But here in Book 20, he is summoning a council of the gods, in which he will retract his former prohibition and allow them once again to
interfere
as they please.
Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome_nodrm
Livy says that they streamed out of their houses, even when for- bidden by their husbands to do so, and blocked the streets.
They accosted the men who opposed repeal, bitterly complaining that since better times had returned with the end of the war, the need for sumptuary laws had vanished.
Day after day, the street demonstrations continued, and even grew larger and more vocal as women from the countryside and nearby towns joined in.
Their boldness increased commensurately; they took their arguments
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directly to the leading officeholders of the government. The stage was set for a major public debate, filled with emotion and rancor.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. The Oppian Law was named for the politician who proposed it in 215, the tribune Gaius Oppius.
2. Although the crowds in the streets were both large and noisy (if Livy is to be believed), the formal debate about the fate of the Oppian Law involved only Marcus Porcius Cato (anti-repeal), Lucius Valerius (pro-repeal), and short, unre- corded speeches by the two tribunes who had threatened to veto the repeal.
3. Cato, the chief proponent and spokesman for the Oppian Law, was a formidable force in Roman politics for most of his adult life (he lived into his eighties). To openly oppose him on any issue would require a powerful mixture of fortitude, assertiveness, oratorical skill, and intelligence, and so it must have been a daunting task for someone like a mere tribune to take him on in a public debate. But Lucius Valerius seemed to be up to the task.
Document: Women in Roman Politics
Amid the anxieties of [a recently-ended great war], an incident occurred, trivial to relate, but which, by reason of the passions it aroused, developed into a violent con- tention. Marcus Fundanius and Lucius Valerius, trib- unes of the people, proposed to the [legislative] assembly the abrogation of the Oppian Law . . . [O]ne consul [remained] adamant, Marcus Porcius Cato, who spoke thus in favor of the law whose repeal was being urged.
"If each of us, citizens, had determined to assert his rights and dignity as a husband with respect to his own spouse, we should have less trouble with the sex as a whole. As it is, our liberty, destroyed at home by female violence, even here in the Forum is crushed and trodden underfoot, and because we have not kept them individually under con- trol, we dread them collectively. "
[Cato next argues that the magistrates of the city need to rein in the women, and that the assembly must defeat the repeal movement; for if the women were to win on this issue, it would set a dangerous precedent, and encourage them to take collective action again in the future. ] "For myself, I could not conceal my blushes a while ago, when I had to make my way to the Forum through a crowd of women. " [Cato follows up this condescending comment with a short history lesson--back in the day, women never behaved like this! --and then returns to an earlier point: if
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? angered plebeians once did: See the sidebar.
authority: The Latin word auctoritas, here translated as "authority," con- notes more than simply authority, but also an aura of leadership, pres- tige, and influence that commands respect. No one would doubt Cato's auctoritas, which means that his views on the Oppian Law would be taken very seriously. As Valerius admits, Cato's auctoritas, even if "unexpressed would have had enough of weight. "
Aventine: One of the famous Seven Hills of Rome.
Forum: A word equivalent to the Greek agora, referring to the downtown section of Rome. It is a generic word that referred to the downtown section of any Roman city or town.
Marcus Porcius Cato: Cato (234- 149 BCE; also known as "Cato the Elder" and "Cato the Censor")
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they are allowed to get away with this sort of behavior now, then heaven help us in the future! ]
"If they win in this, what will they not attempt? Review all the laws with which your forefathers restrained their licentiousness and made them subject to their hus- bands. Even with all these bonds, you can scarcely control them. What of this? If you allow them to seize these bonds one by one and wrench themselves free and finally to be placed on a parity with their husbands, do you think that you will be able to endure them? The moment they begin to be your equals, they will be your superiors. "
[Cato next defends the Oppian Law as reasonable and effective; what would be the point of discarding sound legislation? He argues that the law has yet to be passed which will please all of the people, all of the time. He then complains about what he sees as an objectionable and dan- gerous trend in Roman society toward luxury, extrava- gance, and wealth, things which will undermine the values of hard work, self-discipline, and moderation in which he believes so staunchly. He concludes by stating that the Oppian Law should by no means be repealed. Next, the tribunes who promised to veto the repeal effort made short speeches in support of Cato's position, and then Lucius Valerius, one of the tribunes who proposed the repeal, came to the speaker's platform. ]:
"If only private citizens had come forward to support or oppose the measure which we have placed before you, I too, since I judged that enough had been said on each side, should have waited in silence for your ballots. Now, since that most influential man, the consul Marcus Porcius [Cato], has attacked our proposal not only with his author- ity, which unexpressed would have had enough of weight, but also in a long and carefully prepared speech, it is neces- sary to make a brief reply. And yet he used up more words in reproving the [women] than he did in opposing our bill. . . "
[Valerius next asserts that he will defend the legislative initiative rather than defending himself and Marcus Fundanius, whom Cato had accused of instigating the street demonstrations undertaken by the women. He repeats the argument that wartime legislation, like the Oppian Law, often has no relevance during times of peace. He reminds his listeners that the women's collective action is not without precedent, and that there are many notable examples in both distant and recent Roman history of women taking an active role in public life. Furthermore, failure to repeal this law would create an uncomfortable double standard: that Roman men would be permitted to wear multicolored clothing (including purple), but women would not. And then there is the matter of the women of Italian cities allied to Rome; the prohibition against owning or wear- ing gold or jewelry did not apply to them, so how would Roman women feel when they observed their near neighbors enjoying a privilege that was denied to
The Women of Rome Refuse to Back Down
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? was one of the most famous indi- viduals in all of Roman history. He wore many hats: farmer, soldier, politician, orator, author, defender of traditional Roman cus- toms and values. Strict and rough- hewn, he would be remembered by later generations as one of the Romans of the old school, who lived his life by the disciplined codes he constantly preached. One of the traditional values he espoused was the notion that the husband/father was the unques- tioned ruler of the household. (Note the first sentiment that Cato articulates in his speech: that if only the men of Rome had asserted their rights as husbands and kept their wives under control, this whole messy business could have been avoided. ) As one of the consuls in 195 BCE, it would have come as absolutely no surprise to anyone that he stepped forward to defend the Oppian Law, and to sternly reprimand the women who came to demonstrate in favor of its repeal.
