The former --exter nal objects in space -- might be a mere delusion, but the latter -- the object of my internal
perception
-- is undeniably real.
Kant - Critique of Pure Reason
Nevertheless, space so conceived of, for all parts of space ire equally capable of being produced to infinity.
Conse quently, the original representation of space an intuition a priori, and not conception
? ? ? a
is
is
a
a
it
;
it, &
if it
is
a
is
is
? (Introd. V. )
TBAN8CENDENTAL
EXPOSITION OF SPACE.
i 3. Transcendental exposition of the conception of Space.
By a transcendental exposition, I mean the explanation of a conception, as a principle, whence can be discerned the possi bility of other synthetical a priori cognitions. For this pur pose, it is requisite, firstly, that such cognitions do really flow from the given conception ; and, secondly, that the said cog nitions are only possible under the presupposition of a given mode of explaining this conception.
Geometry is a science which determines the properties of space synthetically, and yet & priori. What, then, must be our representation of space, in order that such a cognition of it may be possible ? It must be originally intuition, for from a mere conception, no propositions can be deduced which go out beyond the conception,* and yet this happens in geometry.
But this intuition must be found in the mind ipriori, that before any perception of objects, consequently must be pure, not empirical, intuition. For geometrical prin ciples are always apodeictic, that united with the conscious ness of their necessity, as, '* Space has only three dimen sions. " But propositions of this kind cannot be empirical judgments, nor conclusions from them. (Introd. II. ) Now, how can an external intuition anterior to objects themselves, and in which our conception of objects can be determined a priori, exist in the human mind? Obviously not otherwise than in so far as has its seat in the subject only, as the formal capacity of the subject'sbeing affected objects, and thereby of obtaining immediate representation, that intuition con sequently, only as the form, the external sense general.
Thus only means of our explanation that the pos sibility of geometry, as synthetical science priori, becomes comprehensible. Every mode of explanation which does not shew us this possibility, although in appearance may be similar to ours, can with the utmost certainty be distinguished from by these marks.
4. Conclusion* from the foregoing conceptions.
(a) Space does not represent any property of objects as
? That is, the analysis of conception only gives you what contained and does not add to your knowledg: of the object of wliich j-1u
have concqtion, but merely evolve* it. -- TV.
? ? it, a
it
it
in *
a
by a
is
it
in
;
?
&
is,
is
of
by
it
is,
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? 26 THANSCENDENTAL -F. STHETIC.
things in themselves, nor does it represent them in their rela tions to each other ; in other words, space does not represent to us any determination of objects such as attaches to the ob jects themselves, and would remain, even though all subjective conditions of the intuition were abstracted. For neither abso lute nor relative determinations of objects can be intuited prior to the existence of the things to which they belong, and therefore not b) priori.
(b) Space is nothing else than the form of all phenomena of the external sense, that the subjective condition of the sensi bility, under which alone external intuition possible. Now, oecause the receptivity or capacity of the subject to be affected
objects necessarily antecedes all intuitions of these objects, easdy understood how the form of all phenomena can be
given in the mind previous to all actual perceptions, there fore priori, and how as pure intuition, in which all objects must be determined, can contain principles of the relations of these objects prior to all experience.
therefore from the human point of view only that we
can speak of space, extended objects, &c. If we depart from the subjective condition, under which alone we can obtain external intuition, or, in other words, by means of which we are affected by objects, the representation of space has nc meaning whatsoever. This predicate [of space] only appli cable to things in so far as they appear to us, that are objects of sensibility. The constant form of this receptivity, which we call sensibility, necessary condition of all rela tions in which objects can be intuited as existing without us, and when abstraction of these objects made, pure intuition, to which we give the name of space. clear that we can not make the special conditions of sensibility into conditions of the possibility of things, but only of the possibility of their existence as far as they are phenomena. And so we may correctly say that space contains all which can appear to us externally, but not all things considered as things them selves, be they intuited or not, or by whatsoever subject one will. As co the intuitions of other thinking beings, we can not judge whether they are or are not bound by the same conditions which limit our own intuition, and which for us are universally valid. If we join the limitation of judgment to the conception of the subject, then the judgment will po<<
? ? ? a
is is,
in
It
is is a
is
is
is a
It is
it by is
?
it, a
is,
? OF SPACE. -- CONCLUSIONS TOM THE FOREWOINO. 27
sess unconditioned validity. For example, the proposition, "All objects are beside each other in space," is valid only under the limitation that these things are taken as objects of our sensuous intuition. But if I join the condition to the con ception, and say, " all things, as external phenomena, are be side each other in space," then the rule is valid universally, and without any limitation. Our expositions, consequently, teach the reality e. the objective validity) of space in re gard of all which can be presented to us externally as object, and at the same time also the ideality of space in regard to objects when they are considered means cf reason as things in themselves, that without reference to the constitution of our sensibility. We maintain, therefore, the empirical reality of space in regard to all possible external experience, although we must admit its transcendental ideality in other words, that nothing, so soon as we withdraw the condition upon
which the possibility of all experience depends, and look upon space as something that belongs to things in themselves.
But, with the exception of space, there no representation, subjective and referring to something external to us, which could be called objective prion. For there are no other
subjective representations from which we can deduce syn thetical propositions priori, as we can from the intuition of space. (See 3. ) Therefore, to speak accurately, no ideality whatever belongs to these, although they agree in this respect with the representation of space, that they belong merely to the subjective nature of the mode of sensuous perception such mode, for example, as that of sight, of hearing, and of feeling, by means of the sensations of colour, sound, and heat, but which, because they are only sensations, and not intuitions, do not of themselves give us the cognition of any object, least of all, an a priori cognition. My purpose, in the above remark, merely this to guard any one against illus-
trating the asserted ideality of space by examples quite insuffi
cient, for example, by colour, taste, &c. for these must be con
templated not as properties of things, but only as changes in the subject, changes which may be different in different men. For
such case, that which originally mere phenomenon, rose, for example, taken by the empirical understanding for
thing in itself, though to every different eye, in respect of its colour, may appear different. On the contrary, -tbo
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it is
is
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a
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(i. is,
a
;
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;
is
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? 28 TBiNSCEXDENTAX JESTHSTIC.
transcendental conception of pbsenomena admonition, that, genera! , nothing which thing in itself, and that space not
space critical intuited apace form which be
longs as property to things but that objects are quite unknown to us in themselves, and what we call outward ob jects, are nothing else but mere representations of our sensi bility, whose form space, but whose real correlate, the tiling in itself, not known by means of these representa tions, nor ever can be, but respecting which, in experience, no inquiry ever made.
SECTION II. OF TIME.
5. Metaphysical exposition this conception.
Time not an empirical conception. For neither co existence nor succession would be perceived us, the re
? of time did not exist <<s foundation
Without this presupposition we could not represent to our selves that things exist together at one and the same time, or at different times, that contemporaneously, or succession.
2. Time necessary representation, lying at the found ation of all our intuitions. With regard to phenomena general, we cannot think away time from them, and represent them to ourselves as out of and unconnected with time, bul we can quite well represent to ourselves time void of pheno mena. Time therefore given priori. In alone aL reality of phenomena possible. These may all be annihilated in thought, but time itself, as the universal condition of their possibility, cannot be so annulled.
3. On this necessity priori, also founded the possibility of apodeictic principles of the relations of time, or axioms of time in general, such as, " Time has only one dimension," " Different times are not co-existent but successive," (as dif ferent spaces are not successive but co-existent). ' These principles cannot be derived from experience, for would give neither strict universality, nor apodeictic certainty. We should Dnly be able to say, " so common experience teaches us," but not must be so. They are valid as rules, through which,
general, experience possible; and they instruct us respect ing experience, and not means of it.
presentation
priori.
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? TRANSCENDENTAL EXPOSITION OF TIME. 1! 9
4. Time is not a discursive, or as it is called, general con ception, but a pure form of the sensuous intuition. Different times are merely parts of one and the same time. But the representation which can only be given by a single object is an intuition. Besides, the proposition that different times can not be co-existent, could not be derived from a general con ception. For this proposition is synthetical, and therefore cannot spring out of conceptions alone. It is therefore con tained immediately in the intuition and representation of time.
5. The infinity of time signifies nothing more than that every determined quantity of time is possible only through limitations of one time lying at the foundation. Consequently, the original representation, time, must be given as unlimited. But as the determinate representation of the parts of time and of every quantity of an object can only be obtained by limitation, the complete representation of time must not be furnished by means of conceptions, for these contain only partial representations. Conceptions, on the contrary, must have immediate intuition for their basis.
? 6. Transcendental exposition of the conception of lime.
I may here refer to what is said above (? 5, 3), where, for the sake of brevity, I have placed under the head of metaphy sical exposition, that which is properly transcendental. Here I shall add that the conception of change, and with it the conception of motion, as change of place, is possible only through and in the representation of time ; that if this re presentation were not an intuition (internal) h priori, no con ception, of whatever kind, could render comprehensible the possibility of change, in other words, of a conjunction of contra dictorily opposed predicates in one and the same object, for ex ample, the presence of a thing in a place and the non-presence of the same thing in the same place. It is only in time, that it is possible to meet with two contradictorily opposed deter
minations in one thing, that after each other. * Thus our conception of time explains the possibility of so much syn-
Kant's meaning You cannot affirm and deny the tame thing of subject, except by means of the representation, time. No other idea, intuition, or conception, or whatever other form of thought there to an mediate the connection of such predicates. -- TV
? ? ? a*
is :
is,
? so TRANSCENDENTAL JEBTHETTC.
thetical knowledge a priori, as is exhibited in the general doctrine of motion, which is not a little fruitful.
