CICERO
ܪ
ducd, composed, and well-regulated tone. Trans- any circunstances, and at all hours, lowever in-
cendant natural titlents, developed by such elaborate convenient or unseasonable.
and judicious training under the most celebrated For upwards of four years after his return to
masters, stimulated by burning zeal and sustained Rome in the beginning of B. c. 74, the life of
by indomitable perseverance, could scarcely fail to Cicero presents an entire blank. That he was ac-
command success. His merits were soon discerned tively engaged in the courts of law is certain, for
and appreciated, the prejudice at first entertained he himself informs us, that he was employed in a
that he was a mere Greekling, an indolent man of multitude of causes (Brut. 92), and that his powers
letters, was quickly dissipated ; shyness and reserve had now attained to the full vigour of maturity;
were specdily dispelled by the warmth of public but we know not even the name of one of these
applause; he forthwith took his station in the fore orations, except perhaps that, “ Pro M. Tullio,"
mnost rank of judicial orators, and ere long stood some important fragments of which have been
alone in acknowledged pre-eminence; his most recently brought to light. Meanwhile, Lucullus
formidable rivals, Hortensius, eight years his senior, had been pressing the war in the East against
and C. Aurelius Cotta, now (B. c. 76) canvassing Mithridates with great energy and the happiest
for the consulship, who had long been kings of the results; the power of Pompey and of Crassus at
bar, having been forced, after a short but sharp home had been steadily increasing, although a bad
contest for supremacy, to yield.
feeling had sprung up between them in conse-
Cicero had now reached the age (of 30) at which quence of the events connected with the final sup-
the laws permitted him to become candidate for pression of the servile war of Spartacus. They,
the lowest of the great offices of state, and although however, discharged harmoniously the duties of
comparatively speaking a stranger, and certainly their joint consulship (B. C. 70), and seem to have
unsupported by any powerful family interest, his felt that it was necessary for their interests to
putation and popularity already stood so high, that control the high aristocratical faction, for by their
he was elected (B. C. 76) quaestor by the votes of united exertions the plebeian tribunes recovered
all the tribes. The lot decided that he should serve the vital privileges of which they had been de-
in Sicily under Sex. Peducaeus, praetor of Lily- prived by Sulla, and the equites were once more
baeum. During his tenure of office (B. c. 75) he admitted to serve as judices on criminal trials,
executed with great skill the difficult and delicate sharing this distinction with the senate and the
task of procuring large additional supplies of corn tribuni aerarii. In this year Cicero became can-
for the relief of the metropolis, then suffering from didate for the aedileship, and the issue of the
a severe dearth, and at the same time displayed so contest was if possible more triumphant than
much liberality towards the farmers of the revenue when he had formerly solicited the suffrage of
and such courtesy towards private traders, that he the people, for he was chosen not only by a ma-
excited no jealousy or discontent, while he main- jority in every tribe, but carried a greater num-
tained such strict integrity, rigid impartiality, and ber of votes than any one of his competitors. A
disinterested self-denial, in all branches of his ad- little while before this gratifying demonstration
ministration, that the delighted provincials, little of public approbation, he undertook the manage-
accustomed to the exhibition of these virtues in the ment of the most important trial in which he had
person of a Roman magistrate, devised unheard-of hitherto been engaged—the impeachment preferred
honours to testify their gratitude. Some of the against Verres, for misgovernment and complicated
leading weaknesses in the character of Cicero, in. oppression, by the Sicilians, whom he had ruled
ordinate vanity and a propensity to exaggerate as praetor of Syracuse for the space of three years.
