He treated the entire compass of philosophy in Latin and German text books ; the latter all bear the title VernSnftige Gedanken [" Rational Thoughts,"
treating
psychology, metaphysics, physics, physiology, botany, astronomy, ethics, politics, etc.
Windelband - History of Philosophy
A.
Seth, Scottish Philoso phy, Edin.
and Lond.
1886, and art.
Reid in Enc.
Brit.
} Besides Jame?
Oswald (died 1793, Appeal to Common Sense in Behalf of Religion, 1766) and .
fames Beattie (died 1806, Essay on the Nature and Immutability of Truth, 1770), the school had its chief academical and literary representative in Dugald Stewart (1763-1828, Professor in Edinburg ; Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind, 3 parts, 1792-1827 ; ed.
of his works by W.
Hamilton, 10 vols.
, Edin.
1864 ff.
).
Pierre Bayle, the type of sceptical polyhistory, born 1647 at Carlat, led a life disquieted by twice changing his Confession, was finally a professor in Sedan and Rotterdam, and died 1706. His influential life work is embodied in his Dietionnaire Historique et Critique (1695 and 1697). Cf. L. Feuerbach, P. Bayle nach seinen fur die Geschichte der Philosophic und Menschheit interessan- testen Momenten, Ansbach, 1833.
Of the works of Voltaire (Francois Arouet le Jeune, 1694-1778 ; the main events of his literary life are his flight to London, his stay with the Marquise du Chatelet in Cirey, his visit with Frederick the Great in Potsdam, and his rest in old age at the country seat Ferney, near Geneva), the following are principally to be considered here : Lettres sur les Anglais (1784), Mitaphysiqne de Newton (1740), Elements de la Philosophic de Newton mis a la Purtee de lout le Monde (1741), Examen important de Mylord Bolingbroke (1736), Can- dide ou sur V Optimisme (1767), Dietionnaire Philosophique (1764), Le Philosophe Ignorant (1767), Reponse au Systeme de la Nature (1777), the poem Les Svstemes, etc. Cf. E. Bersot, La Philosophic de V. (Paris, 1848); D. F. Strauss,
maticians such as Maupertuis (1098-1759 ; active in connection with the Berlin Academy ; Essai de Philosophic Morale, 1760 ; Essai de Cosmologie, 1751 ; controversial writings between him and the Wolffian, S. Konig, collected Leips. 1758), or d'Alembert (Melanges de Litterature, <THistoire et de Philoso phic, 1752); others proceed more naturalistically, such as Button (1708-1788; Histoire Naturelle Ge. nerale et Particuliere, 1749 ff. ) and Jean Battiste Robinet (1735-1820; De la Nature, 1761 ; Considerations Philosophiques de la Grada tion Naturelle des Formes d'Etre 1767).
Sensualism appears in connection with materialism in Julien Offrai de Lamettrie (1709-1761 ; Histoire Naturelle de V Ame, 1745; V Homme Machine, 1748 ; VArtde Jouir, 1751 ; (Euvres, Berlin, 1751 ; on him F. A. Lange, Gesch. des Mater. , I. 326 ff. [Eng. tr. Hist, of Mater. , Vol. II. 49 ff. ] ; Nerfee Quepat, Paris, 1873); it appears solely as psychological theory with Charles Bonnet (1720-1793 ; Essai de Psychologic, 1755 ; Essai Analytique sur les Facullis de VAme, 1769 ; Considerations sur les Corps Organises, 1762 ; Contemplation de la Nature, 1764 ; Palingenesies Philosophiques, 1769), and with a positivistic pointing in Etienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715-1780 ; Essai sur VOrigine de la
