No More Learning

with the government of a portion of Macedonia under
Perdiccas, and employed his time in equipping and
organising some troops. His brothcr's reign had a dis-
astrous termination. He was defeated with heavy loss
by the Illyrians, and died soon afterwards. And so
Philip, now twenty-three years of age, became king of
Macedon in 359 13. 0. , there being only an infant son
of Perdiceas whose claim to the throne it was not dif-
ficult, under the circumstances, to set aside with the
' national approval.
N 0 prince could have begun his reign with gloomier
prospects than the future conqueror of Greece. He
was encompassed by enemies. There were other claim-
ants of the throne--one of these being Argaeus, who
was supported by Athens. He thus had to fear attack
from barbarian neighbours by land, and from Athenian
fleets by sea. The hostile attitude of the Athenians
was determined by their very prudent desire to recover
the important position of Amphipolis at the mouth of
the Strymon. To Athens the possession of this place
was of the utmost value, as it was the key to a region
rich in gold and silver mines, as well as in forest-timber.
To this the people had an eye, in supporting the pre-
tensions of Argaeus to the throne of Macedon against
Philip. The king, however, met them promptly, and
won a victory over a little force which they had sent
to Methone on the Macedonian coast of the Gulf of
Thermae. He took some Athenian citizens prisoners;
but as he was anxious to conciliate Athens, he treated
them with marked respect, and allowed them at once
to return. He then made peace with Athens, and
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? MA crnoy AND PHILIP. 17
waived all claim to Amphipolis, in which his pro-
decessor had placed a Macedonian garrison. The city
was now left to itself; and the Athenians, had they
been wise, would have spared no effort to secure it.
As it was, they let slip a golden opportunity of regain-
ing a position which might have been in their hands a
barrier against the growing power of Macedon, and
would have certainly enabled them to maintain their
maritime supremacy on the ZEgean.
Philip meanwhile, having freed himself for the
present fromthe fear of Athens, was at liberty to fence
off his kingdom from the attacks of its land enemies.
He had already organised something of a military force,
and with this he prepared to strike a decisive blow at
the Illyrian, Paeonian, and Thracian tribes,l which were
perpetually crossing the Macedonian frontier in plun-
dering expeditions. It seems that these tribes, which
were scattered over what are now the provinces of
Bosnia, Servia, and Albania, were at this time being
pushed southwards by a great movement of the Gauls.
The lllyrians were Macedon's most dangerous neigh-
bours, and they had inflicted many a disastrous defeat
on Philip's predecessors. N ow they were at the height
of their power, and were united for purposes of war
under a chief named Bardylis, an able leader and a
brave warrior. Philip, after thoroughly vanquishing
the Pzeonians, which he seems to have done easily,
turned his arms against the more formidable Illyrians,
and attacked them in western Macedonia, which they
had invaded. He won a hard-fought battle, chiefly
through the efficiency of his cavalry. The Illyrian
. \. o. s. s. vol. iv B
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? 18 _ DEMOSTHENES.
army was utterly discomfited, and their chief was glad
to make peace, and cede whatever portions of Mace
donia he had conquered and occupied. The result of
this victory was, that the Macedonian frontier was
pushed to the lake Lychnitis (now Okridha), and was
made far more secure than it had hitherto been, by the
occupation of mountain-passes through which the
Illyrian invaders used to pour into Macedonia.
The famous phalanx, which we connect specially
with the names of Macedon and Philip and Alexander,
is said to have taken part in this battle. Philip has
been credited with this military invention; but, in
truth, he can be said only to have introduced it. He
may have considerably modified it, but it had always
been an important element in a Greek army. It was
the great Epameinondas of Thebes who seems to have
first organised it in its most powerful and effective
form. He, in fact, it was who brought the science of
war to the highest perfection hitherto known in Greece.
Philip, during his residence as a young man in Thebes,
may well have had opportunities of personal intercourse
with this illustrious general, and have derived from him
many profitable hints and suggestions. At all events, he
had daily under his eyes the inagnificent soldiers who had
fought and conquered at Leuctra. His first military
ideas were thus drawn from the best of all schools, and
we may well suppose that a deep impression was at the
same time made on his young imagination. He would
soon see that the barbarous enemies of Macedon would
never be able to stand against really well-trained troops.