extravagantly the importance of his services, now (73—71. ) Cicero, who always felt much more
began to shew themselves, but they had not yet inclined to appear in the character of a defender
acquired such a mastery over his mind as to pre than in the invidious position of an accuser, was
vent him from laughing at the disappointinents he prevailed upon to conduct this cause by the earnest
encountered. Thus we find bim describing with entreaties of his provincial friends, who reposed
considerable humour in one of his speeches ( pro the most perfect confidence in his integrity and
Planc. 26) the exalted idea he had formed at this good-will, and at the same time were fully alive to
period of his own extraordinary merits, of the posi- the advantage that would be secured to their suit
iion which he occupied, and of the profound sen- from the local knowledge of their advocate. The
sation which his proceedings must have caused at most strenuous exertions were now made by Verres,
Rome. He imagined that the scene of his duties backed by all the interest of the Metelli and other
was, as it were, the stage of the world, and that powerful families, to wrest the case out of the
the gaze of all mankind had been watching his hands of Cicero, who, however, defeated the at-
performances ready to condemn or to applaud. tempt; and, having demanded and been allowed
Full of the consciousness of this celebrity he land- 110 days for the purpose of collecting evidence,
ed at Puteoli (B. c. 74), and intense was his mor- instantly set out, accompanied by his cousin
tification when he discovered that even his own Lucius, for Sicily, where he exerted himself so
acquaintances among the luxurious crowd who vigorously, that he traversed the whole island in
thronged that gay coast were absolutely ignorant, less than two months, and returned attended by
not only of what he had been doing, but even of all the necessary witnesses and loaded with docu-
where he had been, a lesson, he tells us, which ments. Another desperate effort was made by
though severe was most valuable, since taught Hortensius, now consul-elect, who was counsel for
him that, while the eyes of his countrymen were the defendant, to raise up obstacles which might
bright and acute their ears were dull, and pointed have the effect of delaying the trial until the com-
out the necessity of mingling with the people and mencement of the following year, when he counted
keeping constantly in their view, of frequenting upon a more favourable judge, a more corrupt jury,
assiduously all places of general resort, and of ad- and the protection of the chief magistrates; but
mitting visitors and clients to his presence, under | here again he was defeated by the promptitude


## p. 711 (#731) ############################################

CICERO.
711
CICERO.
one.
And decision of his opponent, who opened the case , sulship, on which every ambitious hope and desire
very briefly upon the fifth of August, proceeded at had long been fixed, was yet to be won, and be
once to the examination of the witnesses, and the had every reason to anticipate the most determined
production of the depositions and other papers, resistance on the part of the nobles (we use the
which taken together constituted a mass of testi- word in the technical Roman sense), who guarded
mony so decisive, that Verres gave up the contest the avenues to this the highest honour of the state
as hopeless, and retired at once into exile without with watchful jealousy against the approach of any
attempting any defence. The full pleadings, how- new man, and were likely to strain every nerve to
ever, which were to have been delivered had the secure the exclusion of the son of an obscure muni-
trial been permitted to run its ordinary course cipal knight. Well aware that any attempt to re-
were subsequently published by Cicero, and form, move or soften the inveterate prejudices of these
perhaps, the proudest monument of his oratorical men would be met, if not by open hostility and
powers, exhibiting that extraordinary combination insult, most surely by secret treachery, he resolved
of surpassing genius with almost inconceivable in- to throw himself into the arms of the popular
dustry, of brilliant oratory with minute accuracy faction, whose principles he detested in his heart,
of inquiry and detail, which rendered him irresis- and to rivet their favour by casting into the scale
tible in a good cause and often victorious in a bad of their idol the weight of his own influence with
the middle classes, his proper and peculiar party.
The most important business of his new office | The popularity of the orator rose higher than ever;
(B. C. 69) were the preparations for the celebration the friendship of Pompey, now certainly the most
of the Floralia, of the Liberalia, and of the Ludi important individual in the commonwealth, was
Romani in honour of the three divinities of the secured, and the success which attended the opera-
Capitol. It had become a common custom for the tions in the East smothered if it did not extinguish
aediles to lavish enormous sums on these shows, in the indignation of the senatorial leaders. Perhaps
the hope of propitiating the favour of the multitude we ought not here to omit adding one more to the
and securing their support. Cicero, whose fortune almost innumerable examples of the incredible in-
was very moderate, at once perceiving that, even if dustry of Cicero. It is recorded, that, during his
he were to ruin himself, it would be impossible for praetorship, notwithstanding his complicated en-
him to vie in splendour with many of those who gagements as judge, pleader, and politician, he
were likely to be his rivals in his upward course, found time to attend the rhetorical school of An-
with very correct judgment resolved, while he tonius Gnipho, which was now rising to great
did nothing which could give reasonable offence, eminence. (Suet. de Ilustr. Gramm. 7 ; Macrob.