V. (Leips. 1870); J. Morley, V. (Lond. and N. Y. 1872).
More sceptical in metaphysical aspects appear natural scientists and mathe
Connaissance Humaine, 1746; Traite des Systimes, 1749; Traiti des Sensa tions, 1754 ; Logique, 1780 ; Langue des Calculs in the complete edition, Paris, 1798 ; cf. F. Rethorfi, C. ou VEmpirisme et le Rational isme, Paris, 1864). The last representatives of these theories are, on the one hand, Pierre Jean George Cabanis (1767-1808 ; Les Rapports du Physique et du Moral de V Homme, 1802 ;
(Euvres, Paris, 1821-25), on the other side, Antoine Louis Claude Destutt de Tracy (1754-1836; Elements d" Ideologic, in 4 parts, 1801-16, together 1826). — Cf. Fr. Picavet, Les Ideologues (Paris, 1891).
The literary concentration of the Enlightenment movement in France was the Encyclopaedia (Encyclopedic ou Dietionnaire Raisoonides Sciences, des Art* et des Metiers, 28 vols. , 1762-1772, supplement <uid maex, 7 \uls. , extending to 1780). Besides d'Alembert, who wrote me introduction, the editor and intellectual head of the circle from which it proceeded was Denis Diderot (1713-1784; Pensees Philosophiques, 1746 ; Pensees sur /' Interpretation de la Nature, 1754 ; of the posthumous publications the Promenade d'un Sceptique, the Entretien
Philoiophy of the Enlightenment. 443
d'Alemhtrt et de Diderot, and the Rive cTAlembert are to be emphasised , worthy of mention also is the Essai de Peinture; (Euvret Completes, Paris, 1875, 20 vols. ; cf. K. Rosenkranz, D. , $ein Leben und seine Werke, Leips. 1866 ; J. Morley, D. and the Encyclopedists, Lond. 1878). Further collaborators upon the Encyclopedia (aside from Voltaire and Kousseau, who became separated from the work at an early date) were Turgot (article Existence), Daubenton. Jaucourt, Duclos, Grimm, Holbacb, etc. From the same circle ("Les Philo- KipKes ") proceeded later the Byateme de la Nature (pseud, author, Mirabeau, 1770), which is in the main to be attributed to Dietrich von Holbach (1723-1789, from the Palatinate ; Le bon Sens ou Idees Naturelles oppose** aux Idees Sur- naturelles, 1772 ; Elements de la Morale Universelle, 1776, etc. ). [On the Systeme de la Nature cf. Lange, Hist, of Mat. , II. 92 ft. ] With him co-oper ated Grimm (1723-1807 ; Correspondence LitUraire, 1812), the mathematician Lagrange, the Abbe Galiani, Naigeon, and others ; the concluding chapter, " Abrege du Code de la Nature. " is perhaps from Diderot's pen ; Helvrftiua wrote a very popular exposition, " Vrai Sens du Systeme de la Nature," 1771. The same writer (Claude Adrien Helvetius, 1716-1771) gave the sharpest expres sion to the morals of the sensualislic associational psychology in his much read book, De VEsprit C1768 ; cf. also his posthumous work, De VHomme de ses Facultis etdeson Education, 1772V
The theory of English constitutionalism was adopted in France by Montes quieu (1689-1766 ; Lettres Persanes, 1721 ; De V Esprit des Lois, 1748). Social problems were treated on the one side by the so-called Physiocrats such as Queanay (Tableaux Economiques, 1768; ; Turgot (Reflexions sur la Forma tion et la Distribution des Richesses, 1774, opposed by Ualiani, Dialogues sur le
Commerce des Dies') and others, on the other side by the Communists such as Morally (Code de la Nature, 1766), and Mably, the brother of Condillac (De la legislation ou Principes des Lois, 1776.