? 7. Conclusions from the above conceptions.
(a) Time is not something which subsists of itself, or which inheres in things as an objective determination, and therefore remains, when abstraction is made of the subjective conditions of the intuition of things. For in the former case, it would be something real, yet without presenting to any power of perception any real object. In the latter case, as an order or determination inherent in things themselves, it could not be antecedent to things, as their condition, nor discerned or intuited by means of synthetical propositions a priori. But all this is quite possible when we regard time as merely the subjective condition und<<"r which all our intuitions take place. For in that case, this form of the inward intuition can be represented prior to the objects, and consequently a priori.
(b) Time is nothing else than the form of the internal sense, that of the intuitions of self end of our internal state. For time cannot be any determination cf outward phsenomena.
has to do neither with shape nor position on the contrary, determines the relation of representations in our internal state. And precisely because this internal intuition presents
to us no shape or form, we endeavour to supply this want analogies, and represent the course of time line pro gressing to infinity, the content of which constitutes series which only of one dimension and we conclude from the properties of this line as to all the properties of time, with this single exception, that the parts of the line are co-existent, whilst those of time are successive. From this clear also that the representation of time itself an intuition, because all its relations can be expressed in an external tuition.
(<r) Time the formal condition o priori of all phenomena whatsoever. Space, as the pure form of external intuition, limited as condition a priori to external phsenomena
? alone. On the other hand, because all representations, whether they have or have not external things for their ob jects, still in themselves, ns determinations of lie niiud, belong to our internal state and because this internal state
subject to the formal condition of the internal intuition, that
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by
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;
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it It
is a
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? OV TTMB. -- CONCLUSIONS FROM THE FOBESOtJfG.
31
to time, --time is a condition h priori of all phenomena what soever -- the immediate condition of all internal, and thereby the mediate condition of all external phenomena. If I can sny a priori, " all outward phenomena are in space, and de termined a priori according to the relations of space," I can also, from the principle of the internal sense, affirm univer sally, " all phenomena in general, that all objects of the senses, are in time, and stand necessarily in relations of time. "
If we abstract our internal intuition of ourselves, and all external intuitions, possible only by virtue of this internal
intuition, and presented to us our faculty of representation, and consequently take objects as they are in themselves, then time nothing. only of objective validity in regard to phenomena, because these are things which we regard as ob jects of our senses. no longer objective, we make ab straction of the sensuousness of our intuition, in other words, of that mode of representation which peculiar to us, and speak of things in general. Time therefore merely sub jective condition of our (human) intuition, (which always sensuous, that so far as we are affected by objects,) and in itself, independently of the mind or subject, nothing. Nevertheless, in respect of all phenomena, consequently of all things which come within the sphere of our experience, necessarily objective. We cannot say, "all things are in time," because in this conception of things in general, we abstract and make no mention of any sort of intuition of
But this the proper condition under which time belongs to our representation of objects. If we add the condition to the conception, and say, " all things, as phe nomena, that objects of sensuous intuition, are time," then the proposition has its sound objective validity and universality
prion.
What we have now set forth teaches, therefore, the empirical
reality of time that is, its objective validity in reference to
all objects which can ever be presented to our senses. And Ma our intuition is always sensuous, no object ever can be pre sented to us in experience, which does not come under the conditions of time. On the other hand, we deny to time all claim to absolute reality that we deny that without having regard to the form of our sensuous intuition, absolutely inheres in things as condition or property. Such properties
? things.
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;
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? 82 TRANSCENDENTAL . ESTHETIC.
as belong to objects as things in themselves, never can be presented to us through the medium of the senses. Herein consists, therefore, the transcendental ideality of time, according to which, if we abstract the subjective conditions of sensuous intuition, it is nothing, and cannot be reckoned as subsisting or inhering in objects as things in themselves, independently of its relation to our intuition. This ideality, like that of space, is not to be proved or illustrated by fallacious analogies with sensations, for this reason, --that in such arguments or illustrations,we make the presupposition that the phenomenon, in which such and such predicates inhere, has objective reality, while in this case we can only find such an objective reality as is itself empirical, that is, regards the object as a mere phenomenon. In reference to this subject, see the remark in Section I. (p. 27).
? 8. Elueidation.
Against this theory, which grants empirical reality to time, but denies to it absolute and transcendental reality, I have hear:! from intelligent men an objection so unanimously urged, that I conclude that it must naturally present itself to every reader to whom these considerations are novel. It runs thus : " Changes are real ;" (this the continual change in our own representations demonstrates, even though the existence of ail external phsenomeua, together with their changes, is denied). Now, changes are only possible in time, and therefore time must be something real. But there is no difficulty in answer ing this. I grant the whole argument. Time, no doubt, is something real, that the real form of our internal intuition. therefore has subjective reality, in reference to our internal experience, that have really the representation of time, and of my determinations therein. Time, therefore,
not to be regarded as an object, but as the mode of repre sentation of myself as an object. But could intuite my self, or be intuited another being, without this condition of sensibility, then those very determinations which we now represent to ourselves as changes, would present to us knowledge in which the representation of time, and conse quently of change, would not appear. The empirical realit'y of time, therefore, remains, as the condition of all our expe rience. But absolute realify, accorJing tn what has bven
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by
if I
is
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It
? 01 SfACZ AHD TIME. --ELTCIDATOBT. REMARK8. 83
(aid above, cannot be granted it. Time is nothing but the form of our internal intuition. * If we take away from it the special condition of our sensibility, the conception of tira also vanishes ; and it inheres not in the objects themselves, but solely in the subject (or mind) which intuites them.
But the reason why this objection is so unanimously brought against our doctrine of time, and that too by disputants who cannot start any intelligible arguments against the doc trine of the ideality of space, is this, --they have no hope of demonstrating apodeictically the absolute reality of space, be cause the doctrine of idealism is against them, according to which the reality of external objects is not capable of any strict proof. On the other hand, the reality of the object of our internal sense (that is, myself and my internal state) is clear immediately through consciousness.
The former --exter nal objects in space -- might be a mere delusion, but the latter -- the object of my internal perception -- is undeniably real. They do not, however, reflect that both, without question of their reality as representations, belong only to the genus phe- nomeuon, which has always two aspects, the one, the object considered as a thing in itself, without regard to the mode of intuiting and the nature of which remains for this very reason problematical, the other, the form of our intui tion of the object, which must be sought not in the object as thing itself, but the subject to which appears, -- which form of intuition nevertheless belongs really and neces
sarily to the phenomenal object.
Time and space are, therefore, two sources of knowledge,
from which, priori, various synthetical cognitions can be drawn. --Of this we find striking example in the cognitions of space and its relations, which form the foundation of pure ma thematics. --They are the two pure forms of all intuition, and thereby make synthetical propositions a priori possible. But these sources of knowledge being merely conditions of our sensibility, do therefore, and as such, strictly determine their own range and purpose, in that they do not and cannot present
can indeed >ay " my representations follow one aoother, or an successive" but this means only that we are conscious of tbrm as in succession, that is, according to the form of the internal sense. Time, therefore, not thing in itself, nor any objective determination nertaining to, or inherent things.
D
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I* is
a
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in h
it,
is it
;
a
a
in
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? 34 TRANSCENDENTAL JESTHETIC.
objects as things in themselves, but are applicable to them solely in so far as they are considered as sensuous pheno mena. The sphere of phenomena is the only sphere of their validity, and if we venture out of this, no further objective use can be made of them. For the rest, this formal reality of time and space leaves the validity of our empirical know ledge unshaken ; for our certainty in that respect is equally firm, whether these forms necessarily inhere in the things themselves, or only in our intuitions of them. On the other hand, those who maintain the absolute reality of time and space, whether as essentially subsisting, or only inhering, as modifications, in things, must find themselves at utter variance with the principles of experience itself. For, if they decide for the first view, and make space and time into substances, this being the side taken by mathematical natural philosophers, they must admit two self-subsisting nonentities, infinite and eternal, which exist (yet without there being any thing real) for the purpose of containing in themselves every thing that is real. If they adopt the second view of inherence, which is preferred by some metaphysical natural philosophers, and regard space and time as relations (contiguity in space or suc cession in time), abstracted from experience,
? though repre sented confusedly in this state of separation, they find them selves in that case necessitated to deny the validity of mathe
matical doctrines &, priori in reference to real things (for example, in space), --at all events their apodeictic cer tainty. For such certainty cannot be found in an it posteriori proposition ; and the conceptions ct priori of space and time are, according to this opinion, mere creations of the ima gination,* having their source really in experience, inasmuch as, out of relations abstracted from experience, imagination has made up something which contains, indeed, general statements of these relations, yet of which no application can be made without the restrictions attached thereto by nature. 'The former of these parties gains this advantage, that they keep the sphere of phenomena free for mathematical science. On the other hand, these very conditions (space and time) embarrass them greatly, when the understanding endeavours
? This word is hpre uNd, and will be hereafter always used, in its prraii. live tense. That meaning of it which denotes a poetical inventive piner, n S licondary one. -- Tr.