to found his claims to future distinction solely on Sat. ii. 12. )
those talents which had already won for him his During the eighteen months which followed (65–
present elevation, and accordingly, although he 64), Cicero having declined to accept a province,
avoided everything like meanness or parsimony kept his eye steadily fixed upon one great object,
in the games presented under his auspices, was and employed bimself unceasingly in watching
equally careful to shun ostentation and profuse every event which could in any way bear upon
expenditure.
the consular elections. It appears from his letters,
For nearly three years the history of Cicero is which now begin to open their treasures to us,
again a blank, that is, until the close of B. C. 67, that he had six competitors, of whom the most
when he was elected first praetor by the suffrages formidable were C. Antonius, a nephew of the
of all the centuries, and this on three several oc- great orator, who perished during the Marian pro-
casions, the comitia having been twice broken off scription, and the notorious Catiline. The latter
in consequence of the disturbances connected with was threatened with a criminal prosecution, and it
the passing of the Cornelian law. The duties of is amusing to observe the lawyer-like coolness with
this magistracy, on which he entered in January, which Cicero speaks of his guilt being as clear as
B. C. 66, were two-fold. He was called upon to the noon-day sun, at the same time indicating a
preside in the highest civil court, and was also re- wish to defend him, should such a course be for
quired to act as commissioner (quaestor) in trials his own interest, and expressing great pleasure at
for extortion, while in addition to his judicial the perfidy of the accuser who was ready to betray
functions he continued to practise at the bar, and the cause, and the probable corruption of the
carried through single-handed the defence of Cluen- judices, a majority of whom it was believed
tius, in the most singular and interesting cause might be bought over. Catiline was, however, ac-
célèbre bequeathed to us by antiquity. But the quitted without the aid of his rival, and formed a
most important event of the year was his first ap coalition with Antonius, receiving strenuous assis-
pearance as a political speaker from the rostra, tance from Crassus and Caesar, both of whom now
when be delivered his celebrated address to the began to regard with an evil eye the partizan of
people in favour of the Manilian law, maintaining Pompey, whose splendid exploits filled them with
the cause of Pompey against the hearty opposition increasing jealousy and alarm. That Cicero viewed
of the senate and the optimates. That his conduct this union with the most lively apprehensions is
on this occasion was the result of mature delibera- evident from the fragments of his address, In Toga
tion we cannot doubt. Nor will it be difficult to candida, in which he appears to have dissected and
discern his real motives, which were perhaps not exposed the vices and crimes of his two opponents
quite so pure and patriotic as his panegyrists would with the most merciless severity. But his fears
have us believe. “Hitherto his progress, in so far proved groundless. His star was still in the ascen-
as any external obstacles were concerned, bad been dant; he was returned by all the centuries, while
smooth and uninterrupted; the ascent had been his colleague Antonius obtained a small majority
neither steep nor rough; the quaestorship, the only over Catiline. The attention of the new
Aedileship, the praetorship, had been gained almost consul immediately after entering upon office (B. C.
without a struggle : but the great prize of the con- | 63) was occupied with the agrarian law of Rullus,
:


## p. 712 (#732) ############################################

712
CICERO.
CICERO.
with regard to which we shall speak more fully | Caesar, who had viewed this alliance with no small
hereafter ; in quelling the tumults excited by the dissatisfaction, contrived to paralyze the hands of
enactment of Otho; in reconciling the descendants the only individual by whom ibe league could have
of those proscribed by Sulla to the civil disabilities been renewed.