The most notable figure of the French Enlightenment was Jean Jacques Rousseau (born, 1712, In Geneva, died, 1778, in Ermenonvllle after an adven turous life, which toward the end was troubled by melancholy and hallucinations of persecution). His main writings — aside from the autobiographical Confes sions [tx. , Lond. 1876] — are Discours sur lei Sciences et les Arts (1760), his- euurs sur V Origine et les Fondemens de VIntgalitt parmi Irs Hommes (\~~3), La Nouvelle Htloise (1761), Emile ou sur V Education (1762) [abr. tr. , Boston, 18861, Du Control Social (1762). Cf. F. Brockerhoff, if. , sein Leben und seine
Werke (Leips. 1863 and 1874) ; E. Feuerlein in " Der Oedanke " (Berlin, I860) ; L. Moreau, J. J. R. et le Steele Philosophique (Paris, 1870) ; J. Morley, . /. J. R. ( Loud. 1873) ; R. Fester, R. und die deutsche Ueschichtsphilosophie (Stuttgart, 1MX» ; [E. Caird, R. in Essays, Vol. I. |.
The philosophical theory of the Revolution was developed chiefly by Charles Francois de St. -Lambert (1716-1803 ; Principes des Marurs chez toutes les Nations ou Catechisme Universel, 1798), Const. Fr. C'hassebreuf Comte de Volney (1767-1820; Les Ruines, 1791; La Loi Naturelle ou Principes Phy siques de la Morale, diduits de F Organisation de V Homme el de V Vnicers ou
Catfchisme du Citoyen Francois, 1793), Marie Jean Ant. Nic. de Condorcet ( 1743-1794 ; Esquisse <Tun Tableau Historique du l*rogres de V Esprit Humain, 1796), Dominique Garat (1749-1833; cf. Conte Rendu des Stance* des Ecoles Normales, IL 1-40). Cf. L. Ferraz, La Philosophic de la Revolution (l*aris, 1800).
Gottfried WUhelm Leibnis, the many-sided founder of German philosophy, was born, 1640, in Lei pule, studied there and at Jena, received his decree in Altorf, and was then, through his acquaintance with Boyneburg, drawn into the diplomatic service of the Elector of Mayence. In this service, pursuing political and scientific plans of his own, he travelled as a member of an embassy to Paris and London, with an incidental visit to Spinoza in The Hague, and then entered the service of the court of Hanover and Brunswick as librarian and court his torian. In all these positions he was active in his public and diplomatic capacity
in the Interests of the German national spirit and of peace between the Confes sions. Later he lived at the court of the first Prussian (Jueen Sophie Charlotte, a Hanoverian princess, in Charlottenberg and Berlin, where the Academy was founded under his direction ; afterwards he lived for some time iu Vienna, to
444 Philotophy of the Enlightenment. [Part V.
consult archives. Here be gave the stimulus for the foundation of an academy, a project which was later carried out, and the St. Petersburg Academy was also due to his influence. He died, 1716, at Hanover. The manifold nature of his activity, and the way in which his life was split up, is shown also in the fact that his scientific views are, for the most part, deposited only in fragmentary essays, and in an incredibly extensive correspondence. The best edition of his philo sophical writings is the most recent by C. J. Gerhardt, 7 vols. (Berlin, 1876-90;. The metaphysical treatises have been cited above (p. 382). For bis influence upon the philosophy of the Enlightenment, the following come chiefly into con sideration, aside from the correspondence with Bayle and Clarke: Esaai* dt Thiodicee sur la Bonti de Dieu, la Liberti dt l'Homme et I'Origint du Mnl (Amsterdam, 1710), and the Xouceaux Essais sur I'EnUndrmi-nt Humain. first published in 1765, by Raspe. Cf. G. E. Guhrauer, G. W. Frhr. r. L. (Breslau. 1842) ; E. Pfleiderer, L. alt Patriot, Staatsmann und Bildungstrager (Leips. 1870); art. L. in Erich und Gruber's Enc. , by W. Windelband ; L. Feuer- bacb, Darstellung, Enttcicklung und Kritik der L. 'schen Phil. (Ansbacb, 184-1) ; E. Xourisson, La Philosophic dt L. (Paris, 1860) ; L. Grote, L. und stint Zeit
J. T. Men, L. (Lond. 1884); [J. Dewey, Leibniz's -Veto Essays, Chicago, 1888; art. Leibniz in Enc. Brit. , by Sorley ; Eng. tr. of Imp. Phil. Wonts, by G. M. Duncan, New
(Hanover, 1869); O. Caspari, L. 's Philosophit (Leips. 1870) ;
Haven, 1890 ; of the Sew Essays, by A. G. Langley, Lond. and N. Y. 1893]. Among the most influential " Enlighteners " in Germany was Leibniz's con
temporary and fellow-countryman, Christian Thomasius (1655-1728; Einlei- tung zur Vernunftlehre, Ausfuhrung der Vernunftlehre, both in 1691 ; F. inl. znr Sittenlfhre, 1692 ; Ausfuhrung d. Sittenlehre, 1696 ; Fundamenla Juris Xatutvt et Gentium ex Sensu Communi Deducta, 1705 ; cf. A. Luden. C. Th. , Berlin, 1805).