? ? ? GENERAL HEMARK8 OW TRAKSCElTDEFTAt . SSTHXTIC. 35
to pass the limits of that sphere. The latter has, indeed, this advantage, that the representations of space and time
do not come in their way when they wish to judge of ob jects, not as phenomena, bat merely in their relation to the understanding. Devoid, however, of a true and objectively valid & priori intuition, they can neither furnish any basis for the possibility of mathematical cognitions a priori, nor bring the propositions of experience into necessary accordance with those of mathematics. In our theory of the true nature of these two original forms of the sensibility, both difficulties are
sur mounted.
In conclusion, that transcendental ^Esthetic cannot con
tain any more than these two elements --space and time, is sufficiently obvious from the fact that all other con ceptions appertaining to sensibility, even that of motion, which unites in itself both elements, presuppose something empirical. Motion, for example, presupposes the perception of something moveable. Hut space considered in itself contains nothing moveable, consequently motion must be something which is found in space only through experience, -- in other words, is an empirical datum. In like manner, tran scendental yEsthetic cannot number the conception of change among its data A priori; for time itself does not change, but only something which is in time. To acquire the conception of change, therefore, the perception of some existing object and of the succession of its determinations, in one word, experience, is necessary.
? 9. -- General Remarks on Transcendental JEsthetic.
I. In order to prevent any misunderstanding, it will be requisite, in the first place, to recapitulate, as clearly as pos sible, what oar opinion is with respect to the fundamental nature of our sensuous cognition in general. We have in tended, then, to say, that all our intuition is nothing but the representation of phsenomena; that the thingswhich we intuite, are not in themselves the same as our representations of them in intuition, nor are their relations in themselves so constituted as they appear to us ; and that if we take away the subject, or . even only the subjective constitution of our senses in general, then not only the nature and relations of objects in space and time, but even space and time themselves disappear ; and
? ? ? ? 30 TRAlrSOESDElrtAL -SSTHMlC .
that these, as phsenomena, cannot exist in themselves, but only in us. What may he the nature of objects considered as things in themselves and without reference to the receptivity of our sensibility is quite unknown to us. We know nothing more than our own mode of perceiving \hem, which is peculiar to us, and which, though not of necessity pertaining to every animated being, is so to the whole human race. With this alone we have to do. Space and time are the pure forms thereof ; sensation the matter. The former alone can we cog nize h priori, that antecedent to all actual perception and for this reason such cognition called pure intuition. The latter that in our cognition which called cognition a pos
teriori, that empirical intuition. The former appertain ab solutely and necessarily to our sensibility, of whatsoever kind our sensations may be the latter may be of very diversified character. Supposing that we should carry our empirical intuition even Co the very highest degree of clearness, we should not thereby advance one step nearer to knowledge of the constitution of objects as things in themselves. For we could only, at best, arrive at complete cognition of our own mode of intuition, that of our sensibility, and this always
under the conditions originally attaching to the subject, namely, the conditions of space and time --while the ques tion -- " What are objects considered as things in them selves? " remains unanswerable even after the most thorough examination of the phenomenal world.
To say, then, that all our sensibility nothing but the con
fused representation of things containing exclusively that which belongs to them as things themselves, and this undn an accumulation of characteristic marks and partial representa tions which we cannot distinguish in consciousness, falsifi cation of the conception of sensibility and phenomcuization, which renders our whole doctrine thereof empty and useless. The difference between confused and clear representation merely logical and has nothing to do with content. No doubt the conception of right, as employed by sound understand ing, contains all that the most subtle investigation could unfold from although, in the ordinary practical use of the word, we arc not conscious of the manifold representations com
? the conception. But we cannot for this reason assert that the ordinary concretion sensuous one con
prised
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;
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;
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? SKVnit! BEVA. RK9 OTt THAKSCBITDraTAl . SSTH1TT0. 37
taiuing a mere phenomenon, for right cannot appear as a phenomenon ; but the conception of it lies in the understand ing, and represents a property (the moral property) of actions, which belongs to them in themselves. On the other hand, the re-presentation in intuition of a body contains nothing which could belong to an object considered as a thing in itself, but merely the phenomenon or appearance of something, and the mode in which we are affected by that appearance ; and this receptivity of our faculty of cognition is called sensibility, and remains toto ecelo different from the cognition of an ob ject in itself, even though we should examine the content of the phenomenon to the very bottom.
It must be admitted that the Leibniti-Wolfian
has assigned an entirely erroneous point of view to all investi gations into the nature and origin of our cognitions, inasmuch as it regards the distinction between the sensuous and the in tellectual as merely logical, whereas it is plainly transcenden tal, and concerns not merely the clearness or obscurity, but the content and origin of both. For the faculty of sensibility not only does not present us with an indistinct and confused cognition of objects as things in themselves, but, in fact, gives us no knowledge of these at all. On the contrary, so soon as we abstract in thought our own subjective nature, the object represented, with the properties ascribed to it by sensuous in tuition, entirely disappears, because it was only this subjective nature that determined the form of the object as a pheno menon.
In phenomena, we commonly, indeed, distinguish that which essentially belongs to the intuition of them, and is valid for the sensuous faculty of every human being, from that which belongs to the same intuition accidentally, as valid not for the sensuous faculty in general, but for a particular state or organ ization of this or that sense. Accordingly, we are accus tomed to say that the former is a cognition which represents the object itself, whilst the latter presents only a particular appearance or phsenomenon thereof. This distinction, how ever, is only empirical. If we stop here (as is usual), and do not regard the empirical intuition as itself a mere phenomenon (as we ought to do), in which nothing that can appertain to a thing in itself is to be found, our transcendental distinction is lost, and we believe that wc cognize objects as things in thcro
? philosophy
? ? ? 38 TRANSCENDENTAL JDSTHKTIC.
? elves, although in the whole range of the sensuous world,
investigate the nature of its objects as profoundly as we may, we have to do with nothing but phenomena. Thus, we call
the rainbow a mere appearance or phenomenon in a sunny shower, and the rain, the reality or thing in itself ; and this is right enough, if we understand the latter conception in a merely physical sense, that as that which in universal ex perience, and under whatever conditions of sensuous percep tion, known in intuition to be so and so determined, and not otherwise. But we consider this empirical datum gene rally, and enquire, without reference to its accordance with all our senses, whether there can be discovered in aught which represents an object as thing in itself (the raindrops of course are not such, for they are, as phenomena, empirical objects), the question of the relation of the representation to the object transcendental and not only are the raindrops mere phsenomena, but even their circular form, nay, the space itself through which they fall, nothing in itself, but both are mere modifications or fundamental dispositions of our sensuous intuition, whilst the transcendental object remains
for us utterly unknown.
The second important concern of our /Esthetic that
do not obtain favour merely as plausible hypothesis, but possess as undoubted character of certainty as can be de manded of any theory which to serve for an organon. In order fully to convince the reader of this certainty, we shall select a case which will serve to make its validity apparent, and also to illustrate what has been said in 3.
Suppose, then, that Space and Time are in themselves ob jective, and conditions of the possibility of objects as things in themselves. In the first place, evident that both present us with very many apodeictic and synthetic propositions priori, but especially space, -- and for this reason we shall prefer for
? investigation at present. As the propositions of geometry arc cognized synthetically priori, and with apodeictic certainty,
enquire, --whence do you obtain propositions of this kind, and on what basis does the understanding rest, in order to arrive it such absolutely necessary and universally valid truths
There no other way than through intuitions or conceptions, as such and these are given either priori or posteriori.
latter, namely, empirical conceptions, together with the
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is
? GTOIBAL BEMAJJKfi 0* TRAWSCEWDENTAT. JESTHETTC. 39
empirical intuition on which they are founded, cannot afford any synthetical proposition, except such as is itself also empi
rical, that proposition of experience. But an empirical
proposition cannot possess the qualities of necessity and abso
lute universality, which, nevertheless, are the characteristics of
all geometrical propositions. As to the first and only means
to arrive at such cognitions, namely, through mere concep
tions or intuitions a priori, quite clear that from mere con
ceptions no synthetical cognitions, but only analytical ones, can
be obtained. Take, for example, the proposition, " Two straight
lines cannot enclose space, and with these alone no figure
possible," and try to deduce from the conception of
straight line, and the number two or take the proposition,
possible to construct figure with three straight lines," and endeavour, in like manner, to deduce from the mere conception of straight line and the number three. All your endeavours are in vain, and you find yourself forced to have recourse to intuition, as, in fact, geometry always does. You therefore give yourself an object in intuition. But of what kind this intuition Is a pure priori, or an em pirical intuition If the latter, then neither an universally valid, much less an apodeictic proposition can arise from
for experience never can give us any such proposition. You
must therefore give yourself an object a priori in intuition, and upon that ground your synthetical proposition. Now there did not exist within you faculty of intuition priori;
this subjective condition were not in respect to its form also the universal condition priori under which alone the object of this external intuition itself possible the object (that
the triangle,) were something in itself, without relation to you the subject how could you affirm that that which lies necessarily in your subjective conditions in order to construct
triangle, must also necessarily belong to the triangle in itself? For to your conceptions of three lines, you could not add any thing new (that the figure) which, therefore, must necessarily be found in the object, because the object
given before your cognition, and not by means of it. If, therefore, Space (and Time also) were not mere form off your intuition, which contains conditions priori, under which alone things can become external objects for you, and without which subjective conditions the objects are in them
? "
? ? &a
,; if
it
is a is, if
It is
is,
it
a
is it
;1
& is
it
a
is h it
if
it,
a is
is
a
is, a
?
a
&
;
? 40 TKAWSCEKDEITTAI, . ESTHETIC.
selves nothing, you could not construct any synthetical pre position whatsoever regarding external objects. It is therefore not merely possible or probable, but indubitably certain, that Space and Time, as the necessary conditions of all our external and internal experience, are merely subjective conditions of all our intuitions, iu relation to which all objects are therefore mere phsenomena, and not things in themselves, presented to us in this particular manner. And for this reason, in respect to the form of phenomena, much may be said it priori, whilst of the thing in itself, which may lie at the foundation of these phsenomena, it is impossible to say any thing.