under which they laboured ; in defending C. Rabi- Meanwhile, Cicero could boast of having accom-
rius, charged with having been concerned in the plished an exploit for which no precedent could be
death of Saturninus ; in bringing forward a measure found in the history of Rome. . Of ignoble birth,
to render the punishment of bribery more stringent; of small fortune, without family or connexions,
in checking the abuses connected with the nomi- without military renown, by the force of his intel-
nations to a legutio libera ; and in remedying va- lectual powers alone, he had struggled upwards,
rious defects in the administration of justice. But bad been chosen to fill in succession all the high
his whole thoughts were soon absorbed by the offices of the state, as soon as the laws permitted
precautions required to baffle the treason of Cati- him to become a candidate, without once sustaining
line. The origin and progress of that famous plot, a repulse ; in the garb of peace he had gained a
the consummate courage, prudence, caution, and victory of which the greatest among his predecessors
decision manifested throughout by Cicero under would have been proud, and had received tributes
circumstances the most delicate and embarrassing, of applause of which few triumphant generals could
are fully detailed elsewhere. (Catilina. ] For boast
. His fortune, after mounting steadily though
once the nation did not prove thankless to their swiftly, had now reached its culminating point of
benefactor. Honours were showered down upon prosperity and glory; for a brief space it remained
him such as no citizen of Rome had ever enjoyed. stationary, and then rapidly declined and sunk.
Men of all ranks and all parties hailed him as the The honours so lavishly heaped upon him, instead
saviour of his country ; Catulus in the senate, and of invigorating and elevating, weakened and de-
Cato in the forum, addressed him as “ parens based his mind, and the most splendid achievement
patriae," father of his father-land; thanksgivings of his life contained the germ of his humiliation
in his name were voted to the gods, a distinction and downfal. The punishment inflicted by order
heretofore bestowed only on those who had of the senate upon Lentulus, Cethegus, and their
achieved a victory in a field of battle; and all / associates, although perhaps morally justified by
Italy joined in testifying enthusiastic admiration the emergency, was a palpable violation of the fun-
and gratitude. But in addition to the open and damental principles of the Roman constitution,
instant peril from which the consul had preserved which solemnly declared, that no citizen could be
the commonwealth, he had made a grand stroke of put to death until sentenced by the whole body of
policy, which, had it been firmly and honestly fol- the people assembled in their comitia ; and for this
lowed out by those most deeply interested, might act Cicero, as the presiding magistrate, was held
have saved the constitution from dangers more re responsible. It was in vain to urge, that the con-
mote but not less formidable. The equites or suls had been armed with dictatorial authority;
monied men had for half a century been rapidly for, although even a dictator was always liable to
rising in importance as a distinct order, and now be called to account, there was in the present in-
held the balance between the optimates or aristo- stance po semblance of an exertion of such power,
cratic faction, the members of which, although ex- but the senate, formally assuming to themselves
clusive, selfish, and corrupt, were for their own judicial functions which they had no right to ex-
sakes steadfast supporters of the laws and ancient ercise, formally gave orders for the execution of a
institutions, and felt no inclination for a second sentence wbich they had no right to pronounce.
Sulla, even had he been one of themselves; and the The argument, pressed again and again by Cicero,
populares or democratic faction, which had degene that the conspirators by their guilt had forfeited
rated into a venal rabble, ever ready to follow any all their privileges, while it is virtually an admis-
revolutionary scheme promoted by those who could sion of the principle stated above, is in itself a
stimulate their passions or buy their votes. Als mere fiimsy sophism, since it takes for granted the
though in such a state of affairs the equites were guilt of the victims—the very fact which no tribu-
the natural allies of the senate, from being deeply nal except the comitia or commissioners nominated
interested in the preservation of order and tranquil. by the comitia could decide. Nor were his ene-
lity, yet unfortunately the long-protracted struggle mies, and those who secretly favoured the traitors,
for the right of acting as judices in criminal trials | long in discovering and assailing this vulnerable
had given rise to the most bitter animosity. But point. On the last day of the year, when, accord-
when all alike were threatened with immediate ing to established custom, he ascended the rostra
destruction this hostility was forgotten ; Cicero to give an account to the people of the events of
persuaded the knights, who always placed confi- his consulship, Metellus Celer, one of the new tri-
dence in himn as one of themselves, to act heartily bunes, forbad him to speak, exclaiming, that the
with the senate, and the senate were only too glad man who had put Roman citizens to death without
to obtain their co-operation in such an emergency: granting them a hearing was himself unworthy of
Could this fair fellowship have been maintained, it being heard. But this attack was premature. The
must have produced the happiest consequences; audience had not yet forgotten their obligations
but the kindly feelings passed away with the crisis and their recent escape; so that when Cicero, in-
which called them forth; a dispute soon after arose stead of simply taking the common oath to which
with the farmers of the Asiatic revenues, who de- he was restricted by the interposition of the tri-
sired to be relieved from a disadvantageous con- bune, swore with a loud voice that he had saved
tract; neither side shewed any spirit of fair mutual the republic and the city from ruin, the crowd with
concession ; the whole body of the equites making one voice responded, that he had sworn truly, and
common cause with their brethren became violent escorted him in a body to his house with every
and unreasonable; the senate remained obstinate, demonstration of respect and affection.
the frail bond was rudely snapped asunder, and Having again refused to accept the government


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CICERO.