Sacred Mount: Mons Sacer in Latin, a country hill about three miles from Rome.
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them? Finally, he makes the interesting argument that repealing the law would actually help to restore paternal control of a private household--a nice rebuttal to Cato's general complaint about the erosion of traditional Roman family val- ues! --because matters of women's clothing, jewelry, and transportation in public could then be decided by individual husbands and fathers, and not by laws or politicians. ]
"They [wives and daughters] prefer to have their finery under your [hus- bands' and fathers'] control and not the law's; you too should keep them in con- trol and guardianship and not in slavery, and should prefer the name of father or husband to that of master. The consul a while ago used words intended to create prejudice when he spoke of female 'sedition' and 'secession. ' For the danger, he tells you, is that they will seize the Sacred Mount or the Aventine, as the angered plebeians once did. In reality, their frail nature must endure whatever you decree. The greater the authority you exercise, the greater the self-restraint with which you should use your power. " [Tr. Evan T. Sage. Livy. (34. 1-5, 7. ) Volume IX. LCL, 1935. Page numbers: 413, 415, 417, 419, 427, 439. ]
AFTERMATH
According to Livy, after the last speech in the debate had been concluded, and it was time for the legislative assembly to begin its formal vote on the measure on the following day, "an even greater number of women appeared in public. " Then, as if about to initiate siege oper- ations, they marched directly to the doors of the two tribunes who had threatened to veto the repeal and did not leave until the two agreed to back off on their obstructive intentions. The voting then took place without incident, and the law was repealed.
? ? ? ? ? ? WE ARE OUT OF HERE!
In the earliest days of the Republic (especially the fifth century BCE), Roman society was plagued by disputes between the ruling upper class--the patricians--and the subservient nonruling class--the plebeians. The patri- cians controlled much of the wealth and all of the political offices in those early days; the plebeians fought against this obvious (obvious to them, at any rate) injustice. The inequities seemed particularly acute given the fact that in military emergencies, when some foreign invader was threatening the city's safety, the plebeians were always the ones called upon to serve as soldiers. Because of their sacrifices for the common good, they desired and demanded political and legal equality with the patricians. The patricians, ever contemptuous of those whom they did not consider to be social equals, resisted.
One of the most effective weapons the plebeians employed in what might be called their civil rights struggle was the secessio, a withdrawal from the city, in which all the plebeians would march out of Rome in a group, often to the Aventine Hill, or perhaps the Sacred Mount. There they would remain, refusing to serve as soldiers or cooperate in any other way with the patrician-led government until they gained concessions of one sort or another. There were five known secessions between 494 and 287 BCE (although some scholars doubt the histori- cal authenticity of the earliest ones).
The possibility that such a radical action might be used by the women must have been pure anathema to politicians like Cato. He apparently thought that by referencing plebeian secessions in his anti-repeal speeches, and capitalizing on the fear such a reference could generate, he might be able to sway enough votes in the legis- lative assembly to prevent the repeal effort from succeeding.
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A similar "group effort" undertaken by women occurred many years later, in 42 BCE, during the time when civil war had broken out after the assassination of Julius Caesar. The cash-strapped triumvirate in charge of the government had decided to impose a war tax on 1,400 of the richest women in the city. These women were enraged over this decree and ulti- mately marched to the Forum to make known their displeasure. They had chosen as their spokesperson Hortensia, the daughter of one of the foremost orators in Roman history, Quintus Hortensius. She made a very persuasive speech in which she pointed out the injus- tice of requiring women to pay a war tax of any amount, arguing that it was unfair for women to pay such a tax when they had no voice generally in the government or in military affairs, and considering that the women did nothing to initiate hostilities in this instance, and had neither share nor say in how the war was conducted. The triumvirs (Mark Antony, Octavian [the future emperor Augustus], and Lepidus) backed off; they reduced the number of women affected by the decree from 1,400 to 400, and they placed a similar tax on all men of wealth. The first-century CE author and orator Quintilian remarked that Hortensia's speech was still being read and studied in his time.
ASK YOURSELF
1. Why do you suppose Livy uses the words "trivial to relate" to describe the contro- versial events surrounding the repeal of the Oppian Law?
2. What do you think were Cato's strongest arguments for retaining the Oppian Law? What were Valerius's strongest arguments for repealing it?
3. In his biography of Cato, Plutarch states that Cato was a kind and considerate hus- band and father who thought it was nothing short of a sacrilege for a man to beat his wife or his children. The biographer also writes that Cato considered it more impor- tant to be a good husband than a great political leader. Given these attitudes, does there seem to be a disconnect between Cato's love and respect for his wife and the perhaps antifemale slant of his speech? Why or why not?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e Oneoftheenduringproblemsformodernhistoriansstudyingancienttexts involves the analysis and interpretation of speeches. In many cases, an ancient historian who recorded a speech was not present when the speech was made; often, he was not even alive at the time. Livy, for example, was born about 135 years after the debate over the Oppian Law, and some modern historians have questioned the accuracy of his accounts of the speeches of Cato and Valerius. Since there is probably no way to know for certain about the reliability of the information in these speeches, how are we to interpret them? Do we discount them entirely? Take them with the proverbial grain of salt? Assume that the general outline of the speeches is accurate, while acknowledging that Livy has not given us verbatim accounts (since the original, complete texts of the speeches from 195 likely were not available to him)? Or is there some other approach we could take?
e Cato expresses great concern, and even trepidation, about these women "taking it to the street" to express their displeasure over the possible defeat of the repeal. He is fearful that if they are not stopped here and now, there will be no limit to their outrageous behavior in the future. As Livy tells us,
The Women of Rome Refuse to Back Down
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the repeal was passed. Did Cato's fears come true? In the subsequent deca-
des and centuries of Roman history, were female uprisings common?
e Catorefersto"allthelawswithwhichyourforefathersrestrainedtheir[i. e. , the women's] licentiousness and made them subject to their husbands. " Unfortunately, he does not cite any specific laws. Research this issue, and see if you can find information about any of these laws. Were they as
restrictive as Cato claims?
e One of the main arguments put forth by Lucius Valerius for the repeal of
the Oppian Law is that laws passed under the duress of wartime conditions are often unneeded once peace has returned. Can you think of any exam- ples of the same situation (i. e. , restrictive wartime legislation, later repealed) in American history, especially during World War II?
Further Information
Bauman, Richard A. Women and Politics in Ancient Rome. New York, 1992.
Pomeroy, Sarah B. Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves: Women in Classical Antiquity.
New York, 1975.
Website
"The Roman Matron of the Late Republic and Early Empire," by Sarah B. Pomeroy: http:// www2. stetson. edu/~psteeves/classes/pomeroy. html
Bibliography for Document
Sage, Evan T. (tr. ). Livy. Volume IX. [LCL. ] London and Cambridge, 1935.
RELIGION
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34. SQUABBLING AMONG THE GODS WAS A MAJOR HEADACHE FOR ZEUS
INTRODUCTION
What percentage of human life is the result of divine intervention, and the plans and will of a god, and what percentage is a consequence of free will, and the choices that humans make? To what degree, if any, are divine beings involved in human events? These are questions that interested the ancient Greeks, and they are questions that still resonate. Homer would prob- ably have come down on the side of "activist" gods, as the document below suggests.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. The document is drawn from Book 20 of Homer's Iliad, his epic poem about the final days of the Trojan War, Greeks against Trojans.
2. Throughout the Iliad, Homer makes it clear that the gods took sides in the war, with a majority favoring the Greeks but some supporting the Trojans. Disputes among the gods over the events of the war were frequent; it was the responsibility of Zeus, king of the gods, to mediate these disputes. Often, Zeus himself was the focus of bitter criticism from the other gods, usually because of his real or perceived bias favoring or opposing the Greeks, or the Trojans, or some of the gods over others.
3. In Book 8 of the Iliad, Zeus had forbidden the gods to engage in direct involvement in the war.
But here in Book 20, he is summoning a council of the gods, in which he will retract his former prohibition and allow them once again to interfere as they please.
Document: Disputatious Greek Gods
and Goddesses
Zeus ordered Themis, from the summit of rugged Olympus, to call the gods to Assembly, and she went the rounds and summoned them to his Palace. Excepting Ocean, not a single River stayed away, nor did any of the Nymphs
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that haunt delightful woods, the sources of streams, and the grassy water-meadows. They all came to the Cloud-compeller's house and sat down in the marble gallery that Hephaestus the great Architect had made for Father Zeus.
When all had foregathered in the Palace, the Earthshaker Poseidon . . . inquired what purpose Zeus might have in mind. "Lord of the Lightning Flash," he said, "why have you ordered the gods to assemble? Are you con- cerned for the Trojans and Achaeans, who at this moment are about to come to grips once more? "
"Lord of the Earthquake," replied Zeus, "you have read my mind aright and know why I have summoned this gath- ering. They do concern me, even in their destruction. Nevertheless, I propose to stay here and seat myself in some Olympian glen from which I can enjoy the spectacle. The rest of you have my permission to join the Trojans and Achaeans, and to give your help to either side as your sym- pathies dictate. " . . . These words from the Son of Cronos unleashed the dogs of war. The immortals at once set out for the scene of action in two hostile groups. Hera and Pallas Athena made their way to the Achaean fleet. So did Poseidon, the Girdler of the World, and Hermes, the Bringer of Luck and the cleverest wonder-worker of them all. Hephaestus followed them, exulting in his enormous strength, for though he limped he was active enough on his slender legs. To the Trojan side went Ares in his flash- ing helmet, Phoebus of the Flowing Hair, Artemis the Archeress, Leto, the River Xanthus, and laughter-loving Aphrodite.
Up to the moment when the gods came down among the men, the Achaeans carried all before them . . . But the scene changed when the Olympians reached the field and Strife the great Battle-maker rose in all her strength. For though Athena raised the war cry . . . she was answered on the other side by Ares, who raged like a black squall and incited the Trojans by the piercing cries he gave, at one moment from the heights of the citadel, and at the next from the banks of Simois, as he ran along the slopes of Callicolone.
Thus the blessed gods threw the two forces at each other's throats and at the same time opened a grievous breach in their own ranks. Up on high the Father of men and gods [i. e. , Zeus] thundered ominously, and down below, Poseidon caused the wide world and the lofty mountain-tops to quake . . . Thus they went to war, god against god. [Tr. E. V. Rieu. Homer: The Iliad. (Iliad, Book 20. ) Penguin Books, 1950. Page numbers: 366, 367, 368. ]
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Achaeans: Homer never refers to the Greeks as "Greeks" in the Iliad. Instead, he uses the more or less interchangeable terms Achaeans, Argives, and Danaans; Achaeans is the most common.
Aphrodite: Goddess of love and marriage.
Ares: The god of war, disliked by the other divinities.
Artemis: Hunter goddess, and twin sister of Apollo.
Callicolone: A word that literally means "beautiful hill. " References to this hill appear only twice in the entire Iliad, and both in Book 20: here and a few lines later. The exact location of Callicolone is unknown.
Cloud-compeller: One of the many sky- and weather-related epithets associated with Zeus.
from which I can enjoy the spectacle:
There has been some scholarly dis- cussion about Zeus's intent here, but the consensus seems to be that he is referring not to the upcoming battle between Greeks and Trojans, but rather to the inevitable squab- bles among the gods and goddesses.
Hephaestus: The lame, limping black- smith god, and the god of fire. Homer often depicts Hephaestus as a skilled builder and artisan. It was Hephaestus who fabricated Achilles's magnificent shield (see above).
Hera and Pallas Athena: Hera was the wife of Zeus and perhaps the most partisan of the pro-Greek divinities. Athena was a warrior goddess and the patron of the city of Athens.
Hermes: The wing-footed messenger of the gods.
Leto: Mother of Artemis and Apollo. Ocean: According to Greek mythol- ogy, Ocean, or Oceanus, was a
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Squabbling among the Gods Was a Major Headache for Zeus
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? great stream of water that sur- rounded the world. In his famous description of Achilles's shield, in Book 18, Homer portrayed Oceanus as encircling the rim of the shield.
Phoebus: A common epithet for the sun-god, Apollo. Gods and god- desses are sometimes (as here) referenced by their epithets instead of their names.
Poseidon: God of the sea and earth- quakes, and the brother of Zeus.
River Xanthus: The name of the river that flows past Troy. Homer says that the name Xanthus is used by the gods but that mortals refer to it as the Scamander. Xanthus is also the name of the god of this river.
Simois: A river near Troy in whose vicinity many battles were fought. The god of this river was also called Simois.
Strife: The goddess Eris, who rolled the famed Golden Apple, inscribed with the phrase "For The Most Beautiful," in among the wedding guests at the marriage of Peleus and Thetis. This sparked the quar- rel among Aphrodite, Athena, and Hera over which of them was the rightful claimant to the apple.
Themis: Daughter of Zeus and a goddess of prophecy.
? ? ? AFTERMATH
The remainder of Book 20 features successive battles between per- haps the Trojans' two best fighters--Aeneas and Hector--and the "best of the Achaeans," the mighty warrior Achilles. The first con- frontation pitted Aeneas against Achilles. Achilles would have defeated him, had it not been for the god Poseidon, who feared for Aeneas's safety and, at a critical moment, whisked him away from the battlefield.
Hector next took on the fierce Achilles. Hector's first move was to cast a spear at his adversary, but once more, divine intervention came into play; the goddess Athena blew on the spear in its flight and caused it to boomerang back to Hector and land at his feet! Achilles then took the offensive and charged at Hector, spear in hand, but this time, Apollo was the Olympian who blunted the attack, by hiding Hector in a mist. Four times, Achilles unsuccess- fully attempted to dispatch his Trojan opponent; each time, Apollo's mist prevented a direct hit.
As Book 20 ends, Achilles contented himself by embarking on a violent onrush against the Trojans whom he could see, and killed many of them.
ASK YOURSELF
1. Homer writes that nearly all the gods and goddesses participated in the council. Which ones does he name? Which of these sided with the Greeks? Which with the Trojans?
2. In the council, the first one to speak to Zeus was Poseidon. Is there any significance to this? Many powerful gods and goddesses attended--all of them, in fact--so why did Poseidon have the distinction of speaking first?
3. Note the following epithets: Girdler of the World (for Poseidon); Bringer of Luck (Hermes); Flashing Helmet (Ares); Flowing Hair (Phoebus [Apollo]); Archeress (Artemis); Laughter-loving (Aphrodite). In what way is each epithet appropriate to the god or goddess to whom it applies?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e WhydoyousupposeOceanuswastheonlydeity,outofallofthegodsand goddesses, not to attend the council?
e Homer does not explain, at least in Book 20, why some gods favor the Greeks and others the Trojans. Sometimes, the reason is clear. Aphrodite, for example, is the mother of Aeneas, a Trojan warrior, so it comes as no surprise that she sides with the Trojans. But what about the others? Is there any way to discover the reasons for their loyalties?
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e What do you make of the idea that even the rivers had gods specifically assigned to them (e. g. , Xanthus and Simois)? What seems to be the primary role(s) of these river gods? It will probably be necessary to read the remain- der of Book 20 in order to formulate an answer to these questions.
e Why do you suppose Zeus is content to simply sit back and "enjoy the spectacle" of battle, without taking part?
e The god Hephaestus has kind of a checkered reputation in Greek mytho- logy. He is certainly respected for his blacksmithing and metal-working skills, and yet, he is often the butt of many a joke, a kind of buffoonish character. How does Homer delineate him in the Iliad, both in the docu- ment and elsewhere, especially in Book 18?
Further Information
Edwards, Mark W. The Iliad: A Commentary. Volume V: Books 17-20. Cambridge, 1991. (A heavy-duty commentary, but worth looking at. )
Fagles, Robert (tr. ). Homer: The Iliad. New York, 1990. (This translation offers a lengthy and informative introduction. )
Wace, A. J. B. and F. H. Stubbings. A Companion to Homer. London, 1962. Website
Summary of Iliad Book 20. http://ancienthistory. about. com/od/trojanwarinlit/a/ IliadXX. htm
Bibliography for Document
Rieu, E. V. (tr. ). Homer: The Iliad. Baltimore, 1950.
35. KING CROESUS CONSULTS--AND BRIBES? --THE DELPHIC ORACLE
INTRODUCTION
Oracles were always an important part of Greek (and Roman) religion. The word "oracle" is related to the Latin word for "mouth" or "speech," and those associations capture the essence of what an oracle was: a god's reply to a question posed by a believer. Oracular shrines, hous- ing priests or priestesses who would assist in the relaying of the divine response to mortal ears, were common throughout the Greco-Roman world and much referenced in ancient literature. The most famous of these oracular shrines was undoubtedly the one located in the remote mountain town of Delphi, in Greece. The Delphic Oracle, sacred to the god Apollo, attracted pilgrims from all over the ancient world over the course of many centuries. The first document in this chapter provides an account of one of these pilgrimages.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. The Greek historian Herodotus (490-425 BCE) is our source for this document.
2. Croesus, the sixth-century BCE proverbially wealthy ruler of the kingdom of Lydia, in Asia Minor, had a problem. His land was facing an onslaught led by the powerful king of the Persians, Cyrus the Great, and Croesus was not quite certain about how to combat the threat. So he sent messengers to the Oracle at Delphi and to five other Greek oracles as well: "to Abae in Phocis, to Dodona, to the oracles of Amphiaraus and Trophonius, and to Branchidae," according to Herodotus, as well
as to the Libyan oracle of Ammon, hoping for help and information.
3. The Delphic Oracle had something of an international flavor; not only Greeks, but
also other peoples, consulted its priestesses for help and advice.
Document: An Oracular Consultation
Cyrus had destroyed the empire of Astyages, and the power of Persia was steadily increasing. This gave Croesus food for thought, and he wondered if he might be able to check Persian expansion before it had gone too far. [Next comes the account of the oracles he consulted, as described above in "Keep in Mind as
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You Read. "] His object was to test the knowledge of the oracles, so that if they should prove to be in possession of the truth he might send a second time and ask if he should undertake a campaign against Persia.
The Lydians whom Croesus sent to make the test were given the following orders: on the hundredth day, reckoning from the day on which they left Sardis, they were to consult the oracles, and inquire what Croesus . .
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directly to the leading officeholders of the government. The stage was set for a major public debate, filled with emotion and rancor.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. The Oppian Law was named for the politician who proposed it in 215, the tribune Gaius Oppius.
2. Although the crowds in the streets were both large and noisy (if Livy is to be believed), the formal debate about the fate of the Oppian Law involved only Marcus Porcius Cato (anti-repeal), Lucius Valerius (pro-repeal), and short, unre- corded speeches by the two tribunes who had threatened to veto the repeal.
3. Cato, the chief proponent and spokesman for the Oppian Law, was a formidable force in Roman politics for most of his adult life (he lived into his eighties). To openly oppose him on any issue would require a powerful mixture of fortitude, assertiveness, oratorical skill, and intelligence, and so it must have been a daunting task for someone like a mere tribune to take him on in a public debate. But Lucius Valerius seemed to be up to the task.
Document: Women in Roman Politics
Amid the anxieties of [a recently-ended great war], an incident occurred, trivial to relate, but which, by reason of the passions it aroused, developed into a violent con- tention. Marcus Fundanius and Lucius Valerius, trib- unes of the people, proposed to the [legislative] assembly the abrogation of the Oppian Law . . . [O]ne consul [remained] adamant, Marcus Porcius Cato, who spoke thus in favor of the law whose repeal was being urged.
"If each of us, citizens, had determined to assert his rights and dignity as a husband with respect to his own spouse, we should have less trouble with the sex as a whole. As it is, our liberty, destroyed at home by female violence, even here in the Forum is crushed and trodden underfoot, and because we have not kept them individually under con- trol, we dread them collectively. "
[Cato next argues that the magistrates of the city need to rein in the women, and that the assembly must defeat the repeal movement; for if the women were to win on this issue, it would set a dangerous precedent, and encourage them to take collective action again in the future. ] "For myself, I could not conceal my blushes a while ago, when I had to make my way to the Forum through a crowd of women. " [Cato follows up this condescending comment with a short history lesson--back in the day, women never behaved like this! --and then returns to an earlier point: if
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? angered plebeians once did: See the sidebar.
authority: The Latin word auctoritas, here translated as "authority," con- notes more than simply authority, but also an aura of leadership, pres- tige, and influence that commands respect. No one would doubt Cato's auctoritas, which means that his views on the Oppian Law would be taken very seriously. As Valerius admits, Cato's auctoritas, even if "unexpressed would have had enough of weight. "
Aventine: One of the famous Seven Hills of Rome.
Forum: A word equivalent to the Greek agora, referring to the downtown section of Rome. It is a generic word that referred to the downtown section of any Roman city or town.
Marcus Porcius Cato: Cato (234- 149 BCE; also known as "Cato the Elder" and "Cato the Censor")
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they are allowed to get away with this sort of behavior now, then heaven help us in the future! ]
"If they win in this, what will they not attempt? Review all the laws with which your forefathers restrained their licentiousness and made them subject to their hus- bands. Even with all these bonds, you can scarcely control them. What of this? If you allow them to seize these bonds one by one and wrench themselves free and finally to be placed on a parity with their husbands, do you think that you will be able to endure them? The moment they begin to be your equals, they will be your superiors. "
[Cato next defends the Oppian Law as reasonable and effective; what would be the point of discarding sound legislation? He argues that the law has yet to be passed which will please all of the people, all of the time. He then complains about what he sees as an objectionable and dan- gerous trend in Roman society toward luxury, extrava- gance, and wealth, things which will undermine the values of hard work, self-discipline, and moderation in which he believes so staunchly. He concludes by stating that the Oppian Law should by no means be repealed. Next, the tribunes who promised to veto the repeal effort made short speeches in support of Cato's position, and then Lucius Valerius, one of the tribunes who proposed the repeal, came to the speaker's platform. ]:
"If only private citizens had come forward to support or oppose the measure which we have placed before you, I too, since I judged that enough had been said on each side, should have waited in silence for your ballots. Now, since that most influential man, the consul Marcus Porcius [Cato], has attacked our proposal not only with his author- ity, which unexpressed would have had enough of weight, but also in a long and carefully prepared speech, it is neces- sary to make a brief reply. And yet he used up more words in reproving the [women] than he did in opposing our bill. . . "
[Valerius next asserts that he will defend the legislative initiative rather than defending himself and Marcus Fundanius, whom Cato had accused of instigating the street demonstrations undertaken by the women. He repeats the argument that wartime legislation, like the Oppian Law, often has no relevance during times of peace. He reminds his listeners that the women's collective action is not without precedent, and that there are many notable examples in both distant and recent Roman history of women taking an active role in public life. Furthermore, failure to repeal this law would create an uncomfortable double standard: that Roman men would be permitted to wear multicolored clothing (including purple), but women would not. And then there is the matter of the women of Italian cities allied to Rome; the prohibition against owning or wear- ing gold or jewelry did not apply to them, so how would Roman women feel when they observed their near neighbors enjoying a privilege that was denied to
The Women of Rome Refuse to Back Down
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? was one of the most famous indi- viduals in all of Roman history. He wore many hats: farmer, soldier, politician, orator, author, defender of traditional Roman cus- toms and values. Strict and rough- hewn, he would be remembered by later generations as one of the Romans of the old school, who lived his life by the disciplined codes he constantly preached. One of the traditional values he espoused was the notion that the husband/father was the unques- tioned ruler of the household. (Note the first sentiment that Cato articulates in his speech: that if only the men of Rome had asserted their rights as husbands and kept their wives under control, this whole messy business could have been avoided. ) As one of the consuls in 195 BCE, it would have come as absolutely no surprise to anyone that he stepped forward to defend the Oppian Law, and to sternly reprimand the women who came to demonstrate in favor of its repeal.
Sacred Mount: Mons Sacer in Latin, a country hill about three miles from Rome.
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them? Finally, he makes the interesting argument that repealing the law would actually help to restore paternal control of a private household--a nice rebuttal to Cato's general complaint about the erosion of traditional Roman family val- ues! --because matters of women's clothing, jewelry, and transportation in public could then be decided by individual husbands and fathers, and not by laws or politicians. ]
"They [wives and daughters] prefer to have their finery under your [hus- bands' and fathers'] control and not the law's; you too should keep them in con- trol and guardianship and not in slavery, and should prefer the name of father or husband to that of master. The consul a while ago used words intended to create prejudice when he spoke of female 'sedition' and 'secession. ' For the danger, he tells you, is that they will seize the Sacred Mount or the Aventine, as the angered plebeians once did. In reality, their frail nature must endure whatever you decree. The greater the authority you exercise, the greater the self-restraint with which you should use your power. " [Tr. Evan T. Sage. Livy. (34. 1-5, 7. ) Volume IX. LCL, 1935. Page numbers: 413, 415, 417, 419, 427, 439. ]
AFTERMATH
According to Livy, after the last speech in the debate had been concluded, and it was time for the legislative assembly to begin its formal vote on the measure on the following day, "an even greater number of women appeared in public. " Then, as if about to initiate siege oper- ations, they marched directly to the doors of the two tribunes who had threatened to veto the repeal and did not leave until the two agreed to back off on their obstructive intentions. The voting then took place without incident, and the law was repealed.
? ? ? ? ? ? WE ARE OUT OF HERE!
In the earliest days of the Republic (especially the fifth century BCE), Roman society was plagued by disputes between the ruling upper class--the patricians--and the subservient nonruling class--the plebeians. The patri- cians controlled much of the wealth and all of the political offices in those early days; the plebeians fought against this obvious (obvious to them, at any rate) injustice. The inequities seemed particularly acute given the fact that in military emergencies, when some foreign invader was threatening the city's safety, the plebeians were always the ones called upon to serve as soldiers. Because of their sacrifices for the common good, they desired and demanded political and legal equality with the patricians. The patricians, ever contemptuous of those whom they did not consider to be social equals, resisted.
One of the most effective weapons the plebeians employed in what might be called their civil rights struggle was the secessio, a withdrawal from the city, in which all the plebeians would march out of Rome in a group, often to the Aventine Hill, or perhaps the Sacred Mount. There they would remain, refusing to serve as soldiers or cooperate in any other way with the patrician-led government until they gained concessions of one sort or another. There were five known secessions between 494 and 287 BCE (although some scholars doubt the histori- cal authenticity of the earliest ones).
The possibility that such a radical action might be used by the women must have been pure anathema to politicians like Cato. He apparently thought that by referencing plebeian secessions in his anti-repeal speeches, and capitalizing on the fear such a reference could generate, he might be able to sway enough votes in the legis- lative assembly to prevent the repeal effort from succeeding.
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A similar "group effort" undertaken by women occurred many years later, in 42 BCE, during the time when civil war had broken out after the assassination of Julius Caesar. The cash-strapped triumvirate in charge of the government had decided to impose a war tax on 1,400 of the richest women in the city. These women were enraged over this decree and ulti- mately marched to the Forum to make known their displeasure. They had chosen as their spokesperson Hortensia, the daughter of one of the foremost orators in Roman history, Quintus Hortensius. She made a very persuasive speech in which she pointed out the injus- tice of requiring women to pay a war tax of any amount, arguing that it was unfair for women to pay such a tax when they had no voice generally in the government or in military affairs, and considering that the women did nothing to initiate hostilities in this instance, and had neither share nor say in how the war was conducted. The triumvirs (Mark Antony, Octavian [the future emperor Augustus], and Lepidus) backed off; they reduced the number of women affected by the decree from 1,400 to 400, and they placed a similar tax on all men of wealth. The first-century CE author and orator Quintilian remarked that Hortensia's speech was still being read and studied in his time.
ASK YOURSELF
1. Why do you suppose Livy uses the words "trivial to relate" to describe the contro- versial events surrounding the repeal of the Oppian Law?
2. What do you think were Cato's strongest arguments for retaining the Oppian Law? What were Valerius's strongest arguments for repealing it?
3. In his biography of Cato, Plutarch states that Cato was a kind and considerate hus- band and father who thought it was nothing short of a sacrilege for a man to beat his wife or his children. The biographer also writes that Cato considered it more impor- tant to be a good husband than a great political leader. Given these attitudes, does there seem to be a disconnect between Cato's love and respect for his wife and the perhaps antifemale slant of his speech? Why or why not?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e Oneoftheenduringproblemsformodernhistoriansstudyingancienttexts involves the analysis and interpretation of speeches. In many cases, an ancient historian who recorded a speech was not present when the speech was made; often, he was not even alive at the time. Livy, for example, was born about 135 years after the debate over the Oppian Law, and some modern historians have questioned the accuracy of his accounts of the speeches of Cato and Valerius. Since there is probably no way to know for certain about the reliability of the information in these speeches, how are we to interpret them? Do we discount them entirely? Take them with the proverbial grain of salt? Assume that the general outline of the speeches is accurate, while acknowledging that Livy has not given us verbatim accounts (since the original, complete texts of the speeches from 195 likely were not available to him)? Or is there some other approach we could take?
e Cato expresses great concern, and even trepidation, about these women "taking it to the street" to express their displeasure over the possible defeat of the repeal. He is fearful that if they are not stopped here and now, there will be no limit to their outrageous behavior in the future. As Livy tells us,
The Women of Rome Refuse to Back Down
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the repeal was passed. Did Cato's fears come true? In the subsequent deca-
des and centuries of Roman history, were female uprisings common?
e Catorefersto"allthelawswithwhichyourforefathersrestrainedtheir[i. e. , the women's] licentiousness and made them subject to their husbands. " Unfortunately, he does not cite any specific laws. Research this issue, and see if you can find information about any of these laws. Were they as
restrictive as Cato claims?
e One of the main arguments put forth by Lucius Valerius for the repeal of
the Oppian Law is that laws passed under the duress of wartime conditions are often unneeded once peace has returned. Can you think of any exam- ples of the same situation (i. e. , restrictive wartime legislation, later repealed) in American history, especially during World War II?
Further Information
Bauman, Richard A. Women and Politics in Ancient Rome. New York, 1992.
Pomeroy, Sarah B. Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves: Women in Classical Antiquity.
New York, 1975.
Website
"The Roman Matron of the Late Republic and Early Empire," by Sarah B. Pomeroy: http:// www2. stetson. edu/~psteeves/classes/pomeroy. html
Bibliography for Document
Sage, Evan T. (tr. ). Livy. Volume IX. [LCL. ] London and Cambridge, 1935.
RELIGION
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34. SQUABBLING AMONG THE GODS WAS A MAJOR HEADACHE FOR ZEUS
INTRODUCTION
What percentage of human life is the result of divine intervention, and the plans and will of a god, and what percentage is a consequence of free will, and the choices that humans make? To what degree, if any, are divine beings involved in human events? These are questions that interested the ancient Greeks, and they are questions that still resonate. Homer would prob- ably have come down on the side of "activist" gods, as the document below suggests.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. The document is drawn from Book 20 of Homer's Iliad, his epic poem about the final days of the Trojan War, Greeks against Trojans.
2. Throughout the Iliad, Homer makes it clear that the gods took sides in the war, with a majority favoring the Greeks but some supporting the Trojans. Disputes among the gods over the events of the war were frequent; it was the responsibility of Zeus, king of the gods, to mediate these disputes. Often, Zeus himself was the focus of bitter criticism from the other gods, usually because of his real or perceived bias favoring or opposing the Greeks, or the Trojans, or some of the gods over others.
3. In Book 8 of the Iliad, Zeus had forbidden the gods to engage in direct involvement in the war.
But here in Book 20, he is summoning a council of the gods, in which he will retract his former prohibition and allow them once again to interfere as they please.
Document: Disputatious Greek Gods
and Goddesses
Zeus ordered Themis, from the summit of rugged Olympus, to call the gods to Assembly, and she went the rounds and summoned them to his Palace. Excepting Ocean, not a single River stayed away, nor did any of the Nymphs
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that haunt delightful woods, the sources of streams, and the grassy water-meadows. They all came to the Cloud-compeller's house and sat down in the marble gallery that Hephaestus the great Architect had made for Father Zeus.
When all had foregathered in the Palace, the Earthshaker Poseidon . . . inquired what purpose Zeus might have in mind. "Lord of the Lightning Flash," he said, "why have you ordered the gods to assemble? Are you con- cerned for the Trojans and Achaeans, who at this moment are about to come to grips once more? "
"Lord of the Earthquake," replied Zeus, "you have read my mind aright and know why I have summoned this gath- ering. They do concern me, even in their destruction. Nevertheless, I propose to stay here and seat myself in some Olympian glen from which I can enjoy the spectacle. The rest of you have my permission to join the Trojans and Achaeans, and to give your help to either side as your sym- pathies dictate. " . . . These words from the Son of Cronos unleashed the dogs of war. The immortals at once set out for the scene of action in two hostile groups. Hera and Pallas Athena made their way to the Achaean fleet. So did Poseidon, the Girdler of the World, and Hermes, the Bringer of Luck and the cleverest wonder-worker of them all. Hephaestus followed them, exulting in his enormous strength, for though he limped he was active enough on his slender legs. To the Trojan side went Ares in his flash- ing helmet, Phoebus of the Flowing Hair, Artemis the Archeress, Leto, the River Xanthus, and laughter-loving Aphrodite.
Up to the moment when the gods came down among the men, the Achaeans carried all before them . . . But the scene changed when the Olympians reached the field and Strife the great Battle-maker rose in all her strength. For though Athena raised the war cry . . . she was answered on the other side by Ares, who raged like a black squall and incited the Trojans by the piercing cries he gave, at one moment from the heights of the citadel, and at the next from the banks of Simois, as he ran along the slopes of Callicolone.
Thus the blessed gods threw the two forces at each other's throats and at the same time opened a grievous breach in their own ranks. Up on high the Father of men and gods [i. e. , Zeus] thundered ominously, and down below, Poseidon caused the wide world and the lofty mountain-tops to quake . . . Thus they went to war, god against god. [Tr. E. V. Rieu. Homer: The Iliad. (Iliad, Book 20. ) Penguin Books, 1950. Page numbers: 366, 367, 368. ]
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Achaeans: Homer never refers to the Greeks as "Greeks" in the Iliad. Instead, he uses the more or less interchangeable terms Achaeans, Argives, and Danaans; Achaeans is the most common.
Aphrodite: Goddess of love and marriage.
Ares: The god of war, disliked by the other divinities.
Artemis: Hunter goddess, and twin sister of Apollo.
Callicolone: A word that literally means "beautiful hill. " References to this hill appear only twice in the entire Iliad, and both in Book 20: here and a few lines later. The exact location of Callicolone is unknown.
Cloud-compeller: One of the many sky- and weather-related epithets associated with Zeus.
from which I can enjoy the spectacle:
There has been some scholarly dis- cussion about Zeus's intent here, but the consensus seems to be that he is referring not to the upcoming battle between Greeks and Trojans, but rather to the inevitable squab- bles among the gods and goddesses.
Hephaestus: The lame, limping black- smith god, and the god of fire. Homer often depicts Hephaestus as a skilled builder and artisan. It was Hephaestus who fabricated Achilles's magnificent shield (see above).
Hera and Pallas Athena: Hera was the wife of Zeus and perhaps the most partisan of the pro-Greek divinities. Athena was a warrior goddess and the patron of the city of Athens.
Hermes: The wing-footed messenger of the gods.
Leto: Mother of Artemis and Apollo. Ocean: According to Greek mythol- ogy, Ocean, or Oceanus, was a
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Squabbling among the Gods Was a Major Headache for Zeus
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? great stream of water that sur- rounded the world. In his famous description of Achilles's shield, in Book 18, Homer portrayed Oceanus as encircling the rim of the shield.
Phoebus: A common epithet for the sun-god, Apollo. Gods and god- desses are sometimes (as here) referenced by their epithets instead of their names.
Poseidon: God of the sea and earth- quakes, and the brother of Zeus.
River Xanthus: The name of the river that flows past Troy. Homer says that the name Xanthus is used by the gods but that mortals refer to it as the Scamander. Xanthus is also the name of the god of this river.
Simois: A river near Troy in whose vicinity many battles were fought. The god of this river was also called Simois.
Strife: The goddess Eris, who rolled the famed Golden Apple, inscribed with the phrase "For The Most Beautiful," in among the wedding guests at the marriage of Peleus and Thetis. This sparked the quar- rel among Aphrodite, Athena, and Hera over which of them was the rightful claimant to the apple.
Themis: Daughter of Zeus and a goddess of prophecy.
? ? ? AFTERMATH
The remainder of Book 20 features successive battles between per- haps the Trojans' two best fighters--Aeneas and Hector--and the "best of the Achaeans," the mighty warrior Achilles. The first con- frontation pitted Aeneas against Achilles. Achilles would have defeated him, had it not been for the god Poseidon, who feared for Aeneas's safety and, at a critical moment, whisked him away from the battlefield.
Hector next took on the fierce Achilles. Hector's first move was to cast a spear at his adversary, but once more, divine intervention came into play; the goddess Athena blew on the spear in its flight and caused it to boomerang back to Hector and land at his feet! Achilles then took the offensive and charged at Hector, spear in hand, but this time, Apollo was the Olympian who blunted the attack, by hiding Hector in a mist. Four times, Achilles unsuccess- fully attempted to dispatch his Trojan opponent; each time, Apollo's mist prevented a direct hit.
As Book 20 ends, Achilles contented himself by embarking on a violent onrush against the Trojans whom he could see, and killed many of them.
ASK YOURSELF
1. Homer writes that nearly all the gods and goddesses participated in the council. Which ones does he name? Which of these sided with the Greeks? Which with the Trojans?
2. In the council, the first one to speak to Zeus was Poseidon. Is there any significance to this? Many powerful gods and goddesses attended--all of them, in fact--so why did Poseidon have the distinction of speaking first?
3. Note the following epithets: Girdler of the World (for Poseidon); Bringer of Luck (Hermes); Flashing Helmet (Ares); Flowing Hair (Phoebus [Apollo]); Archeress (Artemis); Laughter-loving (Aphrodite). In what way is each epithet appropriate to the god or goddess to whom it applies?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e WhydoyousupposeOceanuswastheonlydeity,outofallofthegodsand goddesses, not to attend the council?
e Homer does not explain, at least in Book 20, why some gods favor the Greeks and others the Trojans. Sometimes, the reason is clear. Aphrodite, for example, is the mother of Aeneas, a Trojan warrior, so it comes as no surprise that she sides with the Trojans. But what about the others? Is there any way to discover the reasons for their loyalties?
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e What do you make of the idea that even the rivers had gods specifically assigned to them (e. g. , Xanthus and Simois)? What seems to be the primary role(s) of these river gods? It will probably be necessary to read the remain- der of Book 20 in order to formulate an answer to these questions.
e Why do you suppose Zeus is content to simply sit back and "enjoy the spectacle" of battle, without taking part?
e The god Hephaestus has kind of a checkered reputation in Greek mytho- logy. He is certainly respected for his blacksmithing and metal-working skills, and yet, he is often the butt of many a joke, a kind of buffoonish character. How does Homer delineate him in the Iliad, both in the docu- ment and elsewhere, especially in Book 18?
Further Information
Edwards, Mark W. The Iliad: A Commentary. Volume V: Books 17-20. Cambridge, 1991. (A heavy-duty commentary, but worth looking at. )
Fagles, Robert (tr. ). Homer: The Iliad. New York, 1990. (This translation offers a lengthy and informative introduction. )
Wace, A. J. B. and F. H. Stubbings. A Companion to Homer. London, 1962. Website
Summary of Iliad Book 20. http://ancienthistory. about. com/od/trojanwarinlit/a/ IliadXX. htm
Bibliography for Document
Rieu, E. V. (tr. ). Homer: The Iliad. Baltimore, 1950.
35. KING CROESUS CONSULTS--AND BRIBES? --THE DELPHIC ORACLE
INTRODUCTION
Oracles were always an important part of Greek (and Roman) religion. The word "oracle" is related to the Latin word for "mouth" or "speech," and those associations capture the essence of what an oracle was: a god's reply to a question posed by a believer. Oracular shrines, hous- ing priests or priestesses who would assist in the relaying of the divine response to mortal ears, were common throughout the Greco-Roman world and much referenced in ancient literature. The most famous of these oracular shrines was undoubtedly the one located in the remote mountain town of Delphi, in Greece. The Delphic Oracle, sacred to the god Apollo, attracted pilgrims from all over the ancient world over the course of many centuries. The first document in this chapter provides an account of one of these pilgrimages.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. The Greek historian Herodotus (490-425 BCE) is our source for this document.
2. Croesus, the sixth-century BCE proverbially wealthy ruler of the kingdom of Lydia, in Asia Minor, had a problem. His land was facing an onslaught led by the powerful king of the Persians, Cyrus the Great, and Croesus was not quite certain about how to combat the threat. So he sent messengers to the Oracle at Delphi and to five other Greek oracles as well: "to Abae in Phocis, to Dodona, to the oracles of Amphiaraus and Trophonius, and to Branchidae," according to Herodotus, as well
as to the Libyan oracle of Ammon, hoping for help and information.
3. The Delphic Oracle had something of an international flavor; not only Greeks, but
also other peoples, consulted its priestesses for help and advice.
Document: An Oracular Consultation
Cyrus had destroyed the empire of Astyages, and the power of Persia was steadily increasing. This gave Croesus food for thought, and he wondered if he might be able to check Persian expansion before it had gone too far. [Next comes the account of the oracles he consulted, as described above in "Keep in Mind as
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You Read. "] His object was to test the knowledge of the oracles, so that if they should prove to be in possession of the truth he might send a second time and ask if he should undertake a campaign against Persia.
The Lydians whom Croesus sent to make the test were given the following orders: on the hundredth day, reckoning from the day on which they left Sardis, they were to consult the oracles, and inquire what Croesus . .