II. In confirmation of this theory of the ideality of the external as well as internal sense, consequently of all objects of sense, as mere phsenomena, we may especially remark, that all in our cognition that belongs to intuition contains nothing more than mere relations. --The feelings of pain and pleasure, and the will, which are not cognitions, are excepted. --The re lations, to wit, of place in an intuition (extension), change of place (motion), and laws according to which this change is determined (moving forces). That, however, which is pre sent in this or that place, or any operation going on, or re sult taking place in the things themselves, with the exception of change of place, is not given to us by intuition. Now by means of mere relations, a thing cannot be known in itself; and it may therefore be fairly concluded, that, as through the external sense nothing but mere representations of relations are given us, the said external sense in its representation can contain only the relation of the object to the subject, but not ',Ue essential nature of the object as a thing in itself.
The same is the case with the internal intuition, not only, because, in the internal intuition, the representation of the external senses constitutes the material wi'h which the mind is occupied ; but because time, in which we place, and which itself antecedes the consciousness of, these representations in experience, and which, as the formal condition of the mode according to which objects are placed in the mind, lies at the foundation of them, contains relations of the successive, the co-existent, and of that which always must be co-existent with succession, the permanent. Now that which, as represent ation, can antecede every exercise of thought (of an object), is intuition ; and when it contain nothing but relations, it is the
? ? ? ? ? MSWEBAL BEMAEKS ON TBANBCEnDETTTAL . ESTHETIC. 41
form of the intuition, which, as it presents us with no icpre- sentation, except in so far as something is placed in the mind, can be nothing else than the mode in which the mind is affected by its own activity, to wit -- its presenting to itself represent ations, consequently the mode in which the mind is affected by itself ; that is, it can be nothing but an . internal sense in respect to its form. Everything that is represented through the medium of sense is so far phsenomenal ; consequently, we must either refuse altogether to admit an internal sense, or the subject, which is the object of that sense, could only be represented by it as phsenomenon, and not as it would judge of itself, if its intuition were pure spontaneous activity, that
were intellectual. The difficulty here lies wholly in the question --How the subject can have an internal intuition of itself? -- but this difficulty common to every theory. The consciousness " of self (apperception) the simple represent ation of the Ego and by means of that representation alone, all the manifold representations in the subject were
? then our internal intuition would be intellectual. This consciousness in man requires an internal perception of the manifold representations which are pre
viously given in the subject and the manner in which these
spontaneously given,
representations are given in the mind without spontaneity, must, on account of this difference (the want of spontaneity), oe called sensibility. If the faculty of self-consciousness to apprehend what lies in the mind, must affect that, and can in this way alone produce an intuition of self. But the form of this intuition, which lies in the original constitution of the mind, determines, in the representation of time, the manner in which the manifold representations are to combine themselves in the mind since the subject intuites itself, not as would represent itself immediately and spontaneously, but according to the manner in which the mind internally affected, conse quently, as appears, and not as is.
III. When we say that the intuition of external objects, and also the self-intuition of the subject, represent both, objects and subject, in space and time, as they affect our senses, that
as they appear, -- this by no means equivalent to asserting that these objects are mere illusory appearances. For when we speak of things as phsenomena, the objects, nay, even the properties which we ascribe to them, are looked upon as really
? ? is,
is,
is
;" if
it
;
it is
it
it
is
;
is
is
? 42 TRWrsCENDENTAL JESTJIKTIC.
given ; only that, in bo far as this or that property depends upon the mode of intuition of the subject, in the relation of the given object to the subject, the object as phenomenon is to be distinguished from the object as a thing in itself. Thus I do not say that bodies seem o* appear to be external to me, or that my soul seems merely to be given in my self-con sciousness, although I maintain that the properties of space and time, in conformrty to which I set both, as the condition of their existence, abide in my mode of intuition, and not in the objects in themselves. It would be my own fault, if out of that which I should reckon as phenomenon, I made mere
? But this will not happen, because of our principle of the ideality of all sensuous intuitions. On the contrary, if we ascribe objective reality to these forms of representation, it becomes impossible to avoid changing every thing into mere appearance. For if we regard space and time as properties, which must be found in objects as things in themselves, as sine quibus non of the possibility of their
existence, and reflect on the absurdities in which we then find ourselves involved, inasmuch as we are compelled to admit the existence of two infinite things, which are nevertheless not substances, nor any thing really inhering in substances, nay, to admit that they are the necessary conditions of the exist ence of all things, and moreover, that they must continue to exist, although all existing things were annihilated, -- we can not blame the good Berkeley for degrading bodies to mere illusory appearances. Nay, even our own existence, which
* The predicates of the phenomenon can he affixed to the ohject it self in relation to our sensuous faculty ; for example, the red colour or the perfume to the rose. But (illusory) appearance never can he attributed as a predicate to an object, for this very reason, that it attributes to this object in itself that which belongs to it only in relation to our sensuous faculty, or to the subject in general, e. g. the two handles which were formerly ascribed to Saturn. That which is never to be found in the ob ject itself, but always in the relation of the uliject to the subject, and which moreover is inseparable from our representation of the object, we
denominate phenomenon. Thus the predicates of space and time are rightly attributed to objects of the senses as st'. ch, and in this there is no illusion. On the contrary, if I ascribe redness to the rose as a thing in itself, or to Saturn bis handles, or extension to all external objects, con sidered as things in themselves, without regarding the determinate relation of these objects to the subject, and without limiting my judgment to that relation, --then, and then only, arises illusion.
illusory appearance. *
? ? ? GBNEBAi MMABKS OK TBiWSCT5nDEirrAil . SSTHETIO.
would in this case depend upon the self-existent reality of
luch a mere nonentity as time, would necessarily be changed with it into mere appearance --an absurdity which no ;ne has
as yet been guilty of. -- --IV. In natural theology, where we think of an object
God which never can be an object of intuition to us, and even to himself can never be an object of sensuous intuition, we carefully avoid attributing to his intuition the conditions or
space and time --and intuition all his cognition must be, and not thought, which always includes limitation. But with what right can we do this if we make them forms of objects as things in themselves, and such moreover, as would con tinue to exist as a priori conditions of the existence of things, even though the things themselves were annihilated ? For as conditions of all existence in general, space and time must be conditions of the existence of the Supreme Being also. But if we do not thus make them objective forms of all things, there is no other way left than to make them sub jective forms of our mode of intuition --external and internal ; which is called sensuous, because it is not primitive, that is, is not such as gives in itself the existence of the object or the intuition (a mode of intuition which, so far as we can judge, can belong only to the Creator), but is dependent on the ex istence of the object, is possible, therefore, only on condition that the representative faculty of the subject is affected by the object.
It moreover, not necessary that we should limit the mode of intuition in space and time to the sensuous faculty of man. It may well be, that all finite thinking beings must neces sarily in this respect agree with man, (though as to this we cannot decide), but sensibility does not on account of this universality cease to be sensibility, for this very reason, that
deduced (intuitu* derivative), and not an original (in tuitu* originariut), consequently not an intellectual intuition; and this intuition, as such, for reasons above mentioned, seems to belong solely to the Supreme Being, but never to being dependent, quoad its existence, as well as its intuition (which its existence determines and limits relatively to given objects). This latter remark, however, must be taken only as an illus tration, and not as any proof of the truth of our testheticW theory.
43
? ? ? a
it is a
is,
? 44 TRANSCENDENTAL . ESTHETIC.
? 10. Conclusion of the Transcendental ^Esthetic.
We have now completely before us one part of the solution
of the grand general problem of transcendental philosophy,
namely, the question --llow are synthetical propositions a priori possible '. That is to say, we have shown that we are in possession of pure a priori intuitions, namely, space and time, in which we find, when in a judgment a priori we pass out
the given conception, something which is not dis coverable in that conception, but is certainly found a prion in the intuition which corresponds to the conception, and can be united synthetically with it. But thfc judgments which these pure intuitions enable us to make, never reach farther than to objects of the senses, and are valid only for objects of pos-ible experience.
beyond
? ? ? ? TRANSCENDENTAL DOCTRINE OP ELEMENTS. PART SECOND.