The centre of scientific life in Germany during the eighteenth century was formed by the teaching and school of Christian Wolff. He was born, 1679. in Breslau, studied at Jena, was Privat-docent at Leipsic, and taught in Halle until he was driven away in 1723 at the instigation of his orthodox opponents ; he then became Professor at Marburg. In 1740 Frederick the Great called him back to Halle with great honour, and he was active there until bis death in 1754.
He treated the entire compass of philosophy in Latin and German text books ; the latter all bear the title VernSnftige Gedanken [" Rational Thoughts," treating psychology, metaphysics, physics, physiology, botany, astronomy, ethics, politics, etc. ] ; in detail: von den Kraflen des menschlichen Verstander, 1712 ; von Gott, der Welt und der Seele des Menschen, auch alien Dingen uber- haupt, 1719; von der Menschen Thunund Lassen, 1720; torn gesellnchafllichen Leben der Menschen, 1721 ; von den Wirkungen der Natur, 1723 ; von den Absichten der natiirlichen Dinge, 1724; von den Theilen der Menschen, Thiert und Pfianzen, 1725. The Latin works, Philosophia Rationalis sive Logica. 1718; Philosophia Piima sive Ontologia, 1728; Cosmologia, 1731; Psychnlo- gia Empirica, 1732 ; Rationalis, 1734 ; Theologia Xaturalis, 1736 ; Philosophia Practica Universalis, 1738 ; Jus Xaturm, 1740 ff. ; Jus Gentium, 1749 ; Philo sophia Moralis, posthumously pub. , 1756. — Cf. K. G. Ludovici, Ausfiihrlicher Entwurfeiner vollstandigen Historieder Wolf schen Philosophic (Leips. 1736 ff. ). Also W. L. G. v. Eberstein, Versuch einer Geschichte der Logik und Metaphysik bei den Deutschen von Leibniz an (Halle, 1799).
Among the Wolffians may be named, perhaps, G. B. Bilfiiiger (1693-1750, Dilucidationes Philosophies de Deo, Anima Humana, Mundo, etc. , 1725) ; M. Knutzen (died 1751 ; Systema Causarum Efficientium, 1746 ; cf. B. Erd- mann, M. Kn. und seine, Zeit. Leips. 1876) ; J. Chr. Oottsched (1700-1766; Erste Grunde der yesammten Weltweissheit, 1734) ; Alex. Baumgarten (1714- 1762; Metaphysica, 1739; ^Esthetica, 1750-58).
As representatives of the geometrical method appear M. G. Hansen (1683- 1762; Ars Inveniendi, 1727) and G. Ploucquet (1716-1790; cf. A. F. Bock, Summlung von Schriften, toelche dem logisrhen Calciil des Hernn P. bttreffen, Frankfort and Leips. 1766) ; as opponents of the same, Pierre Crouaas (1663- 1748; Logik, 1712 and 1724; Lehre vom Schiinen, 1712), Andreas Rudiger (1071-1731 ; De Sensu Vert el Falsi, 1709; Philosophia Synthetica, 1707) ami Chr. A. Croatua (1712-1775 ; Enttcurf der nothwendigen Vernunfticahrheiten,
1745 ; Wey zur Geioissheit und Zuverlassiykeit der menschlichen Erkenntnist,
1747. )
An eclectic intermediate position is taken by J. Fi\,Budde (1667-1729;.
Philosophy of the Enlightenment. 445
Institution** Pkilo*ophioz Eclectics, 1706) and by the historians of philosophy, J. J. Bracket and D. Tiodmann, and also by Joh. Lossius (Die physiehen Ursachen des Wahren, 1776) ami A. Platner (1744-1818; Philoiophische Aphorismen, 1776 and 1782).
Of more independent importance are J. H. Lambert (born, 1728. at Miil- hausen. died, 1777, in Berlin ; Kosmologische Britfe, 1761 ; Neue* Organon, 1764; Arehitektonik, 1771) and Nic. Tetena (17. 36M806; Philotophisehe Ver- ntrhe iiber die Mentchliche A'atur und ihre Entwicklung, 1776 f. ; cf. Fr. Harms,
Ueber die Ptycholoyie dee N. T, Berlin, 1887). Both stand in literary connec tion with Kant (cf. l'art VI. ch. 1), whose pre-critical writings belong like wise in this setting ; these are principally Allgemeine Saturgetehiehte und
Theorir de* Himmel*, 1766 ; Principiorum Primortim Cognitioni* Melaphysicoz Xora Dilueidatio, 1765 ; Mohndologia Phytiea, 1756 ; Die falsehe Spitzfindig- keit der virr syllogistischen Figvren, 1762 ; Der einzig mogliche, Beieeitgrund zu einer Demonstration det Daseins Oottes, 1763 ; Versiteh. den Begriff der nega- tiren Griissen in die Welticeisheit einzufuhren, 1763 ; Ueber die Deutlichkeit der Grundsatze der naturliehen Theologie und Moral, 1764 ; Beobaehtungen iiber
da* fiefnhl de* Schtinen und Erhabenen, 1764 ; TrSume eine* Geistersehere, ertnutert durch TrSume der Metaphysik, 1766; De Mundi Sensibilis atque iHtelligibili* Forma et Principiis, 1770. CI. R. Zimmerman, Lambert der Vor- gUnger Kant'*, 1879. [On Lambert and Tetens, cf. A. Riehl, Der philoso- phiM-he Kritirirmut, Leips. 1876. For the pre-critical writings of Kant, K. Caird, The Critical Philonophy of Immanuel Kant, Glasgow, Lond. , and N. Y. 1889. Fischer's Kant; Cohen, Die *y*temati*chen Begriffe in Kant'* vorkrit- iachen Sehriften, and the works cited in first par. , p. 636. ]
Deism found a vigorous and instnictive support in Germany anions numer ous Wolffian*, though nothing new in principle was added. Characteristic of this was the translation of the Bible by Lorens Schmidt. The standpoint of historical criticism of the biblical writings was maintained by Salomon Semler
The sharpest consequences of the deistic criticism were drawn hy Samuel Reimarua (1699-1768; Abhamllungen eon den vornehmsten M'ahr- kriten der nnOirlirhen Religion, 1754 ; Brtrachtitng iiber die Triebe der Thiere, 1760, especially his Sehutzerhrift fur die verniinftigen Verehrrr (fotte*, 1767 [not pub. ], from which Leasing' edited the " Wolfenbiittler Fragmente," and, wi more recent time, Dav. Fr. Strauss edited an extract, Leipe. 1862). Joh. Chr. Rdelmann was a Spinozistic free-thinker (1698-1767). Cf. K. Monckeberg, Ilrimaru* und Edelmann (Hamburg, 1867).