He had also at Thebes the literary and philosophical
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? MA aspen AND PHILIP. 19
teaching which often lays the foundation of able states-
manship. Possibly he may have made the acquaintance
of Plato, and there is certainly ground for believing
that the philosopher conceived a high opinion of his
ability. Nor is it unlikely that he may also at this
time have had his admiration directed by some circum-
stance to Aristotle, whom he afterwards made the
tutor of the young Alexander. It is certain that he
became imbued with some amount of Greek culture,
and that he acquired the power of speaking and writing
the language almost as well as a professed orator or
rhetorician. He liked to look on himself, and to be
regarded by others, as thoroughly a Greek; and this it
was, no doubt, which inclined him to be always con-
siderate towards Athens, as the foremost state of Greece.
Perhaps he was not too young, before he left Thebes,
to imbibe some political notions. In such a city he
would at least have a good opportunity of getting an
insight into the character of Greek politics, and he
might have early learnt some of those weak points in
Greece which his adroitness subsequently enabled him
to turn to such profitable account.
Philip, after his victories over the lllyrians and
Paeonians, which for a time at least made Macedonia
secure on the land side, still reigned over a poor and
half-barbarous kingdom. He had much to do before
he could hope to become a considerable power in the
Greek world. As yet, he did not possess a single town
on the coast. He had, as we have seen, given up
Amphipolis to please the Athenians. He must have
been surprised to find that they did not make haste to
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? 20 . ' 'DEMOSTHENES. "
recover that important place. But they committed the
blunder, and allowed the people of Amphipolis to remain
their own masters. Soon afterwards, in 358 13. 0. , Philip
thought he might as well possess himself of it; and
when the inhabitants refused to surrender, he laid siege
to the city. Envoys were sent to Athens, asking for
help; but it is possible that at this crisis the war with
the allies had just begun, and that the Athenians may
have thus found themselves fully occupied. Philip,
too, promised them in a very civil letter that he would
put them in possession of it as soon as he had taken it.
The Athenians did nothing, though it could not have
been very difficult for them to have saved the place
and secured it for themselves. This was indeed short-
sighted, as they now again had an opportunity of
securing a commanding position, and of nipping Philip's
power in the bud. . It was one of those errors which
can never be retrieved. Athens lost prestige, as well
as a most useful dependency. When Philip took the
city, Olynthus, which was not far distant, and was at
the head of a group of Greek townships in the penin-
sula of Chalcidice, was seriously alarmed, and proposed
an alliance to Athens. The offer was rejected, as the
Athenians, it seems, still wished to look on Philip as
their friend, and were persuaded to trust his promises.
'The cunning prince contrived. not only to buy off the
hostility of Olynthus, but actually to win its friend-
ship and to become its ally by the cession of a
disputed strip of territory near Thessalonica. The
next thing he did was to venture on an openly hostile '
'act against Athens by conquering and _wresting front
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? HACEDON AND PHILIP. 21
her a most important possession, the city of Potidaea,
on the gulf of Thermae. This, too, he gave up to the
Olynthians. Pydna, also, on the shore of the same
gulf, opposite to Potidaea, likewise an Athenian pos-
session, fell_into his hands through internal treachery;
and Athens, it appears, made no effort to save the
place. Thus, in a single year, 358 11. 0. , Philip gained
three most valuable positions on the coast, and a severe
shock was given to Athenian influence in' the north of
the 1Egean. He had hitherto been poor; now he had
the means of raising an ample revenue. Master of
Amphipolis, he had free access to the gold region in
the neighbourhood east of the Strymon. Here he
founded the city which we know by the familiar name
of Philippi. He had now a well-organised army, and
he was able to maintain it. In little more than two
years he had immensely increased the strength and
resources of his kingdom. But it was not _till six
years afterwards that Macedon was felt to be a distinct
menace to the Greek world. '
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? C H A P T E R III.
EARLY LIFE or DEMOSTHENES.
WE cannot be quite certain about the year in which
Demosthenes was born. The accounts are conflicting,
and we are thrown back on somewhat doubtful infer-
ences. The year, it seems, must have been either 385-
384 B. 0. or 382-381 13. 0. His early life thus coincided
with an eventful period, and witnessed more than one
remarkable political change in the Greek world. In the
years immediately after his birth the supremacy of
Sparta was unquestioned. Greece lay at her feet.
Her power had n1ade itself felt far beyond the Pelo-
ponnese, even on the northern shores of the Zligean.
She had overthrown the city which might have become
an effectual bulwark against the terrible king of Mace-
don. Olynthus became her vassal in the year 379 13. 0.
All was changed eight years afterwards. The decisive
battle of Leuctra, in 371 13. 0. , struck down Sparta and
gave the ascendancy to Thebes. For a few years Greece
rcsounrled with the fame of her two illustrious citzens,
Epamcinondas and Pclopidas. But when she lost
Epameinondas, nine years after Leuctra, in the brilliant
victory of Mantincia. she lost with him the supreme
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? EARLY LIFE OF DE1l[OSTIIEA'E6'. > 23
control of Greek politics, retaining merely the foremost
rank among the northern states. Meanwhile she had
given, as we have seen, shelter and education to the
future destroyer of Greek freedom.
Amid these changes and revolutions, Demosthenes
grew up to manhood. His own state, Athens, had
achieved nothing specially worthy of record during
this period. Still, she was altogether the most famous
city of Greece, and was commercially prosperous. The
father of Demosthenes, who bore the same name, was
a rich and eminently respectable citizen. He was a
merchant and a manufacturer, and belonged to the
wealthy middle class. His property was distributed in
various investments. He had two manufactoriies, and
each, it seems, had a good business. One was a sword
and knife manufactory, and employed thirty-two slaves.
The other was a cfiipet manufactory, and in this
twenty slaves were elnployed. He had'also money
out at interest, a deposit account at one of the principal
banks, and sums lent, according to a very prevalent
Athenian practice, on ship-cargoes. He had, too, a
house of some value, and good furniture and plate;
and his wife was an heiress, and had her jewels on a
tolerably handsome scale. But the lady, whose name
was Cleobule, was not of pure Athenian blood, and
her birth and antecedents were not quite what could be
desired. Her father, Gylon, was a man of distinctly
blemished reputation. He had been, in fact, accused
of treason--the charge against him being that he had
betrayed to the enemy the seaport town of N ympheeum
in the Crimea. He did not appear to_ answer the
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? 24 DEMOSTHENES.
accusation, and was, according to one account, sentenced
to death in his absence. But he contrived to do well
for himself. He went to Panticapaeum, now Kertch,
in the Crimea, then the capital of the kings of Bos-
porus, and there, through the king's favour, obtained
a grant of land and married a rich wife. She was
snecringly spoken of at Athens as a barbarian and a
Scythian--and so Alschines describes her; but it is
quite possible that she may have been the daughter of
one of those many Greeks who had settled in this
remote district to carry on the business of exporting
corn to Athens. It was then, as now, a specially
corn-growing region. Gylon, it seems, made the most
of the king's favour, and traded with great success.
He was unquestionably a sharp, shrewd man; and he
sent his two daughters well dowered to Athens, and
there they both made fairly good matches. Both got
Athenian citizens for their husbands--the one marry-
ing Demochares, and the other the elder Demosthenes.
We may not unreasonably conjecture that the mother
of Demosthenes inherited some natural ability from her
sagacious and enterprising father.
It was the misfortune of Demosthenes to be left an
orphan when only seven years of age, and to fall into
the hands of unscrupulous guardians.
His father died
worth fourteen talents,--about ? 3500 of our money.
This, according to modern notions, is a very moderate
property; but at Athens it was sufiiciently large to place.
its possessor in the wealthiest class, and to render him
liable to the highest rate of direct taxation. There
were much larger fortunes, no doubt, as that of N icias,
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? EARLY LIFE OF DEMOSTHENES. 25
which is said to have amounted to 100 talents, or about
? 24,000. Alcibiades was even richer; and Callias, who
lived at the time of the Persian war, and secured a
' good share of the plunder, was what we should call a
millionaire, being reported to have been worth 200
talents. Athens, as we have seen, was, of all the Greek
cities, by far the richest, and it always contained a
number of well-to-do citizens. The ordinary rate of
interest was extremely high. Money lent even on good
security fetched from 12 to 20 per cent ; and some in--
vestments, those especially on ship-cargoes--hazardous,
no doubt--were yet more lucrative. As much as 30
per cent was now and then paid on this class of invest-
ments. Demosthenes asserts, in his pleadings against
his guardians, that a third part of his estate produced
an income of fifty minas. This would make the
entire income about ? 600 a-year. Now, it appears that
a citizen could live just decently at Athens on some-
thing like seven or eight minas a-year, or about ? 32 ;
and in perfect comfort and respectability on fifty
minas, or about ? 200 a-year, provided he kept clear of
the various costly public services which were demanded
from the rich. Demosthenes, therefore, it is clear,
having but one sister, ought to have had a very ample
fortune, though he could not have been described as
extremely wealthy. His father, being in business,
probably got 25 or even 30 per cent for a large part
of his capital, and we should suppose that he was at
Athens in much the same position as a man with from
? 2000 to ? 3000 a-year would be with us. Had his
will been faithfully carried out, and a third of the
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? 26 >DEMOSTHENES.
income been set apart for maintenance and education,
and two-thirds profitably invested, the son must have
been decidedly rich when at the age of sixteen, ten
years after his father's death, he attained his majority.
As it was, he found himself comparatively poor.
He had to receive something less than two talents, and
his income could not have exceeded from ? 60 to ? 70
a-year. His father, we may surmise, had misgivings
about the administration of the property, as he practi-
cally endeavoured to bribe the three guardians, two of
whom were his nephews, into a faithful discharge of
_ their trust by giving them full control over almost one-
third of the property. His sister's son, Aphobus, was
to marry the widow, with a fair fortune, and to have
the house and furniture during the minority of Demos-
thenes. His brother's son, Demophon, was to have
two talents, and to marry the daughter in due time.
In all respects he seems to have carefully provided for
his two children, and to have left them in the charge
of relatives on whose fidelity he might reasonably
reckon. The result can be ascribed only to negligence
and dishonesty. The property must have been partly
muddled away, partly actually embezzled. Admitting
that some of the investments were precarious, and that
the business of the two manufactories was simply mis-
managed, we can hardly doubt that the trustees were
unprincipled as well as utterly careless. It is true, indeed,
' that1)em0sthenes was taunted by his rival Aischines with
having squandered his patrimony in ridiculous follies ;'
and it was alleged by one of the guardians, in defending
the action, that large advances had been made. The
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? EARLY LIFE OF DEMOSTHENES. 27
boy had, it would seem, rather luxurious tastes, and
in the last two years of his minority he may have
indulged them freely. But this very inadequately
explains the smallness of the sums handed over to him.
It is an all but absolute certainty that he was swindle'd
out of his property. The matter ended in his bringing
an action against Aphobus, and recovering a verdict
for ten talents. It is not certain whether he actually
received this amount. Aphobus was rich and influential,
and contrived to make fm-ther difficulties. We have
five speeches connected with this action--three against
Aphobus, and two against a brother-in-law of Aphobus,
Onetor. It is from these speeches that we chiefly get
our information about the property of Demosthenes.
We have not the means of knowing the precise results
of the suit, or what benefit, if any, Demosthenes de-
rived from it. Much of the estate had somehow or
other disappeared, and he had to enter on life as rather
a poor instead of a rich man.
It is probable that his misfortunes had a good effect
on his character, They may have been the source of his
intense resolution and perseverance. From early years
he had a weak constitution, and shrank from the vigor-
ous physical training which was considered an essential
element in a Greek education. He had an active
mind, and a strong craving for intellectual culture. As
became his position and expectations, he went to good
schools--though his guardians, if we may believe his
statement, were shabby enough to leave his school-fees
unpaid. He had a passion for speeches and recitations;
and it was said that he once induced his schoolmaster
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? 28 DEJIIOSTHENES.
to go with him to hear one of the first speakers of the
day, Callistratus, who was delivering a great political
harangue on the cession of the border-town Oropus to
the Thebans. The occasion may have been a turning-.
point in his life. But he had an unlucky infirmity; he,
who was to be the greatest orator of all time, stammered
in his boyhood and youth. It would seem as if his
physical defects were too much for his mental vigour
and his ambitious aspirations.
Plutarch in his 'Life of Demosthenes' gives us several
interesting details about his study and preparation for
the career of an orator, and it is satisfactory to find
that so high an authority as Mr Grote thinks that they
rest on good evidence. It appears that the youth put
himself under the instruction of Isaeus, one of the first
advocates of the time, who was frequently retained in
cases connected with wills and disputes about property.
In his speeches against his guardians he is said to have
availed himself of the counsel and guidance of this
eminent lawyer. But the most fashionable rhetoric-
professor of the day was Isocrates, and Demosthenes
was among the number of his most attentive and ad-
miring hearers; though perhaps we must not believe a
story according to which he asked the great man to
teach him a fifth part_ of his art for two minas, as he
could not afford the regular fee of ten minas, about
? 40, to learn the whole. One would like to believe
that he heard and admired some of the discourses of
Plato, who was then in the height of his philosophical
glory; and there is a tradition, mentioned by Cicero
and Tacitus, to this effect. The literary styles of the
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? EARLY LIFE OF DEMOSTHENES. 29
two men are no doubt very diverse; yet,' as Dr Thirl-
>wall suggests, it is not wholly improbable that the
lofty morality which Demosthenes ventured to intro-
duce into speeches addressed to Athenian assemblies
and law courts may have been inspired by the philo-
sopher. That he was a devoted student of the great
'History of Thucydides, that he copied it out eight times,
and almost'. knew it by heart, we may well believe.
One of the ancient critics, Dionysius of Halycarnassus,
has elaborately pointed out resemblances in the orator
to the historian. Strangely enough Cicero, in his
_Orator,* asks the question, "What Greek orator ever'
borrowed anything from Thucydides T " We really fail
to see the point of this question, unless he meant to
limit the term orator to a mere pleader, and even then
we think he is wrong. But for the purpose of political
oratory there cannot be a doubt that both the style and
matter of Thucydides might be studied with infinite'
profit by a man of real capacity.
Nothing but the utmost energy and perseverance
'would have enabled Demosthenes to make himself an
orator. He had, as already said, to surmount the
actual physical difliculties of a feeble constitution. and
of some defect in his organs of speech. His ultimate
success was a decisive proof of a singularly exceptional
force of character. It is for this, indeed, as exhibited
throughout his whole career, that he specially deserves
admiration. We are told that he practised speaking
with pebbles in his mouth; that he strengthened his
lungs and his voice by reciting as he ran up hill 5 that
" Chapter ix.
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? 30 DEAIOSTHENES.
he declaimed on the seashore amid the noise of waves
and storms. He would even pass two or three months
continuously in a subterranean cell, shaving one side
of his head, that he might not be able to show himself
>in public, to the interruption of his rhetorical exercises.
But all this patient and laborious practice did not
procure immediate success. No public assembly could
be more critical and fastidious than that of Athens.
Demosthenes failed repeatedly. One of the old citizens
found him on one of these occasions wandering about
disconsolately in the Piraeus, and tried to cheer him
up by saying, " You have a way of speaking which re-
minds me of Pericles, but you lose yourself through mere
timidity and cowardice. " Another time he was return-
ing to his home in deep dejection, when Satyrus, a great
and popular actor, with whom he was well acquainted,
entered into conversation with him. Demosthenes
complained that though he was the most painstaking
of all the orators, and had almost sacrificed his health
to his intense application, yet he could find no favour
with the people, and that drunken seamen and other
illiterate persons were listened to in preference to him-
self. "True," replied the actor, " but I will provide
you a remedy if you will repeat to me some speech in
Euripides or Sophocles. " Demosthenes did so, and then
Satyrus recited the same speech in such a manner that
it seemed to the orator quite a different passage. With
the aid of such hints, joined to his own indefatigable
industry, he at last achieved a distinct success in the
law courts, and his services as an advocate were in
great request. _
. After all, he had not much of which, according to
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? EARLY LIFE OF DEMOSTHENES. 31
our notions, a man could feasonably complain. Suc-
cess came to him very early in life. He was, as we
should say, in large practice at the bar when he was
considerably under thirty--an age at which a young
English barrister hardly hopes for a brief. Doubtless,
at Athens there were opportunities for displaying ora-
torical ability which do not exist in England. One
thoroughly successful speech before the popular assem-
bly might well make the fortune of a man as an advo-
cate. To make such a speech required, we may be sure,
marked ability and considerable training; but once
made, it must at least have opened a career in the law
courts. Athenian law, too, was probably less intricate
and diflicult than English. It had not such a variety
of branches, as seem to be indispensable in so complex
a community as our own. The study of it must thus
have been a much_,less _ard. ueus>>. task than that which
lies before the English lawyer. But it was an admir-
able preparation for political life. Law and politics
werc;in_te@glfad__at_ Athens - very much more than
among ourselves I; and a lawyer was almost necessarily
something of a politician. There, questions which we
regard as purely political, and which would be dis-
cussed with us only in Parliament, might come before
a law court. An accusation, for instance, might be
preferred against a man for proposing a law or a decree
quite at variance with the spirit of the constitution.
Such cases were frequent. It was in a prosecution of
this nature that Demosthenes, who for some few years
had had a good practice as a barrister in civil and
criminal causes, made what we may fairly call his first
appearance as a political adviser.
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? C H A P T E R IV.
DEMOSTHENES surses POLITICAL LIFE.
IN all democracies much will be expected from the rich.
This was the rule in the Greek states, and especially
at Athens. There the constitution demanded a certain
amount of public spirit, and prescribed various modes
in which it was to display itself. Athenians loved a
bright joyous life, and the wealthier of them were
under legal obligations to minister to the popular tastes
and contribute to the public amusements. There was
a good side to all this. It made the rich feel that they
must not use their riches merely for their own selfish en-
joyment, but that it ought to be the glory of an Athe-
nian citizen of fortune to put happiness and refinement
within the reach of every member of the community.
Pericles, in the famous funeral oration, the substance of
which Thucydides has given us, had boasted how it was
=the peculiar genius of Athens to combine mirthfulness
and gaiety with a strong sense of political responsibility.
Poetry and music were an essential part of an Athe- '
nian's life. They were intimately connected with all
the religious festivals. With us the pleasures of the
opera are necessarily confined to a select few. ' At
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-12-27 04:55 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/coo. 31924026456347 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? DEM OSTH ENES ENTERS POLITIOA L LIFE. 33
Athens the poorest citizen was enabled to gratify his
taste for such pleasures. The law imposed on a man
with a certain amount of property the liability of hav-
ing to provide a chorus of singers or musicians on some
great public occasion. He had to bear all the expenses
himself. Having made up his number, he had to ob-
tain a teacher or choir-master, and to pay him for his
instruction. He had also, it seems, to board and lodge
the chorus during the time of its training, and he had,
further, to furnish them with suitable dresses. All
this, of course, he could do by deputy; but if he was
anxious, as he usually would be, to do it with credit to
himself, he would find that he must give the matter
his personal attention. There was a prize for the best
' performance; and this, if not intrinsically valuable,
was sure to be coveted. The choragus, as he was
called, had a stall assigned him in the theatre, and it
was part of his duty to be present during the cere-
mony with his crown and robe of office. There seems
to have been every variety of chorus--tragic and comic
choruses, pyrrhic choruses, and choruses of flute-players.