TRANSCENDENTAL LOGIC.
? ? ? a
is
is
a
a
it
;
it, &
if it
is
a
is
is
? (Introd. V. )
TBAN8CENDENTAL
EXPOSITION OF SPACE.
i 3. Transcendental exposition of the conception of Space.
By a transcendental exposition, I mean the explanation of a conception, as a principle, whence can be discerned the possi bility of other synthetical a priori cognitions. For this pur pose, it is requisite, firstly, that such cognitions do really flow from the given conception ; and, secondly, that the said cog nitions are only possible under the presupposition of a given mode of explaining this conception.
Geometry is a science which determines the properties of space synthetically, and yet & priori. What, then, must be our representation of space, in order that such a cognition of it may be possible ? It must be originally intuition, for from a mere conception, no propositions can be deduced which go out beyond the conception,* and yet this happens in geometry.
But this intuition must be found in the mind ipriori, that before any perception of objects, consequently must be pure, not empirical, intuition. For geometrical prin ciples are always apodeictic, that united with the conscious ness of their necessity, as, '* Space has only three dimen sions. " But propositions of this kind cannot be empirical judgments, nor conclusions from them. (Introd. II. ) Now, how can an external intuition anterior to objects themselves, and in which our conception of objects can be determined a priori, exist in the human mind? Obviously not otherwise than in so far as has its seat in the subject only, as the formal capacity of the subject'sbeing affected objects, and thereby of obtaining immediate representation, that intuition con sequently, only as the form, the external sense general.
Thus only means of our explanation that the pos sibility of geometry, as synthetical science priori, becomes comprehensible. Every mode of explanation which does not shew us this possibility, although in appearance may be similar to ours, can with the utmost certainty be distinguished from by these marks.
4. Conclusion* from the foregoing conceptions.
(a) Space does not represent any property of objects as
? That is, the analysis of conception only gives you what contained and does not add to your knowledg: of the object of wliich j-1u
have concqtion, but merely evolve* it. -- TV.
? ? it, a
it
it
in *
a
by a
is
it
in
;
?
&
is,
is
of
by
it
is,
is,
? 26 THANSCENDENTAL -F. STHETIC.
things in themselves, nor does it represent them in their rela tions to each other ; in other words, space does not represent to us any determination of objects such as attaches to the ob jects themselves, and would remain, even though all subjective conditions of the intuition were abstracted. For neither abso lute nor relative determinations of objects can be intuited prior to the existence of the things to which they belong, and therefore not b) priori.
(b) Space is nothing else than the form of all phenomena of the external sense, that the subjective condition of the sensi bility, under which alone external intuition possible. Now, oecause the receptivity or capacity of the subject to be affected
objects necessarily antecedes all intuitions of these objects, easdy understood how the form of all phenomena can be
given in the mind previous to all actual perceptions, there fore priori, and how as pure intuition, in which all objects must be determined, can contain principles of the relations of these objects prior to all experience.
therefore from the human point of view only that we
can speak of space, extended objects, &c. If we depart from the subjective condition, under which alone we can obtain external intuition, or, in other words, by means of which we are affected by objects, the representation of space has nc meaning whatsoever. This predicate [of space] only appli cable to things in so far as they appear to us, that are objects of sensibility. The constant form of this receptivity, which we call sensibility, necessary condition of all rela tions in which objects can be intuited as existing without us, and when abstraction of these objects made, pure intuition, to which we give the name of space. clear that we can not make the special conditions of sensibility into conditions of the possibility of things, but only of the possibility of their existence as far as they are phenomena. And so we may correctly say that space contains all which can appear to us externally, but not all things considered as things them selves, be they intuited or not, or by whatsoever subject one will. As co the intuitions of other thinking beings, we can not judge whether they are or are not bound by the same conditions which limit our own intuition, and which for us are universally valid. If we join the limitation of judgment to the conception of the subject, then the judgment will po<<
? ? ? a
is is,
in
It
is is a
is
is
is a
It is
it by is
?
it, a
is,
? OF SPACE. -- CONCLUSIONS TOM THE FOREWOINO. 27
sess unconditioned validity. For example, the proposition, "All objects are beside each other in space," is valid only under the limitation that these things are taken as objects of our sensuous intuition. But if I join the condition to the con ception, and say, " all things, as external phenomena, are be side each other in space," then the rule is valid universally, and without any limitation. Our expositions, consequently, teach the reality e. the objective validity) of space in re gard of all which can be presented to us externally as object, and at the same time also the ideality of space in regard to objects when they are considered means cf reason as things in themselves, that without reference to the constitution of our sensibility. We maintain, therefore, the empirical reality of space in regard to all possible external experience, although we must admit its transcendental ideality in other words, that nothing, so soon as we withdraw the condition upon
which the possibility of all experience depends, and look upon space as something that belongs to things in themselves.
But, with the exception of space, there no representation, subjective and referring to something external to us, which could be called objective prion. For there are no other
subjective representations from which we can deduce syn thetical propositions priori, as we can from the intuition of space. (See 3. ) Therefore, to speak accurately, no ideality whatever belongs to these, although they agree in this respect with the representation of space, that they belong merely to the subjective nature of the mode of sensuous perception such mode, for example, as that of sight, of hearing, and of feeling, by means of the sensations of colour, sound, and heat, but which, because they are only sensations, and not intuitions, do not of themselves give us the cognition of any object, least of all, an a priori cognition. My purpose, in the above remark, merely this to guard any one against illus-
trating the asserted ideality of space by examples quite insuffi
cient, for example, by colour, taste, &c. for these must be con
templated not as properties of things, but only as changes in the subject, changes which may be different in different men. For
such case, that which originally mere phenomenon, rose, for example, taken by the empirical understanding for
thing in itself, though to every different eye, in respect of its colour, may appear different. On the contrary, -tbo
? ? ? a
\ in
a it
a
?
it is
is
is
a
a
(i. is,
a
;
a
;
is
:
is
;
by
? 28 TBiNSCEXDENTAX JESTHSTIC.
transcendental conception of pbsenomena admonition, that, genera! , nothing which thing in itself, and that space not
space critical intuited apace form which be
longs as property to things but that objects are quite unknown to us in themselves, and what we call outward ob jects, are nothing else but mere representations of our sensi bility, whose form space, but whose real correlate, the tiling in itself, not known by means of these representa tions, nor ever can be, but respecting which, in experience, no inquiry ever made.
SECTION II. OF TIME.
5. Metaphysical exposition this conception.
Time not an empirical conception. For neither co existence nor succession would be perceived us, the re
? of time did not exist <<s foundation
Without this presupposition we could not represent to our selves that things exist together at one and the same time, or at different times, that contemporaneously, or succession.
2. Time necessary representation, lying at the found ation of all our intuitions. With regard to phenomena general, we cannot think away time from them, and represent them to ourselves as out of and unconnected with time, bul we can quite well represent to ourselves time void of pheno mena. Time therefore given priori. In alone aL reality of phenomena possible. These may all be annihilated in thought, but time itself, as the universal condition of their possibility, cannot be so annulled.
3. On this necessity priori, also founded the possibility of apodeictic principles of the relations of time, or axioms of time in general, such as, " Time has only one dimension," " Different times are not co-existent but successive," (as dif ferent spaces are not successive but co-existent). ' These principles cannot be derived from experience, for would give neither strict universality, nor apodeictic certainty. We should Dnly be able to say, " so common experience teaches us," but not must be so. They are valid as rules, through which,
general, experience possible; and they instruct us respect ing experience, and not means of it.
presentation
priori.
? ? is by
is
n
it
I.
is a
it
it
by in
a
is,
is
h
;
is
is
is a
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a if in
is in %
a
of
? is
is
is
a
in
a is ir,
? TRANSCENDENTAL EXPOSITION OF TIME. 1! 9
4. Time is not a discursive, or as it is called, general con ception, but a pure form of the sensuous intuition. Different times are merely parts of one and the same time. But the representation which can only be given by a single object is an intuition. Besides, the proposition that different times can not be co-existent, could not be derived from a general con ception. For this proposition is synthetical, and therefore cannot spring out of conceptions alone. It is therefore con tained immediately in the intuition and representation of time.
5. The infinity of time signifies nothing more than that every determined quantity of time is possible only through limitations of one time lying at the foundation. Consequently, the original representation, time, must be given as unlimited. But as the determinate representation of the parts of time and of every quantity of an object can only be obtained by limitation, the complete representation of time must not be furnished by means of conceptions, for these contain only partial representations. Conceptions, on the contrary, must have immediate intuition for their basis.
? 6. Transcendental exposition of the conception of lime.
I may here refer to what is said above (? 5, 3), where, for the sake of brevity, I have placed under the head of metaphy sical exposition, that which is properly transcendental. Here I shall add that the conception of change, and with it the conception of motion, as change of place, is possible only through and in the representation of time ; that if this re presentation were not an intuition (internal) h priori, no con ception, of whatever kind, could render comprehensible the possibility of change, in other words, of a conjunction of contra dictorily opposed predicates in one and the same object, for ex ample, the presence of a thing in a place and the non-presence of the same thing in the same place. It is only in time, that it is possible to meet with two contradictorily opposed deter
minations in one thing, that after each other. * Thus our conception of time explains the possibility of so much syn-
Kant's meaning You cannot affirm and deny the tame thing of subject, except by means of the representation, time. No other idea, intuition, or conception, or whatever other form of thought there to an mediate the connection of such predicates. -- TV
? ? ? a*
is :
is,
? so TRANSCENDENTAL JEBTHETTC.
thetical knowledge a priori, as is exhibited in the general doctrine of motion, which is not a little fruitful.
? 7. Conclusions from the above conceptions.
(a) Time is not something which subsists of itself, or which inheres in things as an objective determination, and therefore remains, when abstraction is made of the subjective conditions of the intuition of things. For in the former case, it would be something real, yet without presenting to any power of perception any real object. In the latter case, as an order or determination inherent in things themselves, it could not be antecedent to things, as their condition, nor discerned or intuited by means of synthetical propositions a priori. But all this is quite possible when we regard time as merely the subjective condition und<<"r which all our intuitions take place. For in that case, this form of the inward intuition can be represented prior to the objects, and consequently a priori.
(b) Time is nothing else than the form of the internal sense, that of the intuitions of self end of our internal state. For time cannot be any determination cf outward phsenomena.
has to do neither with shape nor position on the contrary, determines the relation of representations in our internal state. And precisely because this internal intuition presents
to us no shape or form, we endeavour to supply this want analogies, and represent the course of time line pro gressing to infinity, the content of which constitutes series which only of one dimension and we conclude from the properties of this line as to all the properties of time, with this single exception, that the parts of the line are co-existent, whilst those of time are successive. From this clear also that the representation of time itself an intuition, because all its relations can be expressed in an external tuition.
(<r) Time the formal condition o priori of all phenomena whatsoever. Space, as the pure form of external intuition, limited as condition a priori to external phsenomena
? alone. On the other hand, because all representations, whether they have or have not external things for their ob jects, still in themselves, ns determinations of lie niiud, belong to our internal state and because this internal state
subject to the formal condition of the internal intuition, that
? ? is,
in
by
;
is
a
I
;
is
it It
is a
is
it is
by a
is
is,
;
? OV TTMB. -- CONCLUSIONS FROM THE FOBESOtJfG.
31
to time, --time is a condition h priori of all phenomena what soever -- the immediate condition of all internal, and thereby the mediate condition of all external phenomena. If I can sny a priori, " all outward phenomena are in space, and de termined a priori according to the relations of space," I can also, from the principle of the internal sense, affirm univer sally, " all phenomena in general, that all objects of the senses, are in time, and stand necessarily in relations of time. "
If we abstract our internal intuition of ourselves, and all external intuitions, possible only by virtue of this internal
intuition, and presented to us our faculty of representation, and consequently take objects as they are in themselves, then time nothing. only of objective validity in regard to phenomena, because these are things which we regard as ob jects of our senses. no longer objective, we make ab straction of the sensuousness of our intuition, in other words, of that mode of representation which peculiar to us, and speak of things in general. Time therefore merely sub jective condition of our (human) intuition, (which always sensuous, that so far as we are affected by objects,) and in itself, independently of the mind or subject, nothing. Nevertheless, in respect of all phenomena, consequently of all things which come within the sphere of our experience, necessarily objective. We cannot say, "all things are in time," because in this conception of things in general, we abstract and make no mention of any sort of intuition of
But this the proper condition under which time belongs to our representation of objects. If we add the condition to the conception, and say, " all things, as phe nomena, that objects of sensuous intuition, are time," then the proposition has its sound objective validity and universality
prion.
What we have now set forth teaches, therefore, the empirical
reality of time that is, its objective validity in reference to
all objects which can ever be presented to our senses. And Ma our intuition is always sensuous, no object ever can be pre sented to us in experience, which does not come under the conditions of time. On the other hand, we deny to time all claim to absolute reality that we deny that without having regard to the form of our sensuous intuition, absolutely inheres in things as condition or property. Such properties
? things.
? ? a
;
It is
It is
is,
it,
is
is
;
is,
is
is,
i
in
if
a it
is
is
is
is,
is
by
? 82 TRANSCENDENTAL . ESTHETIC.
as belong to objects as things in themselves, never can be presented to us through the medium of the senses. Herein consists, therefore, the transcendental ideality of time, according to which, if we abstract the subjective conditions of sensuous intuition, it is nothing, and cannot be reckoned as subsisting or inhering in objects as things in themselves, independently of its relation to our intuition. This ideality, like that of space, is not to be proved or illustrated by fallacious analogies with sensations, for this reason, --that in such arguments or illustrations,we make the presupposition that the phenomenon, in which such and such predicates inhere, has objective reality, while in this case we can only find such an objective reality as is itself empirical, that is, regards the object as a mere phenomenon. In reference to this subject, see the remark in Section I. (p. 27).
? 8. Elueidation.
Against this theory, which grants empirical reality to time, but denies to it absolute and transcendental reality, I have hear:! from intelligent men an objection so unanimously urged, that I conclude that it must naturally present itself to every reader to whom these considerations are novel. It runs thus : " Changes are real ;" (this the continual change in our own representations demonstrates, even though the existence of ail external phsenomeua, together with their changes, is denied). Now, changes are only possible in time, and therefore time must be something real. But there is no difficulty in answer ing this. I grant the whole argument. Time, no doubt, is something real, that the real form of our internal intuition. therefore has subjective reality, in reference to our internal experience, that have really the representation of time, and of my determinations therein. Time, therefore,
not to be regarded as an object, but as the mode of repre sentation of myself as an object. But could intuite my self, or be intuited another being, without this condition of sensibility, then those very determinations which we now represent to ourselves as changes, would present to us knowledge in which the representation of time, and conse quently of change, would not appear. The empirical realit'y of time, therefore, remains, as the condition of all our expe rience. But absolute realify, accorJing tn what has bven
? ? ? a
by
if I
is
is, I
is, it is
It
? 01 SfACZ AHD TIME. --ELTCIDATOBT. REMARK8. 83
(aid above, cannot be granted it. Time is nothing but the form of our internal intuition. * If we take away from it the special condition of our sensibility, the conception of tira also vanishes ; and it inheres not in the objects themselves, but solely in the subject (or mind) which intuites them.
But the reason why this objection is so unanimously brought against our doctrine of time, and that too by disputants who cannot start any intelligible arguments against the doc trine of the ideality of space, is this, --they have no hope of demonstrating apodeictically the absolute reality of space, be cause the doctrine of idealism is against them, according to which the reality of external objects is not capable of any strict proof. On the other hand, the reality of the object of our internal sense (that is, myself and my internal state) is clear immediately through consciousness.
The former --exter nal objects in space -- might be a mere delusion, but the latter -- the object of my internal perception -- is undeniably real. They do not, however, reflect that both, without question of their reality as representations, belong only to the genus phe- nomeuon, which has always two aspects, the one, the object considered as a thing in itself, without regard to the mode of intuiting and the nature of which remains for this very reason problematical, the other, the form of our intui tion of the object, which must be sought not in the object as thing itself, but the subject to which appears, -- which form of intuition nevertheless belongs really and neces
sarily to the phenomenal object.
Time and space are, therefore, two sources of knowledge,
from which, priori, various synthetical cognitions can be drawn. --Of this we find striking example in the cognitions of space and its relations, which form the foundation of pure ma thematics. --They are the two pure forms of all intuition, and thereby make synthetical propositions a priori possible. But these sources of knowledge being merely conditions of our sensibility, do therefore, and as such, strictly determine their own range and purpose, in that they do not and cannot present
can indeed >ay " my representations follow one aoother, or an successive" but this means only that we are conscious of tbrm as in succession, that is, according to the form of the internal sense. Time, therefore, not thing in itself, nor any objective determination nertaining to, or inherent things.
D
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? 34 TRANSCENDENTAL JESTHETIC.
objects as things in themselves, but are applicable to them solely in so far as they are considered as sensuous pheno mena. The sphere of phenomena is the only sphere of their validity, and if we venture out of this, no further objective use can be made of them. For the rest, this formal reality of time and space leaves the validity of our empirical know ledge unshaken ; for our certainty in that respect is equally firm, whether these forms necessarily inhere in the things themselves, or only in our intuitions of them. On the other hand, those who maintain the absolute reality of time and space, whether as essentially subsisting, or only inhering, as modifications, in things, must find themselves at utter variance with the principles of experience itself. For, if they decide for the first view, and make space and time into substances, this being the side taken by mathematical natural philosophers, they must admit two self-subsisting nonentities, infinite and eternal, which exist (yet without there being any thing real) for the purpose of containing in themselves every thing that is real. If they adopt the second view of inherence, which is preferred by some metaphysical natural philosophers, and regard space and time as relations (contiguity in space or suc cession in time), abstracted from experience,
? though repre sented confusedly in this state of separation, they find them selves in that case necessitated to deny the validity of mathe
matical doctrines &, priori in reference to real things (for example, in space), --at all events their apodeictic cer tainty. For such certainty cannot be found in an it posteriori proposition ; and the conceptions ct priori of space and time are, according to this opinion, mere creations of the ima gination,* having their source really in experience, inasmuch as, out of relations abstracted from experience, imagination has made up something which contains, indeed, general statements of these relations, yet of which no application can be made without the restrictions attached thereto by nature. 'The former of these parties gains this advantage, that they keep the sphere of phenomena free for mathematical science. On the other hand, these very conditions (space and time) embarrass them greatly, when the understanding endeavours
? This word is hpre uNd, and will be hereafter always used, in its prraii. live tense. That meaning of it which denotes a poetical inventive piner, n S licondary one. -- Tr.
? ? ? GENERAL HEMARK8 OW TRAKSCElTDEFTAt . SSTHXTIC. 35
to pass the limits of that sphere. The latter has, indeed, this advantage, that the representations of space and time
do not come in their way when they wish to judge of ob jects, not as phenomena, bat merely in their relation to the understanding. Devoid, however, of a true and objectively valid & priori intuition, they can neither furnish any basis for the possibility of mathematical cognitions a priori, nor bring the propositions of experience into necessary accordance with those of mathematics. In our theory of the true nature of these two original forms of the sensibility, both difficulties are
sur mounted.
In conclusion, that transcendental ^Esthetic cannot con
tain any more than these two elements --space and time, is sufficiently obvious from the fact that all other con ceptions appertaining to sensibility, even that of motion, which unites in itself both elements, presuppose something empirical. Motion, for example, presupposes the perception of something moveable. Hut space considered in itself contains nothing moveable, consequently motion must be something which is found in space only through experience, -- in other words, is an empirical datum. In like manner, tran scendental yEsthetic cannot number the conception of change among its data A priori; for time itself does not change, but only something which is in time. To acquire the conception of change, therefore, the perception of some existing object and of the succession of its determinations, in one word, experience, is necessary.
? 9. -- General Remarks on Transcendental JEsthetic.
I. In order to prevent any misunderstanding, it will be requisite, in the first place, to recapitulate, as clearly as pos sible, what oar opinion is with respect to the fundamental nature of our sensuous cognition in general. We have in tended, then, to say, that all our intuition is nothing but the representation of phsenomena; that the thingswhich we intuite, are not in themselves the same as our representations of them in intuition, nor are their relations in themselves so constituted as they appear to us ; and that if we take away the subject, or . even only the subjective constitution of our senses in general, then not only the nature and relations of objects in space and time, but even space and time themselves disappear ; and
? ? ? ? 30 TRAlrSOESDElrtAL -SSTHMlC .
that these, as phsenomena, cannot exist in themselves, but only in us. What may he the nature of objects considered as things in themselves and without reference to the receptivity of our sensibility is quite unknown to us. We know nothing more than our own mode of perceiving \hem, which is peculiar to us, and which, though not of necessity pertaining to every animated being, is so to the whole human race. With this alone we have to do. Space and time are the pure forms thereof ; sensation the matter. The former alone can we cog nize h priori, that antecedent to all actual perception and for this reason such cognition called pure intuition. The latter that in our cognition which called cognition a pos
teriori, that empirical intuition. The former appertain ab solutely and necessarily to our sensibility, of whatsoever kind our sensations may be the latter may be of very diversified character. Supposing that we should carry our empirical intuition even Co the very highest degree of clearness, we should not thereby advance one step nearer to knowledge of the constitution of objects as things in themselves. For we could only, at best, arrive at complete cognition of our own mode of intuition, that of our sensibility, and this always
under the conditions originally attaching to the subject, namely, the conditions of space and time --while the ques tion -- " What are objects considered as things in them selves? " remains unanswerable even after the most thorough examination of the phenomenal world.
To say, then, that all our sensibility nothing but the con
fused representation of things containing exclusively that which belongs to them as things themselves, and this undn an accumulation of characteristic marks and partial representa tions which we cannot distinguish in consciousness, falsifi cation of the conception of sensibility and phenomcuization, which renders our whole doctrine thereof empty and useless. The difference between confused and clear representation merely logical and has nothing to do with content. No doubt the conception of right, as employed by sound understand ing, contains all that the most subtle investigation could unfold from although, in the ordinary practical use of the word, we arc not conscious of the manifold representations com
? the conception. But we cannot for this reason assert that the ordinary concretion sensuous one con
prised
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? SKVnit! BEVA. RK9 OTt THAKSCBITDraTAl . SSTH1TT0. 37
taiuing a mere phenomenon, for right cannot appear as a phenomenon ; but the conception of it lies in the understand ing, and represents a property (the moral property) of actions, which belongs to them in themselves. On the other hand, the re-presentation in intuition of a body contains nothing which could belong to an object considered as a thing in itself, but merely the phenomenon or appearance of something, and the mode in which we are affected by that appearance ; and this receptivity of our faculty of cognition is called sensibility, and remains toto ecelo different from the cognition of an ob ject in itself, even though we should examine the content of the phenomenon to the very bottom.
It must be admitted that the Leibniti-Wolfian
has assigned an entirely erroneous point of view to all investi gations into the nature and origin of our cognitions, inasmuch as it regards the distinction between the sensuous and the in tellectual as merely logical, whereas it is plainly transcenden tal, and concerns not merely the clearness or obscurity, but the content and origin of both. For the faculty of sensibility not only does not present us with an indistinct and confused cognition of objects as things in themselves, but, in fact, gives us no knowledge of these at all. On the contrary, so soon as we abstract in thought our own subjective nature, the object represented, with the properties ascribed to it by sensuous in tuition, entirely disappears, because it was only this subjective nature that determined the form of the object as a pheno menon.
In phenomena, we commonly, indeed, distinguish that which essentially belongs to the intuition of them, and is valid for the sensuous faculty of every human being, from that which belongs to the same intuition accidentally, as valid not for the sensuous faculty in general, but for a particular state or organ ization of this or that sense. Accordingly, we are accus tomed to say that the former is a cognition which represents the object itself, whilst the latter presents only a particular appearance or phsenomenon thereof. This distinction, how ever, is only empirical. If we stop here (as is usual), and do not regard the empirical intuition as itself a mere phenomenon (as we ought to do), in which nothing that can appertain to a thing in itself is to be found, our transcendental distinction is lost, and we believe that wc cognize objects as things in thcro
? philosophy
? ? ? 38 TRANSCENDENTAL JDSTHKTIC.
? elves, although in the whole range of the sensuous world,
investigate the nature of its objects as profoundly as we may, we have to do with nothing but phenomena. Thus, we call
the rainbow a mere appearance or phenomenon in a sunny shower, and the rain, the reality or thing in itself ; and this is right enough, if we understand the latter conception in a merely physical sense, that as that which in universal ex perience, and under whatever conditions of sensuous percep tion, known in intuition to be so and so determined, and not otherwise. But we consider this empirical datum gene rally, and enquire, without reference to its accordance with all our senses, whether there can be discovered in aught which represents an object as thing in itself (the raindrops of course are not such, for they are, as phenomena, empirical objects), the question of the relation of the representation to the object transcendental and not only are the raindrops mere phsenomena, but even their circular form, nay, the space itself through which they fall, nothing in itself, but both are mere modifications or fundamental dispositions of our sensuous intuition, whilst the transcendental object remains
for us utterly unknown.
The second important concern of our /Esthetic that
do not obtain favour merely as plausible hypothesis, but possess as undoubted character of certainty as can be de manded of any theory which to serve for an organon. In order fully to convince the reader of this certainty, we shall select a case which will serve to make its validity apparent, and also to illustrate what has been said in 3.
Suppose, then, that Space and Time are in themselves ob jective, and conditions of the possibility of objects as things in themselves. In the first place, evident that both present us with very many apodeictic and synthetic propositions priori, but especially space, -- and for this reason we shall prefer for
? investigation at present. As the propositions of geometry arc cognized synthetically priori, and with apodeictic certainty,
enquire, --whence do you obtain propositions of this kind, and on what basis does the understanding rest, in order to arrive it such absolutely necessary and universally valid truths
There no other way than through intuitions or conceptions, as such and these are given either priori or posteriori.
latter, namely, empirical conceptions, together with the
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empirical intuition on which they are founded, cannot afford any synthetical proposition, except such as is itself also empi
rical, that proposition of experience. But an empirical
proposition cannot possess the qualities of necessity and abso
lute universality, which, nevertheless, are the characteristics of
all geometrical propositions. As to the first and only means
to arrive at such cognitions, namely, through mere concep
tions or intuitions a priori, quite clear that from mere con
ceptions no synthetical cognitions, but only analytical ones, can
be obtained. Take, for example, the proposition, " Two straight
lines cannot enclose space, and with these alone no figure
possible," and try to deduce from the conception of
straight line, and the number two or take the proposition,
possible to construct figure with three straight lines," and endeavour, in like manner, to deduce from the mere conception of straight line and the number three. All your endeavours are in vain, and you find yourself forced to have recourse to intuition, as, in fact, geometry always does. You therefore give yourself an object in intuition. But of what kind this intuition Is a pure priori, or an em pirical intuition If the latter, then neither an universally valid, much less an apodeictic proposition can arise from
for experience never can give us any such proposition. You
must therefore give yourself an object a priori in intuition, and upon that ground your synthetical proposition. Now there did not exist within you faculty of intuition priori;
this subjective condition were not in respect to its form also the universal condition priori under which alone the object of this external intuition itself possible the object (that
the triangle,) were something in itself, without relation to you the subject how could you affirm that that which lies necessarily in your subjective conditions in order to construct
triangle, must also necessarily belong to the triangle in itself? For to your conceptions of three lines, you could not add any thing new (that the figure) which, therefore, must necessarily be found in the object, because the object
given before your cognition, and not by means of it. If, therefore, Space (and Time also) were not mere form off your intuition, which contains conditions priori, under which alone things can become external objects for you, and without which subjective conditions the objects are in them
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? 40 TKAWSCEKDEITTAI, . ESTHETIC.
selves nothing, you could not construct any synthetical pre position whatsoever regarding external objects. It is therefore not merely possible or probable, but indubitably certain, that Space and Time, as the necessary conditions of all our external and internal experience, are merely subjective conditions of all our intuitions, iu relation to which all objects are therefore mere phsenomena, and not things in themselves, presented to us in this particular manner. And for this reason, in respect to the form of phenomena, much may be said it priori, whilst of the thing in itself, which may lie at the foundation of these phsenomena, it is impossible to say any thing.
II. In confirmation of this theory of the ideality of the external as well as internal sense, consequently of all objects of sense, as mere phsenomena, we may especially remark, that all in our cognition that belongs to intuition contains nothing more than mere relations. --The feelings of pain and pleasure, and the will, which are not cognitions, are excepted. --The re lations, to wit, of place in an intuition (extension), change of place (motion), and laws according to which this change is determined (moving forces). That, however, which is pre sent in this or that place, or any operation going on, or re sult taking place in the things themselves, with the exception of change of place, is not given to us by intuition. Now by means of mere relations, a thing cannot be known in itself; and it may therefore be fairly concluded, that, as through the external sense nothing but mere representations of relations are given us, the said external sense in its representation can contain only the relation of the object to the subject, but not ',Ue essential nature of the object as a thing in itself.
The same is the case with the internal intuition, not only, because, in the internal intuition, the representation of the external senses constitutes the material wi'h which the mind is occupied ; but because time, in which we place, and which itself antecedes the consciousness of, these representations in experience, and which, as the formal condition of the mode according to which objects are placed in the mind, lies at the foundation of them, contains relations of the successive, the co-existent, and of that which always must be co-existent with succession, the permanent. Now that which, as represent ation, can antecede every exercise of thought (of an object), is intuition ; and when it contain nothing but relations, it is the
? ? ? ? ? MSWEBAL BEMAEKS ON TBANBCEnDETTTAL . ESTHETIC. 41
form of the intuition, which, as it presents us with no icpre- sentation, except in so far as something is placed in the mind, can be nothing else than the mode in which the mind is affected by its own activity, to wit -- its presenting to itself represent ations, consequently the mode in which the mind is affected by itself ; that is, it can be nothing but an . internal sense in respect to its form. Everything that is represented through the medium of sense is so far phsenomenal ; consequently, we must either refuse altogether to admit an internal sense, or the subject, which is the object of that sense, could only be represented by it as phsenomenon, and not as it would judge of itself, if its intuition were pure spontaneous activity, that
were intellectual. The difficulty here lies wholly in the question --How the subject can have an internal intuition of itself? -- but this difficulty common to every theory. The consciousness " of self (apperception) the simple represent ation of the Ego and by means of that representation alone, all the manifold representations in the subject were
? then our internal intuition would be intellectual. This consciousness in man requires an internal perception of the manifold representations which are pre
viously given in the subject and the manner in which these
spontaneously given,
representations are given in the mind without spontaneity, must, on account of this difference (the want of spontaneity), oe called sensibility. If the faculty of self-consciousness to apprehend what lies in the mind, must affect that, and can in this way alone produce an intuition of self. But the form of this intuition, which lies in the original constitution of the mind, determines, in the representation of time, the manner in which the manifold representations are to combine themselves in the mind since the subject intuites itself, not as would represent itself immediately and spontaneously, but according to the manner in which the mind internally affected, conse quently, as appears, and not as is.
III. When we say that the intuition of external objects, and also the self-intuition of the subject, represent both, objects and subject, in space and time, as they affect our senses, that
as they appear, -- this by no means equivalent to asserting that these objects are mere illusory appearances. For when we speak of things as phsenomena, the objects, nay, even the properties which we ascribe to them, are looked upon as really
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? 42 TRWrsCENDENTAL JESTJIKTIC.
given ; only that, in bo far as this or that property depends upon the mode of intuition of the subject, in the relation of the given object to the subject, the object as phenomenon is to be distinguished from the object as a thing in itself. Thus I do not say that bodies seem o* appear to be external to me, or that my soul seems merely to be given in my self-con sciousness, although I maintain that the properties of space and time, in conformrty to which I set both, as the condition of their existence, abide in my mode of intuition, and not in the objects in themselves. It would be my own fault, if out of that which I should reckon as phenomenon, I made mere
? But this will not happen, because of our principle of the ideality of all sensuous intuitions. On the contrary, if we ascribe objective reality to these forms of representation, it becomes impossible to avoid changing every thing into mere appearance. For if we regard space and time as properties, which must be found in objects as things in themselves, as sine quibus non of the possibility of their
existence, and reflect on the absurdities in which we then find ourselves involved, inasmuch as we are compelled to admit the existence of two infinite things, which are nevertheless not substances, nor any thing really inhering in substances, nay, to admit that they are the necessary conditions of the exist ence of all things, and moreover, that they must continue to exist, although all existing things were annihilated, -- we can not blame the good Berkeley for degrading bodies to mere illusory appearances. Nay, even our own existence, which
* The predicates of the phenomenon can he affixed to the ohject it self in relation to our sensuous faculty ; for example, the red colour or the perfume to the rose. But (illusory) appearance never can he attributed as a predicate to an object, for this very reason, that it attributes to this object in itself that which belongs to it only in relation to our sensuous faculty, or to the subject in general, e. g. the two handles which were formerly ascribed to Saturn. That which is never to be found in the ob ject itself, but always in the relation of the uliject to the subject, and which moreover is inseparable from our representation of the object, we
denominate phenomenon. Thus the predicates of space and time are rightly attributed to objects of the senses as st'. ch, and in this there is no illusion. On the contrary, if I ascribe redness to the rose as a thing in itself, or to Saturn bis handles, or extension to all external objects, con sidered as things in themselves, without regarding the determinate relation of these objects to the subject, and without limiting my judgment to that relation, --then, and then only, arises illusion.
illusory appearance. *
? ? ? GBNEBAi MMABKS OK TBiWSCT5nDEirrAil . SSTHETIO.
would in this case depend upon the self-existent reality of
luch a mere nonentity as time, would necessarily be changed with it into mere appearance --an absurdity which no ;ne has
as yet been guilty of. -- --IV. In natural theology, where we think of an object
God which never can be an object of intuition to us, and even to himself can never be an object of sensuous intuition, we carefully avoid attributing to his intuition the conditions or
space and time --and intuition all his cognition must be, and not thought, which always includes limitation. But with what right can we do this if we make them forms of objects as things in themselves, and such moreover, as would con tinue to exist as a priori conditions of the existence of things, even though the things themselves were annihilated ? For as conditions of all existence in general, space and time must be conditions of the existence of the Supreme Being also. But if we do not thus make them objective forms of all things, there is no other way left than to make them sub jective forms of our mode of intuition --external and internal ; which is called sensuous, because it is not primitive, that is, is not such as gives in itself the existence of the object or the intuition (a mode of intuition which, so far as we can judge, can belong only to the Creator), but is dependent on the ex istence of the object, is possible, therefore, only on condition that the representative faculty of the subject is affected by the object.
It moreover, not necessary that we should limit the mode of intuition in space and time to the sensuous faculty of man. It may well be, that all finite thinking beings must neces sarily in this respect agree with man, (though as to this we cannot decide), but sensibility does not on account of this universality cease to be sensibility, for this very reason, that
deduced (intuitu* derivative), and not an original (in tuitu* originariut), consequently not an intellectual intuition; and this intuition, as such, for reasons above mentioned, seems to belong solely to the Supreme Being, but never to being dependent, quoad its existence, as well as its intuition (which its existence determines and limits relatively to given objects). This latter remark, however, must be taken only as an illus tration, and not as any proof of the truth of our testheticW theory.
43
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? 44 TRANSCENDENTAL . ESTHETIC.
? 10. Conclusion of the Transcendental ^Esthetic.
We have now completely before us one part of the solution
of the grand general problem of transcendental philosophy,
namely, the question --llow are synthetical propositions a priori possible '. That is to say, we have shown that we are in possession of pure a priori intuitions, namely, space and time, in which we find, when in a judgment a priori we pass out
the given conception, something which is not dis coverable in that conception, but is certainly found a prion in the intuition which corresponds to the conception, and can be united synthetically with it. But thfc judgments which these pure intuitions enable us to make, never reach farther than to objects of the senses, and are valid only for objects of pos-ible experience.
beyond
? ? ? ? TRANSCENDENTAL DOCTRINE OP ELEMENTS. PART SECOND.
TRANSCENDENTAL LOGIC.