The movement of the so-called Pietism, allied to Mysticism, which was begun by Spener (1635-1706), and carried forward with organising energy by Aug. Herm. Francke (1663-1727), had only an indirect influence upon phil osophy during this period ; at a still farther distance stand the more isolated members of mystic sect* such as Gottfried Arnold (1666-1714) and Conrad
IMppel (1673-1734).
Eaxtpixical psychology was represented among the Germans in the eigh
teenth century by numerous names, comprehensive collections, text-books, and •pecial investigations. There are C'asimir von Creuz (1724-1770), Joh. Gottl. Kruger ( Vertueh einer erperimentalen Seelenlehre, 1766), J. J. Hentsch ( Ver- eweit fiber die Folge der Veranderung der Seele, 1726), J. Fr. Weiss (De Satura Animi et Poti**imum Cordis Humani, 1761), Fr. v. Irwing (Erfahrungen mnd UnUrturhuwjen liber den Mentrhen, 1777 ff. ) et of. The " Magazin zur ErfnhrungiwerlrnUhrr," edited by Morlts (1785-1793), formed a place for col lating contributions to this favourite science. Further literature in K. Fortlage, Syttem der ftyehologie, I. 42 f.
A theory of art upon the basis of empirical psychology is found in Baum- garten's pupil, O. K'r. Meier (1718-1777), and especially in Joh. Georg Bal sas (1720-1779; Theorie der angenehmen Empfindungen, 17(li ; Ycrmitthte
Srhriften, 1773 ff. ; Allgemeine Theorie der trhSnen Kiinnte, 1771-1774, s
lexicon of aesthetics).
<>f the Popular Philoaophera may be mentioned Mom's Mendelssohn
<1720-1786; Briefe iiber die Empjlndungen, 1765; Ueber die Eridens in den i/etaphyiisrnen Winsenthaften, 1764; Pha-don, 1767; M<>rgen*lunden, 1785; Werke, ed. by Branch, Leips. 1881). the bnok-dcale* Fr. Nlcolai (17X1-1811), who published successively the Bibliothek der wrhi'men H'itsentcnaften, the
(1726-1791).
446 The Enlightenment : Theoretical Question*. [Part V.
Briefe die neueste deutsche Literatur betreffend, the Allgtmeine deutsche Biblio- thek, and the Neue Allgemeine deutsche Bibliothek; further J. Aug. Eberhaxd (1738-1809), Joh. Bernh. Basedow (1723-1790), Thomas Abbt (1738-1766), Joh. Jac. Engel (1741-1802; editor of the Philosoph fur die Welt), J. J. H. Feder (1740-1821), Chr. Meiners (1747-1810), Chr. Oarve (1742-1798).
A highly interesting position personally is occupied by Frederick the Great the Philosopher of Sanssouci. On him, cf. Ed. Zeller, Fr. d. Gr. als. Philosoph (Berlin, 1886).
Of Lessing's writings those of chief importance for the history of philosophy are the Hamburger Dramaturgie, the Erziehung des menschen Geschlechts. the Wolfenbiittler Fragmenle, and the theological controversial writings. Cf. Rob. Zimmerman, Leibniz und Leasing (Studien und Kritiken, I. 126 ff. ) ; E. Zirngiebl, Der . 1acobi- Mendelssohn' sche Streit fiber Lessing's Spinozismus
(Munich, 1861) ; C. Hebler, Leasing- Studien (Bern, 1862) ; W. Dilthey {Prevss. Jahrb. 1879). [Eng. tr. of the Ham. Dram, and Education of Human Race in Bohn Lib. ; of Laoccoon, by Phillimorc, Loud. 1875 ; cf. Sime, Lessing, Lond.
1873, 1879. ]
Among Herder's writings belong in this period, Ueber den Ursprung der
Sprache, 1772 ; Auch eine Philosophic der Geschichte der Menschheit, 1774 ; