RomuluB surrounded
it with a ditch and rampart, and it was enclosed by
Walls by the succeeding kings.
it with a ditch and rampart, and it was enclosed by
Walls by the succeeding kings.
Charles - 1867 - Classical Dictionary
)
For, in Egypt, their mother was not Leda, but Neme-
sis, one of tho appellations of Athyr, or the primitive
night. The amour of Jupiter also has here a fantastic
character, which is sensibly weakened in the Grecian
fable. Not only docs Jupiter change himself into a
swan, but he likewise directs Venus to pursue him un-
der the form of an eagle, and he takes refuge in the
bosom of Nemesis, whom slumber seizes, and who
offers an easy conquest to her divine lover. Hermes
thereupon conveys the egg to Sparta, and Leda incu-
bates it. The Greeks, rejecting altogether the cos-
mogonical personage Nemesis, made Leda the real
mother, and the ancient Cabiri became thus a compo-
nent part of the national mythology. The Ionian
school, however, faithful to the principles of a sacer-
dotal philosophy, continued to call them the offspring
of the eternal fire, Vulcan, and of the nymph Cabira,
one of the Oceanides, which recalls the generation by
fire and water. When astronomy was introduced into
the religion of Greece, they became the star of the
morning and the star of evening. It is possible to see
? ? an allusion to this idea in Homer. [11. , 3, 243 --Od ,
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? CAD
CADMUS.
cus, who, according to one version of tho fable, be-
came enamoured of Hercules, and showed the hero
where her brother had concealed his oxen. For this
she was deified. She had a chapel (sacellum) at Rome,
with a Bacred fire continually burning in it, and vestal
virgins to perform heT rites. (Lactant. , 1, 20, p. 110,
cd. Gall. --Sen. ad Virg. , JEn. , 8, 190. )
Cacus, a famous robber, son of Vulcan, represented
in fable as of gigantic size, and vomiting forth smoke
and fire. He inhabited the gloomy recesses of the
forest on Mount Aventine, and a deep cave there was
his dwelling-place, the entrance to which was hung
around with human heads and limbs. He plundered
and kept in continual alarm the neighbouring country;
and, when Hercules returned from the conquest of
Geryon, he stole some of his cows, and dragged them
backward into his cave to prevent discovery. Her-
cules, after having enjoyed the hospitality of Evander,
was preparing to depart, without being aware of the
theft; but his oxen, having lowed, were answered by
the cowb in the cave of Cacus, and the hero thus be-
came acquainted with the loss he had sustained. He
ran to the place, attacked Cacus, and strangled him in
his arms, though vomiting fire and smoke. Hercules
erected an altar to Jupiter, in commemoration of his
victory; and an annual festival was instituted by the
inhabitants in honour of the hero who had delivered
them from such a pest. (Ovid, Fast. , 1, 551. -- Virg. ,
JEn. , 8, 194. --Properl. , 4, 10. --Juv. , 5, 125. --Liv. ,
1, 7. --Dionys. Hal. , 1, 9. ) The allegorical charac-
ter of the fable here related is sufficiently indicated
by the names of the parties. Thus Evander, who re-
ceived Hercules on his return from the conquest of
Geryon, and Cacus (in Greek Evavdpoe and Kokoc),
seem to be nothing more than appellations intended
to characterize the individuals to whom they are ap-
plied: Evander, therefore, the leader of the Pelasgi,
the head and chief of the division of that great sacer-
dotal caBte which passed into Italy, and, consequently,
to apply a modern term, the high-priest of the order,
is the Good Man (evavdpoe), and Cacus, his opponent,
is the Bad Man (kokoc). Hercules destroys Cacus,
that is, the solar worship, or some other Oriental sys-
tem of belief professed by the Pelasgi, was made to
supplant some rude and probably cruel form of wor-
ship; and as Evander was high-priest of the one, so
Cacus, whoever he was, may be regarded as the head
of the other. (Compare Rittcr, Vorhallc, p. 343, scqq. )
CacOthis, a river in India; according to Mannert,
the Gumty, which falls into the Ganges, to the north
of Benares. (Geogr. , vol. 5, pt. 1, p. 93. )
Cadmea, the citadel of Thebes, fabled to have been
built by Cadmus. It represents very evidently the
early city, built upon a height, around which the later
city of Thebes was subsequently erected, and then the
former answered for a citadel, as in the case of the
Acropolis of Athens. Of the walls of the Cadmca, a
few fragments remain, which are regularly constructed.
These were probably erected by the Athenians, when
Cassander restored the city of Thebes. (DodieeU's
Travels, vol. l,p. 264. )
Cadhkis, an ancient name of Boeotia.
Cadmcs, I. son of Agcnor, king of Phoenicia, by
Tclcphassa, was sent by his father, along with his
brothers Phoenix and Cilix, in quest of their sister Eu-
ropa, who had been carried off by Jupiter, and they
were ordered not to return until they had found her.
? ? The brothers were accompanied by their mother, and
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? CAD
Phoenicians should have selected, as the site of their
Tery earliest foreign settlement, a place situated in a
rich fertile valley, away from the sea, and only adapted
fjr agriculture, without mines, or any of those objects
of trade which might tempt a people of that character.
It is aiso strange that the descendants of these colo-
nists should have bo entirely put oil" the Phoenician
character, as to become noted in after ages for their
dislike of trade of any kind. We may, therefore, now
venture to dismiss this theory, and seek a Grecian
origin for Cadmus. (Mullcr, Orckomcnus, p. 113,
seq. )--Homer and Hesiod call the people of Thebes
Cadoieans or Cadraeonians, and the country the Cad-
mean land; the citadel was at all times named the
Cadmea. Cadmus is therefore apparently (like Pelas-
gus, Dorus, Ion, Thessalus, and so many others) mere-
ly a personification of the name of the people. Again,
Cadmilos or Cadmus was a name of Mercury in the
mysteries of Samothrace, which were instituted by the
Tyrrhenian Pclasgi, who, at the time of the Dorian
migration, being driven from Bceotia, settled on the
islands in the north of the jEgean. The name Cad-
mus, moreover, occurs only at Thebes and Samo-
thrace ; Harmonia also was an object of worship in this
last place, and the Cabiri were likewise worshipped at
Thebes. Now, as the word Kudfioc may be deduced
from Ku\u," to adorn" or " order," and answers exactly
to Ko-juttf, the name of the chief magistrate in Crete,
it has been inferred, that Cadmus-Hermes, i. <\, Her-
mes, the Regulator or Disposer, a cosmogonic power,
gave name to a portion of the Pelasgic race, and that,
in the usual manner, the god was made a mortal king.
'Mailer, Orckomcnus, p. 461, seqq. -- Id. , Prolcgom. .
f 146, seqq. --Keighlley's Mythology, p. 325, seqq. )
--The ancient tradition was, that Cadmus brought six-
teen letters from Phoenicia to Greece, to which Pala-
medes added subsequently four more, o\ ? , <j, \, and
Simnnides, at a still latrr period, four others, C, >/. >''. <? >?