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CICERO.
;
i
of a province, an employment for which he felt no fully discovered that, although addressed with
vocation, Cicero returned to the senate as a private courtesy, and listened to with respect, he was in
individual (B. C. 62), and engaged in several angry reality powerless when seeking to resist the en-
contests with the obnoxious tribune. But after croachments of such men as Pompey, Crassus, and
the excitement occasioned by these disputes, and Caesar; and hence he viewed with the utmost
by the destruction of Catiline with his army which alarm the disposition now manifested by these
followed soon after, had subsided, the eyes of men three chiefs to bury their former jealousies, and to
were turned away for a while in another direction, make common cause against the aristocratic leaders,
all looking forward eagerly to the arrival of Pom- who, suspicious of their ulterior projects, were using
pey, who at length reached Rome in the autumn, i every art to baffle and outmaneuvre them. Hence
loaded with the trophies of his Asiatic campaigns. Cicero also, at this epoch perceiving how fatal such
But, although every one was engrossed with the a coalition must prove to the cause of freedom,
hero and his conquests, to the exclusion of almost earnestly laboured to detach Pompey, with whom
every other object, we must not pass over an event he kept up a close but somewhat cold intimacy,
which occurred towards the end of the year, and from Caesar ; but having failed, with that unstea-
which, although at first sight of small importance, diness and want of sound principle by which his
not only gave rise to the greatest scandal in the political life was from this time forward disgraced,
city, but was indirectly the source of misfortune began to testify a strong inclination to join the
and bitter suffering to Cicero. While the wife of triumvirs, and in a letter to Atticus (ii. 5), B. C. 59,
Caesar was celebrating in the house of her hus actually names the price at which they could pur-
band, then praetor and pontifex maximus, the rites chase his adherence--the scat in the college of
of the Bona Dea, from which male creatures were augurs just vacant by the death of Metellus Celer.
excluded with the most scrupulous superstition, it Finding himself unable to conclude any satisfactory
was discovered that P. Clodius Pulcher, son of arrangement, like a spoiled child, he expresses his
Appius (consul R. C. 79), had found his way into disgust with public life, and longs for an opportu-
the mansion disguised in woman's apparel, and, nity to retire from the world, and devote himself
having been detected, had made his escape by the to study and philosophic contemplation. But while
help of a female slave. Instantly all Rome was in in the letters written during the stormy consulship
an uproar. The matter was laid before the senate, of Caesar (B. C. 59) he takes a most desponding
and by them referred to the members of the ponti- view of the state of the commonwealth, and seems
fical college, who passed a resolution that sacrilege to consider slavery as inevitable, he does not ap-
had been committed. Caesar forth with divorced pear to have foreseen the storm impending over
his wife. Clodius, although the most powerful in- himself individually; and when at length, after
terest was exerted by his numerous relations and the election of Clodius to the tribuneship, he began
connexions to hush up the affair, and attempts to entertain serious alarm, he was quieted by posi-
were even made to stop the proceedings by vio- tive assurances of friendship and support from
lence, was impeached and brought to trial. In Pompey conveyed in the strongest terms. One of
defence he pleaded an alibi, offering to prove that the first acts of his enemy, after entering upon
he was at Interamna at the very time when the office, notwithstanding the solemn pledge he was
crime was said to have been committed ; but Cicero said to have given to Pompey that he would not
came forward as a witness, and swore that he had use his power to the injury of Cicero, was to pro-
met and spoken to Clodius in Rome on the day in pose a bill interdicting from fire and water any
question. In spite of this decisive testimony, and one who should be found to have put a Roman
the evident guilt of the accused, the judices, with citizen to death untried. Here Cicero committed
that corruption which formed one of the most fatal a fatal mistake. Instead of assuming the bold
symptoms of the rottenness of the whole social front of conscious innocence, he at once took guilt
fabric, pronounced him innocent by a majority of to himself, and, without awaiting the progress of