The traditional alphabet of Cadmus is supposed to
have been the following: A, B, T, A, E, F, I, K, A,
M, N, O, If, P, 2, T, and the names were, "Atya, Bz/ra,
Tufipa, At'? . Ta, El, Fav, 'lura, Kumra, Au'uMa, Mt\
? it', Ov, Hi, 'Pii, ? ,iypia. , Tat*. The explanation which
has just been given to the myth of Cadmus, and its
connexion with the Pelasgi, has an important bearing
on the question relative to the existence of an early
Pelasgic alphabet in Greece, some remarks on which
will be found under the article Pelasgi. --II. A native
of Miletus, who flourished about 520 B. C. Pliny
(7, 56) calls him the most ancient of the logograpki.
In another passage (5, 29), he makes him to have
been the first prose writer, though elsewhere he at-
tributes this to Pherecydes. According to a remark
of Isocrates (in his discourse irepi uvridooeuc), Cad-
mus was the first that bore the title of oopicmjc, by
which appellation was then meant an eloquent man.
He wrote on the antiquities of his native city. His
work was abridged by Bion of Proconnesus. (Sckoll,
Hut Lit. Gr. , vol. 2, p. 134. )
Cadi'ceits, the wand of the god Mercury, with
which he conducts the souls of the departed to the
lower world. In the case of the god it is of gold, hence
called by the poets aurca virga, and was said to have
been given him by Apollo in exchange for the lyre,
which the former had invented. Commonly speaking,
however, it was a wand of laurel or olive, with two
little wings on the upper end, and with two serpents
entwined about the same part, having their heads turn-
? ? ed towards each other, the whole serving as a symbol
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? C. EN
C. ER
peror to the honours at which he aimed, he conspired
against him, but was slain by order of Titus at a ban-
quet. Some writers have thrown doubts on this con-
spiracy, and have pretended that Titus was actuated
by a feeling of jealousy in seeing Ca-cina regarded
with attachment by Berenice. (Tacit. , Hut. , I, 61.
--Id. tb. , 3, 13 -- Dio Cass. , 06,16. )
GdEcEmJs Ager, a district in the vicinity of For-
mim and Caicta in Latium, famous for its wines.
Pliny (14, 6) informs us, that, before his time, the
Ctecuban wine, which came from the poplar marshes
of Amyclffi, was most esteemed, but that at the period
when he wrote, it had lost its repute, through the neg-
ligence of the growers, and partly from the limited
extent of the vineyards, which had been nearly destroy-
ed by the navigable canal begun by Nero from the
Lake Avernus to Ostia. Galen (Athcn. , 1, 21) de-
scribes the Cajcuban as a generous and durable wine,
but apt to affect the head, and ripening only after
many years. When new it probably belonged to the
class of rough sweet wines. It was Horace's favour-
ite, and scarce after the breaking up of the principal
vineyards. The best, and, at the same time, the oldest
vintage, was the Opimian. L. Opimius Ncpos was
consul A. U. 633, in which year the excessive heat of
the summer caused all the productions of the earth to
attain an uncommon degree of perfection. (Vid. Fa-
lernum and Massicus. --Henderson's Hist. Anc. and
Modern Wines, p. 81, seqq. )
(. '. kit i. us, a son of Vulcan, conceived, as some say,
by his mother as she was sitting by the fire, a spark
having leaped forth into her bosom. After a life spent
in plundering and rapine, he built Prsneste ; but, being
unable to find inhabitants, he implored Vulcan to tell
him whether he really was his father. Upon this a
flame suddenly shone around a multitude who were as-
sembled to see some spectacle, and they were imme-
diately persuaded to become the subjects of Calculus.
Virgil says, that he was found on the hearth, or, as
some less correctly explain it, in the very fire itself,
and hence was fabled to have been the son of Vulcan.
The name Calculus refers, it is said, to the small size
of the pupils of his eyes. (Virg. , JEn. , 7, 680. -r-Scrv.
ad Virg. , I. c. )
C*les Vibenna. Vid. Vibcnna.
C. SLU Lex, was enacted A. II. C. 630, by 0alius,
a tribune. It ordained, that in judicial proceedings be-
fore the people, in cases of treason, the votes should
be given by ballot; contrary to the exception of the
Cassian law. (Hcinecc, Anliq. Rom. , cd. Haubold,
p. 250. )
Camus, I. a young Roman of considerable tal-
ents and accomplishments, intrusted to the care of
Cicero on his first introduction to the forum. Having
imprudently engaged in an intrigue with Clodia, the
well-known sister of Clodius, and having afterward
deserted her, she accused him of an attempt to poison
her, and of having borrowed money from her in order to
procure the assassination of Dio, the Alcxandrean am-
bassador. He was defended by Cicero in an oration
which is still extant. --II. Aurclianus, a medical wri-
ter. (V'irf. Aurclianus )--III. Nabinus, a writer in the
age of Vespasian, who composed a treatise on the
edicts of the curule ediles. --IV. One of the seven
hills on which Home was built.
RomuluB surrounded
it with a ditch and rampart, and it was enclosed by
Walls by the succeeding kings. It is supposed to
? ? have received its name from Cades Vibenna.
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? C^ES
jealous of their nautica! skill and enterprising spirit,
might to dispossess them. A severe action accord-
ingly took place in the Sea of Sardinia, between the
Phoesans and the combined fleet of the latter powers,
in which the former gained the day; but it was such
avietorjr as left them little room for exultation, they
hating lost several of their ships, and the rest being
nearly all disabled. The Agylleans, who appear to
have constituted the principal force of the Tyrrhenians,
<ntheir return home laruled their prisoners and barba-
raasly stoned them to death; for which act of cruelty
Iky were soon visited by a strange calamity. It was
observeJ, that all the living creatures which approach-
ed the spot where the Phoczcans had been murdered,
were immediately seized with convulsive distortions
anil paralytic affections of the limbs. On consulting
the oracle at Delphi, to leam how they might expiate
their offence, the Agyueans were commanded to cele-
brate the obsequies of the dead, and to hold games in
their honour; which order, the historian informs u. s,
vu punctually attended to up to his time. We lerfrn
abo from Strabo (22O), that the Agylleans enjoyed a
rreat reputation for justice among the Greeks; for,
though very powerful, and able to send out large fleets
ami numerous armies, they always abstained from pi-
racy, to which the other Tyrrhenian cities were much
addicted. According to Dionysius, the Romans were
first engaged in hostilities with Csere under the reign
of Tarquin the Elder, and subsequently under Scrvius
Tullius. by whom a treaty was concluded between the
two states (3, 28). Long after, when Rome had
been taken by the Gauls, the inhabitants of Caere ren-
dered the former city an important service, by receiv-
ing their priests and vestals, and defeating the Gauls
on their return through the Sabine territory; on which
occasion they recovered the gold with which Rome
U raid to have purchased its liberation. This is a cu-
rious fact, and not mentioned by any historian; but
it agrees very well with the account which Polybius
ptes us of the retreat of the Gauls (1, G). In re-
turn for this assistance, the Romans requited the Co>
rite* by declaring them the public guests of Rome, and
admitting them, though not in full, to the rights en-
joyed by her citizens. They were made citizens, but
without the right of voting; whence the phrases, in
Ctintstn tnkuiiis referrc aliquem, "to deprive one of
his right of voting," and Carite cera digni, "worth-
less persons," in reference to citizens of Rome, since
what would be an honour to the people of Cere would
be a punishment to a native Roman citizen. (Cra-
mtr's Ancient Italy, vol. 1, p. 207. )--"It is a weak
notion of Strabo," observes Niebuhr, "that the Ro-
mans had acted ungratefully in not admitting the Cse-
rites to a higher franchise. It was not in their power
to do so, unless the Csrites themselves preferred re-
nouncing the independence of their state, receiving
their landed property from the republic, according to
tho Roman law, and forming a new tribe; and this
they were certainly far from wishing at that time, as
fortune had been more favourable to them in the Gal-
lic war than to Rome; if, indeed, the Roman citizen-
chip were really conferred on the Caerites at this time,
and not considerably earlier, in the flourishing days
of the ancient Agylla. " (Roman Hittory, vol. 1, p.
4O3, Walter's transl. ) In the first edition of his work
(rol. 1, p. 193, sf/j'/ . in notii), Nicbuhr starts the bold
hypothesis that Care was the parent city of Rome.
In the second edition, however (Cambridge transl. ),
? ? this theory U silently withdrawn.
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? CESAR.
CESAR.
to order the execution of the captives; but that officer
being more inclined to have them sold as slaves, Cesar
crucified them all without loss of time, before the pro-
consul's pleasure was officially known. Such con-
duct was not likely to recommend him to those in au-
thority; and we are told that on several other occa-
sions, he wished to act for himself ( Veil. Patcrc, 2,
67. --Sueton. , Jul. , 4), and even to take part in the
war which was now renewed with Mithradates, with-
out any commission from the government, and without
submitting himself to any of the regular officers of the
republic. These early instances of his lawless spirit
are recorded with admiration by some of his historians,
as affording proofs of vigour and greatness of mind.
He now returned to Rome, and became, in succession,
military tribune, quaestor, and entile. At the same
time, he had the address to win the favour of the peo-
)le by affability, by splendid entertainments, and pub-
ic shows; and, trusting to his popularity, he ven-
tured to erect again the statues of Manus, whose
memory was hated by the senate and patricians. In
the conspiracy of Catiline he certainly had a secret
part; anil his speech in the senate, on the question of
their punishment, was regarded by many as an actual
proof of this, for he insisted that death, by the Roman
constitution, was an illegal punishment, and that the
property merely of the conspirators should be con-
fiscated, and they themselves condemned to perpetual
imprisonment. Soon after this he was chosen pout ilex
maximus, and was about to go as governor to Farther
Spain; but his creditors refusing to let him depart,
Crassus became his security in the enormous sum of
eight hundred and thirty talents. It was on his jour-
ney to Spain that the remarkable expression fell from
his lips, on seeing a miserable village by the way,
"that he would rather be first there than second at
Rome. " When he entered on the government of this
province, he displayed the same ability, and the same
unscrupulous waste of human lives for the purposes
of his ambition, which distinguished his subsequent ca-
reer. In order to retrieve his fortune, to gain a mili-
tary reputation, and to entitle himself to the honour of
a triumph, he attacked some of the native tribes on the
most frivolous pretences ( Dm Cast. , 37, 62), and thus
enriched himself and his army, and gained the credit
of a successful general by the plunder and massacre
of these poor barbarians. On his return to Rome he
paid off his numerous and heavy debts, and, in order
to gain the consulship, brought about a reconciliation
between Pompey and Crassus, whose enmity had di-
vided Rome into two great parties. He succeeded in
his design, and that famous coalition was eventually
formed between Pompey, Crassus, and himself, which
is known in Roman history by the name of the First
Triumvirate. (Vid. Triumvir. ) Supported by such
powerful assistants, in addition to his own popularity,
Cesar was elected consul, with M. Calpumius Bibu-
lus, confirmed the measures of Pompey, and procured
the passage of a law for the distribution of certain
lands among the poorer class of citizens. This, of
course, brought him high popularity. With Pompey
he formed a still more intimate connexion, by giving
him his daughter Julia in marriage; and the favour of
the equestrian order was gained by releasing them
from a disadvantageous contract for the revenues of
Asia, a step which the senate had refused to take in
their behalf; and thus the affections of a powerful
? ? body of men were alienated from the aristocracy at
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? head. He continued, meanwhile, to conciliate hit
enemies, and to heap favours on his friends. Lar-
gesses were also distributed among the populace,
shows of various kinds were exhibited, and everything,
in fact, was done to call oil' their attention from the
utter prostration of their liberties which had so suc-
cessfully been achieved. The gross and impious flat-
tery of the senate now reached its height. The stat-
ues of Caesar were ordered to be earned, along with
those of the gods, in the processions of the circus;
temples and attars were dedicated to him, and priests
were appointed to superintend his worship. These
things he received with a vanity which allbrds a stri-
king contrast to the contemptuous pride of Sylla.
Cesar took a pleasure in every token of homage, and
in contemplating with childish delight the gaudy hon-
ours with which he was invested. It was a part of the
prize which he had coveted, and which he had commit-
ted so many crimes to gain; nor did the possession of
real power seem to give him greater delight, than the
enjoyment of these forced, and, therefore, worthier*
flatteries. --We now come to the closing scene, his
assassination. Various causes seemed to hurry this
event. Cesar had given ofl'ence to the senate by re-
ceiving them without rising from his seat when they
waited upon him to communicate the decrees which
they had passed in honour of him. He had given
equal offence to numbers in the state by assuming so
openly not only the patronage of the ordinary offices,
but the power of bestowing them in an unprecedented
manner, in order to suit his own policy. On one occa-
sion, too, as he was sitting in the rostra, Marc Antony
offered him a royal diadem. He refused it, however,
and his refusal drew shouts of applause from the peo-
ple. The next morning his statues were adorned with
diadems. The tribunes of the people took them off,
and imprisoned the persons who had done the act, but
they were deposed from their office by Ctcsar. These
and other acts, that declared but too plainly the ambi-
tious feelings of the man, and his hankering after the
bauble of royalty, gave rise to a conspiracy, of which
Caius Cassius was the prime mover. Cesar, having
no suspicion of the danger wliich threatened him, was
forming new projects. He. resolved to subdue the
Parthians, and then to conquer all Scythia from the
Caucasus to Gaul. His friends gave out, that, ac-
cording to the Sibylline books, the Parthians would be
conquered only by a king, and the plan proposed there-
fore was, that Cesar should retain the title of dictator
with regard to Italy, but should be saluted with that of
king in all the conquered countries. For this purpose
a meeting of the senate was appointed for the 15th
(the Ides) of March; and this was the day fixed upon
by the conspirators for the execution of their plot.
Ciesar, it is said, had been often warned by the augurs
to beware of the Ides of March (Plut. in Vit. , c. 63.
--Sue/on, in Vit. , c. 81), and these predictions had
probably wrought upon the mind of his wife Calpumia,
so that, on the night which preceded that dreaded day,
her rest was broken by feverish dreams, and in the
morning her impression of fear was so strong that she
earnestly besought her husband not to stir from the
house. He himself, we are told, felt a little unwell,
and being thus more ready to be infected by supersti-
tious fears, was inclined to comply with Calpurnia's
wishes. His delay in attending the senate alarmed the
conspirators; Decimus Brutus was sent to call on him,
and, overcome by his persuasions, he proceeded to the
Capitol. On his way thither, Artemidorus of Cnidus, a
? ? Greek sophist, who had been admitted into the housca
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? CESAR.
CESAR.
prevented by the crowd that pressed around him as he
passed along, and he still held it in his hand when he en-
tered the senate-house. When Cesar had taken his
seat, the conspirators gathered moreclosely around him,
and L. Tillius Cimbcr approached him as if to offer some
petition. Caesar seemed unwilling to grant it, and ap-
peared impatient of further importunity, when Cimber
took hold of his robe and pulled it down from his
shoulders. This was the signal for attack. The dag-
ger of Casca took the lead, when Caesar at first at-
tempted to force his way through the circle that sur-
rounded him. But when all the conspirators rushed
upon him, and were so eager to share in his death that
they wounded one another in the confusion of the mo-
ment; and when, moreover, he saw Junius Brutus
among the number, Cesar drew his robe closely around
him,and, havingcovcred his face, fell withouta struggle
or a groan. He received three-and-twenty wounds, and
it was observed that the blood, as it streamed from them,
bathed the pedestal of Pompey's statue. No sooner
was the murder finished than Brutus, raising his gory
dagger, turned round to the assembled senate, and call-
ing on Cicero by name, congratulated him on the re-
covery of their country's liberty. But to preserve or-
der wag hopeless, and the senators fled in dismay. (For
an account of the events immediately subsequent, vid.
Antoniusand Brutus. )--Cesar died in the 56th year of
his age. --In his intellectual character he deserves the
highest rank among the men of his age; as a general,
moreover, it is needless to pronounce his eulogy. But
if we turn from his intellectual to his moral physiog-
nomy, the whole range of history can hardly furnish a
picture of greater deformity. Besides being exces-
sively addicted to gross sensualities, never did any man
occasion so large an amount of human misery with so
little provocation. In his campaigns in Gaul he is
said to have destroyed one million of men in battle
(Pint. , Vit. Cas. , c. 15. -- Compare 1'hn. , 7, 25), and
to have made prisoners a million more, many of whom
were destined to perish as gladiators, and all were torn
from their country and reduced to slavery. The
slaughter which he occasioned in the civil wars cannot
be computed; nor can we estimate the degree of suf-
fering caused in every part of the empire by his spoli-
ations and confiscations, and by the various acts of op-
pression which he tolerated in his followers. --Was,
then, his assassination a lawful act? Certainly not.
The act of assassination is in itself so hateful, and in-
volves in it so much of dissimulation and treachery,
that, whatever allowance may be made for the perpe-
trators, when wc consider the moral ignorance of the
times in which they lived, their conduct must never be
spoken of without open condemnation. (Encyc. Mc-
trnpol. , Div. 3, vol. 2, p. 156, scqq. -- Encyc. Amcr. ,
vol. 2, p. 379. ) -- As an historical writer Caesar has
been compared to Xenophon. Simplicity is the char-
acteristic of both, though in Cesar perhaps it borders
on severity. We have from the pen of the Roman
commander seven books of commentaries on the Gal-
lic war, and three of the civil contest. His style is re-
markable for clearness and ease, and its most distin-
guishing characteristic is its perfect equality of expres-
sion. It has been affirmed, by some critics, that Cae-
sar did not write the three books of the civil war, and
even that Suetonius was the author of the seven books
on the Gallic war. But Vossius has vindicated Ce-
sar's title to the authorship of the Commentaries as
? ? they stand in the editions, though he does not vouch
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? C;? S
C. <<S
sonally present, till the final pacification, when Caesar,
learning the designs which were forming against him
at Rome, get out for Italy. Cesar, in the conclusion
of the third book, of the civil war, mentions the com-
mencement of the Alexandrean. Hirtius was not
personally present at the succeeding events of this
Kgypuan contest, in which Cesar was involved with
the generals of Ptolemy, nor during his rapid cam-
paigns in Pontus against Pharnaces, and against the
remains of the Pompcian party in Africa, where they
bad assembled under Scipio, and, being supported by
Juba, still presented a formidable appearance. He
collected, however, the leading events from the con-
versation of Cssar, and the officers who were engaged
in these campaigns. He has obviously imitated the
style of his master; and the resemblance which he has
happily attained, has given an appearance of unity and
consistence to the whole series of these well-written
and authentic memoirs. It appears that Hirtius car-
ried down the history even to the death of Csjsar: for
in his preface addressed to Ilalbus, he says that he had
brought down what was left imperfect from the trans-
actions at Alexandria to the end, not of the civil dis-
sensions, to a termination of which there was no pros-
pect, but of the life of Caesar. This latter part, how-
ever, of the Commentaries of Hirtius, has been lost.
It seems now to be generally acknowledged that he
ins not the author of the book De Bello Hispanico,
which relates Csesar's second campaign in Spain, un-
dertaken against young Cncius Pompey, who, having
assembled, in the ulterior province of that country,
those of his father's party who had survived the disas-
ters in Thcssaly and A frica, and being joined by some
of the native states, presented a formidable resistance
to the power of Caesar, till his hopes were terminated
by the decisive battle of Munda. Dodwell, indeed, in
bos Dissertation De auctore Belli Galhci, etc. , main-
tarns, that it was originally written by Hirtius, but was
interpolated by Julius Celsus, a Constant itiopolitan wri-
ter of the sixth or seventh century. Voasius, however,
whose opinion is the one more commonly received, at-
tribute* it to Caius Oppius, who wrote the Lives of
Illustrious Captains, and also a book to prove that the
Egyptian Cajsarion was not the son of Cesar. (Dun-
lap's Roman Literature, vol. 2, p. 191, seqq. ) The
-*>t editions of Caesar's Commentaries are, the mag-
nificent one by Dr. Clarke, fol. , Loud. , 1712; that of
Cambridge, with a Greek translation, 4to, 1727; that
of Oudendorp. 2 vols. 4to, L Bat. , 1737; that of the
EUcvirs, 8>>o, L. Bat. , 1635; that of Oberlinus, Lips. ,
1S19,8vo ; and that of Achaintrc and Lcmaire, Peris,
4 vols. 9vo, 1919-22. II. The name Csssar became a
title of honour for the Roman emperors, commencing
aith Augustus, and at a later period designated also the
presumptive heirs to the empire. (Vid. Augustus.
For, in Egypt, their mother was not Leda, but Neme-
sis, one of tho appellations of Athyr, or the primitive
night. The amour of Jupiter also has here a fantastic
character, which is sensibly weakened in the Grecian
fable. Not only docs Jupiter change himself into a
swan, but he likewise directs Venus to pursue him un-
der the form of an eagle, and he takes refuge in the
bosom of Nemesis, whom slumber seizes, and who
offers an easy conquest to her divine lover. Hermes
thereupon conveys the egg to Sparta, and Leda incu-
bates it. The Greeks, rejecting altogether the cos-
mogonical personage Nemesis, made Leda the real
mother, and the ancient Cabiri became thus a compo-
nent part of the national mythology. The Ionian
school, however, faithful to the principles of a sacer-
dotal philosophy, continued to call them the offspring
of the eternal fire, Vulcan, and of the nymph Cabira,
one of the Oceanides, which recalls the generation by
fire and water. When astronomy was introduced into
the religion of Greece, they became the star of the
morning and the star of evening. It is possible to see
? ? an allusion to this idea in Homer. [11. , 3, 243 --Od ,
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? CAD
CADMUS.
cus, who, according to one version of tho fable, be-
came enamoured of Hercules, and showed the hero
where her brother had concealed his oxen. For this
she was deified. She had a chapel (sacellum) at Rome,
with a Bacred fire continually burning in it, and vestal
virgins to perform heT rites. (Lactant. , 1, 20, p. 110,
cd. Gall. --Sen. ad Virg. , JEn. , 8, 190. )
Cacus, a famous robber, son of Vulcan, represented
in fable as of gigantic size, and vomiting forth smoke
and fire. He inhabited the gloomy recesses of the
forest on Mount Aventine, and a deep cave there was
his dwelling-place, the entrance to which was hung
around with human heads and limbs. He plundered
and kept in continual alarm the neighbouring country;
and, when Hercules returned from the conquest of
Geryon, he stole some of his cows, and dragged them
backward into his cave to prevent discovery. Her-
cules, after having enjoyed the hospitality of Evander,
was preparing to depart, without being aware of the
theft; but his oxen, having lowed, were answered by
the cowb in the cave of Cacus, and the hero thus be-
came acquainted with the loss he had sustained. He
ran to the place, attacked Cacus, and strangled him in
his arms, though vomiting fire and smoke. Hercules
erected an altar to Jupiter, in commemoration of his
victory; and an annual festival was instituted by the
inhabitants in honour of the hero who had delivered
them from such a pest. (Ovid, Fast. , 1, 551. -- Virg. ,
JEn. , 8, 194. --Properl. , 4, 10. --Juv. , 5, 125. --Liv. ,
1, 7. --Dionys. Hal. , 1, 9. ) The allegorical charac-
ter of the fable here related is sufficiently indicated
by the names of the parties. Thus Evander, who re-
ceived Hercules on his return from the conquest of
Geryon, and Cacus (in Greek Evavdpoe and Kokoc),
seem to be nothing more than appellations intended
to characterize the individuals to whom they are ap-
plied: Evander, therefore, the leader of the Pelasgi,
the head and chief of the division of that great sacer-
dotal caBte which passed into Italy, and, consequently,
to apply a modern term, the high-priest of the order,
is the Good Man (evavdpoe), and Cacus, his opponent,
is the Bad Man (kokoc). Hercules destroys Cacus,
that is, the solar worship, or some other Oriental sys-
tem of belief professed by the Pelasgi, was made to
supplant some rude and probably cruel form of wor-
ship; and as Evander was high-priest of the one, so
Cacus, whoever he was, may be regarded as the head
of the other. (Compare Rittcr, Vorhallc, p. 343, scqq. )
CacOthis, a river in India; according to Mannert,
the Gumty, which falls into the Ganges, to the north
of Benares. (Geogr. , vol. 5, pt. 1, p. 93. )
Cadmea, the citadel of Thebes, fabled to have been
built by Cadmus. It represents very evidently the
early city, built upon a height, around which the later
city of Thebes was subsequently erected, and then the
former answered for a citadel, as in the case of the
Acropolis of Athens. Of the walls of the Cadmca, a
few fragments remain, which are regularly constructed.
These were probably erected by the Athenians, when
Cassander restored the city of Thebes. (DodieeU's
Travels, vol. l,p. 264. )
Cadhkis, an ancient name of Boeotia.
Cadmcs, I. son of Agcnor, king of Phoenicia, by
Tclcphassa, was sent by his father, along with his
brothers Phoenix and Cilix, in quest of their sister Eu-
ropa, who had been carried off by Jupiter, and they
were ordered not to return until they had found her.
? ? The brothers were accompanied by their mother, and
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? CAD
Phoenicians should have selected, as the site of their
Tery earliest foreign settlement, a place situated in a
rich fertile valley, away from the sea, and only adapted
fjr agriculture, without mines, or any of those objects
of trade which might tempt a people of that character.
It is aiso strange that the descendants of these colo-
nists should have bo entirely put oil" the Phoenician
character, as to become noted in after ages for their
dislike of trade of any kind. We may, therefore, now
venture to dismiss this theory, and seek a Grecian
origin for Cadmus. (Mullcr, Orckomcnus, p. 113,
seq. )--Homer and Hesiod call the people of Thebes
Cadoieans or Cadraeonians, and the country the Cad-
mean land; the citadel was at all times named the
Cadmea. Cadmus is therefore apparently (like Pelas-
gus, Dorus, Ion, Thessalus, and so many others) mere-
ly a personification of the name of the people. Again,
Cadmilos or Cadmus was a name of Mercury in the
mysteries of Samothrace, which were instituted by the
Tyrrhenian Pclasgi, who, at the time of the Dorian
migration, being driven from Bceotia, settled on the
islands in the north of the jEgean. The name Cad-
mus, moreover, occurs only at Thebes and Samo-
thrace ; Harmonia also was an object of worship in this
last place, and the Cabiri were likewise worshipped at
Thebes. Now, as the word Kudfioc may be deduced
from Ku\u," to adorn" or " order," and answers exactly
to Ko-juttf, the name of the chief magistrate in Crete,
it has been inferred, that Cadmus-Hermes, i. <\, Her-
mes, the Regulator or Disposer, a cosmogonic power,
gave name to a portion of the Pelasgic race, and that,
in the usual manner, the god was made a mortal king.
'Mailer, Orckomcnus, p. 461, seqq. -- Id. , Prolcgom. .
f 146, seqq. --Keighlley's Mythology, p. 325, seqq. )
--The ancient tradition was, that Cadmus brought six-
teen letters from Phoenicia to Greece, to which Pala-
medes added subsequently four more, o\ ? , <j, \, and
Simnnides, at a still latrr period, four others, C, >/. >''. <? >?
The traditional alphabet of Cadmus is supposed to
have been the following: A, B, T, A, E, F, I, K, A,
M, N, O, If, P, 2, T, and the names were, "Atya, Bz/ra,
Tufipa, At'? . Ta, El, Fav, 'lura, Kumra, Au'uMa, Mt\
? it', Ov, Hi, 'Pii, ? ,iypia. , Tat*. The explanation which
has just been given to the myth of Cadmus, and its
connexion with the Pelasgi, has an important bearing
on the question relative to the existence of an early
Pelasgic alphabet in Greece, some remarks on which
will be found under the article Pelasgi. --II. A native
of Miletus, who flourished about 520 B. C. Pliny
(7, 56) calls him the most ancient of the logograpki.
In another passage (5, 29), he makes him to have
been the first prose writer, though elsewhere he at-
tributes this to Pherecydes. According to a remark
of Isocrates (in his discourse irepi uvridooeuc), Cad-
mus was the first that bore the title of oopicmjc, by
which appellation was then meant an eloquent man.
He wrote on the antiquities of his native city. His
work was abridged by Bion of Proconnesus. (Sckoll,
Hut Lit. Gr. , vol. 2, p. 134. )
Cadi'ceits, the wand of the god Mercury, with
which he conducts the souls of the departed to the
lower world. In the case of the god it is of gold, hence
called by the poets aurca virga, and was said to have
been given him by Apollo in exchange for the lyre,
which the former had invented. Commonly speaking,
however, it was a wand of laurel or olive, with two
little wings on the upper end, and with two serpents
entwined about the same part, having their heads turn-
? ? ed towards each other, the whole serving as a symbol
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? C. EN
C. ER
peror to the honours at which he aimed, he conspired
against him, but was slain by order of Titus at a ban-
quet. Some writers have thrown doubts on this con-
spiracy, and have pretended that Titus was actuated
by a feeling of jealousy in seeing Ca-cina regarded
with attachment by Berenice. (Tacit. , Hut. , I, 61.
--Id. tb. , 3, 13 -- Dio Cass. , 06,16. )
GdEcEmJs Ager, a district in the vicinity of For-
mim and Caicta in Latium, famous for its wines.
Pliny (14, 6) informs us, that, before his time, the
Ctecuban wine, which came from the poplar marshes
of Amyclffi, was most esteemed, but that at the period
when he wrote, it had lost its repute, through the neg-
ligence of the growers, and partly from the limited
extent of the vineyards, which had been nearly destroy-
ed by the navigable canal begun by Nero from the
Lake Avernus to Ostia. Galen (Athcn. , 1, 21) de-
scribes the Cajcuban as a generous and durable wine,
but apt to affect the head, and ripening only after
many years. When new it probably belonged to the
class of rough sweet wines. It was Horace's favour-
ite, and scarce after the breaking up of the principal
vineyards. The best, and, at the same time, the oldest
vintage, was the Opimian. L. Opimius Ncpos was
consul A. U. 633, in which year the excessive heat of
the summer caused all the productions of the earth to
attain an uncommon degree of perfection. (Vid. Fa-
lernum and Massicus. --Henderson's Hist. Anc. and
Modern Wines, p. 81, seqq. )
(. '. kit i. us, a son of Vulcan, conceived, as some say,
by his mother as she was sitting by the fire, a spark
having leaped forth into her bosom. After a life spent
in plundering and rapine, he built Prsneste ; but, being
unable to find inhabitants, he implored Vulcan to tell
him whether he really was his father. Upon this a
flame suddenly shone around a multitude who were as-
sembled to see some spectacle, and they were imme-
diately persuaded to become the subjects of Calculus.
Virgil says, that he was found on the hearth, or, as
some less correctly explain it, in the very fire itself,
and hence was fabled to have been the son of Vulcan.
The name Calculus refers, it is said, to the small size
of the pupils of his eyes. (Virg. , JEn. , 7, 680. -r-Scrv.
ad Virg. , I. c. )
C*les Vibenna. Vid. Vibcnna.
C. SLU Lex, was enacted A. II. C. 630, by 0alius,
a tribune. It ordained, that in judicial proceedings be-
fore the people, in cases of treason, the votes should
be given by ballot; contrary to the exception of the
Cassian law. (Hcinecc, Anliq. Rom. , cd. Haubold,
p. 250. )
Camus, I. a young Roman of considerable tal-
ents and accomplishments, intrusted to the care of
Cicero on his first introduction to the forum. Having
imprudently engaged in an intrigue with Clodia, the
well-known sister of Clodius, and having afterward
deserted her, she accused him of an attempt to poison
her, and of having borrowed money from her in order to
procure the assassination of Dio, the Alcxandrean am-
bassador. He was defended by Cicero in an oration
which is still extant. --II. Aurclianus, a medical wri-
ter. (V'irf. Aurclianus )--III. Nabinus, a writer in the
age of Vespasian, who composed a treatise on the
edicts of the curule ediles. --IV. One of the seven
hills on which Home was built.
RomuluB surrounded
it with a ditch and rampart, and it was enclosed by
Walls by the succeeding kings. It is supposed to
? ? have received its name from Cades Vibenna.
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? C^ES
jealous of their nautica! skill and enterprising spirit,
might to dispossess them. A severe action accord-
ingly took place in the Sea of Sardinia, between the
Phoesans and the combined fleet of the latter powers,
in which the former gained the day; but it was such
avietorjr as left them little room for exultation, they
hating lost several of their ships, and the rest being
nearly all disabled. The Agylleans, who appear to
have constituted the principal force of the Tyrrhenians,
<ntheir return home laruled their prisoners and barba-
raasly stoned them to death; for which act of cruelty
Iky were soon visited by a strange calamity. It was
observeJ, that all the living creatures which approach-
ed the spot where the Phoczcans had been murdered,
were immediately seized with convulsive distortions
anil paralytic affections of the limbs. On consulting
the oracle at Delphi, to leam how they might expiate
their offence, the Agyueans were commanded to cele-
brate the obsequies of the dead, and to hold games in
their honour; which order, the historian informs u. s,
vu punctually attended to up to his time. We lerfrn
abo from Strabo (22O), that the Agylleans enjoyed a
rreat reputation for justice among the Greeks; for,
though very powerful, and able to send out large fleets
ami numerous armies, they always abstained from pi-
racy, to which the other Tyrrhenian cities were much
addicted. According to Dionysius, the Romans were
first engaged in hostilities with Csere under the reign
of Tarquin the Elder, and subsequently under Scrvius
Tullius. by whom a treaty was concluded between the
two states (3, 28). Long after, when Rome had
been taken by the Gauls, the inhabitants of Caere ren-
dered the former city an important service, by receiv-
ing their priests and vestals, and defeating the Gauls
on their return through the Sabine territory; on which
occasion they recovered the gold with which Rome
U raid to have purchased its liberation. This is a cu-
rious fact, and not mentioned by any historian; but
it agrees very well with the account which Polybius
ptes us of the retreat of the Gauls (1, G). In re-
turn for this assistance, the Romans requited the Co>
rite* by declaring them the public guests of Rome, and
admitting them, though not in full, to the rights en-
joyed by her citizens. They were made citizens, but
without the right of voting; whence the phrases, in
Ctintstn tnkuiiis referrc aliquem, "to deprive one of
his right of voting," and Carite cera digni, "worth-
less persons," in reference to citizens of Rome, since
what would be an honour to the people of Cere would
be a punishment to a native Roman citizen. (Cra-
mtr's Ancient Italy, vol. 1, p. 207. )--"It is a weak
notion of Strabo," observes Niebuhr, "that the Ro-
mans had acted ungratefully in not admitting the Cse-
rites to a higher franchise. It was not in their power
to do so, unless the Csrites themselves preferred re-
nouncing the independence of their state, receiving
their landed property from the republic, according to
tho Roman law, and forming a new tribe; and this
they were certainly far from wishing at that time, as
fortune had been more favourable to them in the Gal-
lic war than to Rome; if, indeed, the Roman citizen-
chip were really conferred on the Caerites at this time,
and not considerably earlier, in the flourishing days
of the ancient Agylla. " (Roman Hittory, vol. 1, p.
4O3, Walter's transl. ) In the first edition of his work
(rol. 1, p. 193, sf/j'/ . in notii), Nicbuhr starts the bold
hypothesis that Care was the parent city of Rome.
In the second edition, however (Cambridge transl. ),
? ? this theory U silently withdrawn.
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? CESAR.
CESAR.
to order the execution of the captives; but that officer
being more inclined to have them sold as slaves, Cesar
crucified them all without loss of time, before the pro-
consul's pleasure was officially known. Such con-
duct was not likely to recommend him to those in au-
thority; and we are told that on several other occa-
sions, he wished to act for himself ( Veil. Patcrc, 2,
67. --Sueton. , Jul. , 4), and even to take part in the
war which was now renewed with Mithradates, with-
out any commission from the government, and without
submitting himself to any of the regular officers of the
republic. These early instances of his lawless spirit
are recorded with admiration by some of his historians,
as affording proofs of vigour and greatness of mind.
He now returned to Rome, and became, in succession,
military tribune, quaestor, and entile. At the same
time, he had the address to win the favour of the peo-
)le by affability, by splendid entertainments, and pub-
ic shows; and, trusting to his popularity, he ven-
tured to erect again the statues of Manus, whose
memory was hated by the senate and patricians. In
the conspiracy of Catiline he certainly had a secret
part; anil his speech in the senate, on the question of
their punishment, was regarded by many as an actual
proof of this, for he insisted that death, by the Roman
constitution, was an illegal punishment, and that the
property merely of the conspirators should be con-
fiscated, and they themselves condemned to perpetual
imprisonment. Soon after this he was chosen pout ilex
maximus, and was about to go as governor to Farther
Spain; but his creditors refusing to let him depart,
Crassus became his security in the enormous sum of
eight hundred and thirty talents. It was on his jour-
ney to Spain that the remarkable expression fell from
his lips, on seeing a miserable village by the way,
"that he would rather be first there than second at
Rome. " When he entered on the government of this
province, he displayed the same ability, and the same
unscrupulous waste of human lives for the purposes
of his ambition, which distinguished his subsequent ca-
reer. In order to retrieve his fortune, to gain a mili-
tary reputation, and to entitle himself to the honour of
a triumph, he attacked some of the native tribes on the
most frivolous pretences ( Dm Cast. , 37, 62), and thus
enriched himself and his army, and gained the credit
of a successful general by the plunder and massacre
of these poor barbarians. On his return to Rome he
paid off his numerous and heavy debts, and, in order
to gain the consulship, brought about a reconciliation
between Pompey and Crassus, whose enmity had di-
vided Rome into two great parties. He succeeded in
his design, and that famous coalition was eventually
formed between Pompey, Crassus, and himself, which
is known in Roman history by the name of the First
Triumvirate. (Vid. Triumvir. ) Supported by such
powerful assistants, in addition to his own popularity,
Cesar was elected consul, with M. Calpumius Bibu-
lus, confirmed the measures of Pompey, and procured
the passage of a law for the distribution of certain
lands among the poorer class of citizens. This, of
course, brought him high popularity. With Pompey
he formed a still more intimate connexion, by giving
him his daughter Julia in marriage; and the favour of
the equestrian order was gained by releasing them
from a disadvantageous contract for the revenues of
Asia, a step which the senate had refused to take in
their behalf; and thus the affections of a powerful
? ? body of men were alienated from the aristocracy at
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? head. He continued, meanwhile, to conciliate hit
enemies, and to heap favours on his friends. Lar-
gesses were also distributed among the populace,
shows of various kinds were exhibited, and everything,
in fact, was done to call oil' their attention from the
utter prostration of their liberties which had so suc-
cessfully been achieved. The gross and impious flat-
tery of the senate now reached its height. The stat-
ues of Caesar were ordered to be earned, along with
those of the gods, in the processions of the circus;
temples and attars were dedicated to him, and priests
were appointed to superintend his worship. These
things he received with a vanity which allbrds a stri-
king contrast to the contemptuous pride of Sylla.
Cesar took a pleasure in every token of homage, and
in contemplating with childish delight the gaudy hon-
ours with which he was invested. It was a part of the
prize which he had coveted, and which he had commit-
ted so many crimes to gain; nor did the possession of
real power seem to give him greater delight, than the
enjoyment of these forced, and, therefore, worthier*
flatteries. --We now come to the closing scene, his
assassination. Various causes seemed to hurry this
event. Cesar had given ofl'ence to the senate by re-
ceiving them without rising from his seat when they
waited upon him to communicate the decrees which
they had passed in honour of him. He had given
equal offence to numbers in the state by assuming so
openly not only the patronage of the ordinary offices,
but the power of bestowing them in an unprecedented
manner, in order to suit his own policy. On one occa-
sion, too, as he was sitting in the rostra, Marc Antony
offered him a royal diadem. He refused it, however,
and his refusal drew shouts of applause from the peo-
ple. The next morning his statues were adorned with
diadems. The tribunes of the people took them off,
and imprisoned the persons who had done the act, but
they were deposed from their office by Ctcsar. These
and other acts, that declared but too plainly the ambi-
tious feelings of the man, and his hankering after the
bauble of royalty, gave rise to a conspiracy, of which
Caius Cassius was the prime mover. Cesar, having
no suspicion of the danger wliich threatened him, was
forming new projects. He. resolved to subdue the
Parthians, and then to conquer all Scythia from the
Caucasus to Gaul. His friends gave out, that, ac-
cording to the Sibylline books, the Parthians would be
conquered only by a king, and the plan proposed there-
fore was, that Cesar should retain the title of dictator
with regard to Italy, but should be saluted with that of
king in all the conquered countries. For this purpose
a meeting of the senate was appointed for the 15th
(the Ides) of March; and this was the day fixed upon
by the conspirators for the execution of their plot.