voices. (B. C. 61. ) Clodius, whose popular talents events, changed his attire, and assuming the garb
and utter recklessness rendered him no insignificant of one accused, went round the forum, soliciting
enemy, now rowed deadly vengeance against Cice- the compassion of all whom he met. For a brief
ro, whose destruction from thenceforward was the period public sympathy was awakened. A large
chief aim of his life. To accomplish this purpose number of the senate and the equites appeared also
more readily, he determined to become a candidate in mourning, and the better portion of the citizens
for the tribuneship; but to effect this it was neces- seemed resolved to espouse his cause. But all
sary in the first place that he should be adopted demonstrations of such feelings were promptly re-
into a plebeian family by means of a special law. pressed by the new consuls, Piso and Gabinius,
This, after protracted opposition, was at length ac- who from the first displayed steady hostility, hav-
complished (B. C. 60), although irregularly, through ing been bought by the promises of Clodius, who
the interference of Caesar and Pompes, and be undertook to procure for them what provinces they
was elected tribune in the course of B. c. 59. pleased. The rabble were infuriated by the inces-
While this underplot was working, the path of sant harangues of their tribune; nothing was to
Cicero had been far more thorny than heretofore. I be hoped from Crassus; the good offices of Caesar
Intoxicated by his rapid elevation, and dazzled by had been already rejected ; and Pompey, the last
the brilliant termination of his consulship, his sell- and only safeguard, contrary to all expectations,
conceit had become overweening, his vanity uncon- and in violation of the most solemn engagements,
trollable and insatiable. He imagined that the kept aloof, and from real or pretended fear of some
authority which he had acquired during the late outbreak refused to interpose. Upon this, Cicero,
perilous conjuncture would be permanently main giving way to despair, resolved to yield to the
tained after the danger was past, and that he would storm, and quitting Rome at the beginning of April,
be invited to grasp the helm and steer single-handed (B. c. 58), reached Brundisium about the middle
tbe vessel of the state. But he slowly and pain of the month. From thence he crossed over to


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CICERO.
CICERO.
Greece, and taking up his residence at Thessalonica, / when suddenly hurled from a commanding cmi-
where he was hospitably received by Plancius, nence he found himself a helpless and almost friend-
quaestor of Macedonia, remained at that place less outcast; and again, on the other hand, the
until the end of November, when he removed to boundless enthusiasm with which he was greeted on
Dyrrachium. His correspondence during the whole his return by the selfsame populace who had exult-
of this period presents the melancholy picture of a ed so furiously in his disgrace. A little considera-
mind crushed and paralyzed by a sudden reverse tion will enable us, however, to fathom the myse
of fortune. Never did divine philosophy fail more tery. From the moment that Cicero laid down
signally in procuring comfort or consolation to her his consulship he began to lose ground with all
votary.
The letters addressed to Terention to parties. The senate were disgusted by the arrogant
Atticus, and others, are filled with unmanly wail- assumption of superiority in an upstart stranger;
ing, groans, sobs, and tears. He evinces all the the equites were displeased because he would not
desire but wants the physical courage necessary cordially assent to their most unreasonable and
to become a suicide. Even when brighter pros- unjust demands; the people, whom he had never
pects begin to dawn, when his friends were strain attempted to flatter or cajole, were by degrees
ing every nerve in his behalf, we find them receiv- lashed into fury against one who was unceasingly
ing no judicious counsel from the object of their held up before their eyes as the violator of their
solicitude, nought save renewed complaints, cap- most sacred privileges. Moreover, the triumvirs,
tious and querulous repinings. For a time indeed who were the active though secret movers in the
his prospects were sufficiently gloomy. Clodius whole affair, considered it essential to their designs
felt no compassion for his fallen foe. The instant that he should be humbled and taught the risk and
that the departure of Cicero became known, a law folly of playing an independent part, of seeking to
was presented to and accepted by the tribes, for- mediate between the conflicting factions, and thus
mally pronouncing the banishment of the fugitive, in his own person regulating and controlling all.
forbidding any one to entertain or harbour him, They therefore gladly availed themselves of the
and denouncing as a public enemy whosoever should energetic malignity of Clodius, each dealing with
take any steps towards procuring his recall. His their common victim in a manner highly charac-
magnificent mansion on the Palatine, and his ela- teristic of the individual. Caesar, who at all times,
borately decorated villas at Tusculum and Formiae even under the greatest provocation, entertained a
were at the same time given over to plunder and warm regard and even respect for Cicero, with his
destruction. But the extravagant and outrageous natural goodness of heart endeavoured to withdraw
violence of these measures tended quickly to pro- him from the scene of danger, and at the same time
duce a strong reaction. As early as the beginning to lay him under personal obligations; with this
of June, in defiance of the laws of Clodius, a move intent he pressed him to become one of his legates:
ment was made in the senate for the restoration of this being declined, he then urged him to accept
the exile ; and, although this and other subsequent the post of commissioner for dividing the public
efforts in the same year were frustrated by the un- lands in Campania ; and it was not until he found
friendly tribunes, still the party of the good waxed all his proposals steadfastly rejected that he con-
daily stronger, and the general feeling became more sented to leave him to his fate. Crassus gave him
decided. The new consuls (B. C. 57) and the whole up at once, without compunction or regret : they
of the new college of tribunes, led on by Milo, had never been cordial friends, had repeatedly
took up the cause ; but great delay was occasioned quarrelled openly, and their reconciliations had
by formidable riots attended with fearful loss of been utterly hollow. The conduct of Pompey, as
life, until at length the senate, with the full appro- might have been expected, was a tissue of selfish,
bation of Pompey, who, to give greater weight to cautious, calculating, cold-blooded dissimulation; in
his words, read a speech which he had prepared spite of the affection and unwavering confidence
and written out for the occasion, determined to in- ever exhibited towards him by Cicero, in spite of
vite the voters from the different parts of Italy to the most unequivocal assurances both in public and
repair to Rome and assist in carrying a law for the private of protection and assistance, he quietly de-
recall of him who had saved his country from ruin, serted him, without a pang, in the moment of great-
passing at the same time the strongest resolutions est need, because it suited his own plans and his
against those who should venture under any pre- own convenience. But soon after the departure of
text to interrupt or embarrass the holding of the Cicero matters assumed a very different aspect;
assembly. Accordingly, on the 4th of August, the his value began once more to be felt and his ab-
bill was submitted to the comitia centuriata, and sence to be deplored. The senate could ill afford
carried by an overwhelming majority. On the to lose the most able champion of the aristocracy,
same day Cicero quitted Dyrrachium, and crossed who possessed the greater weight from not properly
over to Brundisium, where he was met by his belonging to the order; the knights were touched
wife and daughter. Travelling slowly, he received with remorse on account of their ingratitude to
deputations and congratulatory addresses from all wards one whom they identified with themselves,
the towns on the line of the Appian way, and har- who had often served them well, and might again
ing arrived at the city on the 4th of September, a be often useful; the populace, when the first fer-
vast multitude poured forth to meet and escort him, vour of angry passion had passed away, began to
forming a sort of triumphal procession as he entered long for that oratory to which they had been wont
the gates, while the crowd collected in groups on to listen with such delight, and to remember the
the steps of the temples rent the air with acclama- debt they owed to him who had saved their tem-
tions when he passed through the forum and as- ples, dwellings, and property from destruction ;
cended the capitol, there to render homage and while the triumviri, trusting that the high tone of
thanks to Jupiter Maximus.
their adversary would be brought low by this se
Nothing at first sight can appear more strange vere lesson, and that he would henceforth be pas-
and inexplicable than the abrupt downfal of Cicero, sive, if not a subservient tool, were eager to chuck


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CICERO.
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CICERO.
and overwe Clodius, who was now no longer dis- accept it. His appetite for praise seems to have
posed to be a mere instrument in their hands, but, become more craving just in proportion as his rcal
breaking loose from all restraint, had already given merits had become less and the dignity of his posi-
symptoms of open rebellion.