Ciesar, it is said, had been often warned by the augurs
to beware of the Ides of March (Plut. in Vit. , c. 63.
--Sue/on, in Vit. , c. 81), and these predictions had
probably wrought upon the mind of his wife Calpumia,
so that, on the night which preceded that dreaded day,
her rest was broken by feverish dreams, and in the
morning her impression of fear was so strong that she
earnestly besought her husband not to stir from the
house. He himself, we are told, felt a little unwell,
and being thus more ready to be infected by supersti-
tious fears, was inclined to comply with Calpurnia's
wishes. His delay in attending the senate alarmed the
conspirators; Decimus Brutus was sent to call on him,
and, overcome by his persuasions, he proceeded to the
Capitol. On his way thither, Artemidorus of Cnidus, a
? ? Greek sophist, who had been admitted into the housca
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? CESAR.
CESAR.
prevented by the crowd that pressed around him as he
passed along, and he still held it in his hand when he en-
tered the senate-house. When Cesar had taken his
seat, the conspirators gathered moreclosely around him,
and L. Tillius Cimbcr approached him as if to offer some
petition. Caesar seemed unwilling to grant it, and ap-
peared impatient of further importunity, when Cimber
took hold of his robe and pulled it down from his
shoulders. This was the signal for attack. The dag-
ger of Casca took the lead, when Caesar at first at-
tempted to force his way through the circle that sur-
rounded him. But when all the conspirators rushed
upon him, and were so eager to share in his death that
they wounded one another in the confusion of the mo-
ment; and when, moreover, he saw Junius Brutus
among the number, Cesar drew his robe closely around
him,and, havingcovcred his face, fell withouta struggle
or a groan. He received three-and-twenty wounds, and
it was observed that the blood, as it streamed from them,
bathed the pedestal of Pompey's statue. No sooner
was the murder finished than Brutus, raising his gory
dagger, turned round to the assembled senate, and call-
ing on Cicero by name, congratulated him on the re-
covery of their country's liberty. But to preserve or-
der wag hopeless, and the senators fled in dismay. (For
an account of the events immediately subsequent, vid.
Antoniusand Brutus. )--Cesar died in the 56th year of
his age. --In his intellectual character he deserves the
highest rank among the men of his age; as a general,
moreover, it is needless to pronounce his eulogy. But
if we turn from his intellectual to his moral physiog-
nomy, the whole range of history can hardly furnish a
picture of greater deformity. Besides being exces-
sively addicted to gross sensualities, never did any man
occasion so large an amount of human misery with so
little provocation. In his campaigns in Gaul he is
said to have destroyed one million of men in battle
(Pint. , Vit. Cas. , c. 15. -- Compare 1'hn. , 7, 25), and
to have made prisoners a million more, many of whom
were destined to perish as gladiators, and all were torn
from their country and reduced to slavery. The
slaughter which he occasioned in the civil wars cannot
be computed; nor can we estimate the degree of suf-
fering caused in every part of the empire by his spoli-
ations and confiscations, and by the various acts of op-
pression which he tolerated in his followers. --Was,
then, his assassination a lawful act? Certainly not.
The act of assassination is in itself so hateful, and in-
volves in it so much of dissimulation and treachery,
that, whatever allowance may be made for the perpe-
trators, when wc consider the moral ignorance of the
times in which they lived, their conduct must never be
spoken of without open condemnation. (Encyc. Mc-
trnpol. , Div. 3, vol. 2, p. 156, scqq. -- Encyc. Amcr. ,
vol. 2, p. 379. ) -- As an historical writer Caesar has
been compared to Xenophon. Simplicity is the char-
acteristic of both, though in Cesar perhaps it borders
on severity. We have from the pen of the Roman
commander seven books of commentaries on the Gal-
lic war, and three of the civil contest. His style is re-
markable for clearness and ease, and its most distin-
guishing characteristic is its perfect equality of expres-
sion. It has been affirmed, by some critics, that Cae-
sar did not write the three books of the civil war, and
even that Suetonius was the author of the seven books
on the Gallic war. But Vossius has vindicated Ce-
sar's title to the authorship of the Commentaries as
? ? they stand in the editions, though he does not vouch
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? C;? S
C. <<S
sonally present, till the final pacification, when Caesar,
learning the designs which were forming against him
at Rome, get out for Italy. Cesar, in the conclusion
of the third book, of the civil war, mentions the com-
mencement of the Alexandrean. Hirtius was not
personally present at the succeeding events of this
Kgypuan contest, in which Cesar was involved with
the generals of Ptolemy, nor during his rapid cam-
paigns in Pontus against Pharnaces, and against the
remains of the Pompcian party in Africa, where they
bad assembled under Scipio, and, being supported by
Juba, still presented a formidable appearance. He
collected, however, the leading events from the con-
versation of Cssar, and the officers who were engaged
in these campaigns. He has obviously imitated the
style of his master; and the resemblance which he has
happily attained, has given an appearance of unity and
consistence to the whole series of these well-written
and authentic memoirs. It appears that Hirtius car-
ried down the history even to the death of Csjsar: for
in his preface addressed to Ilalbus, he says that he had
brought down what was left imperfect from the trans-
actions at Alexandria to the end, not of the civil dis-
sensions, to a termination of which there was no pros-
pect, but of the life of Caesar. This latter part, how-
ever, of the Commentaries of Hirtius, has been lost.
It seems now to be generally acknowledged that he
ins not the author of the book De Bello Hispanico,
which relates Csesar's second campaign in Spain, un-
dertaken against young Cncius Pompey, who, having
assembled, in the ulterior province of that country,
those of his father's party who had survived the disas-
ters in Thcssaly and A frica, and being joined by some
of the native states, presented a formidable resistance
to the power of Caesar, till his hopes were terminated
by the decisive battle of Munda. Dodwell, indeed, in
bos Dissertation De auctore Belli Galhci, etc. , main-
tarns, that it was originally written by Hirtius, but was
interpolated by Julius Celsus, a Constant itiopolitan wri-
ter of the sixth or seventh century. Voasius, however,
whose opinion is the one more commonly received, at-
tribute* it to Caius Oppius, who wrote the Lives of
Illustrious Captains, and also a book to prove that the
Egyptian Cajsarion was not the son of Cesar. (Dun-
lap's Roman Literature, vol. 2, p. 191, seqq. ) The
-*>t editions of Caesar's Commentaries are, the mag-
nificent one by Dr. Clarke, fol. , Loud. , 1712; that of
Cambridge, with a Greek translation, 4to, 1727; that
of Oudendorp. 2 vols. 4to, L Bat. , 1737; that of the
EUcvirs, 8>>o, L. Bat. , 1635; that of Oberlinus, Lips. ,
1S19,8vo ; and that of Achaintrc and Lcmaire, Peris,
4 vols. 9vo, 1919-22. II. The name Csssar became a
title of honour for the Roman emperors, commencing
aith Augustus, and at a later period designated also the
presumptive heirs to the empire. (Vid. Augustus.
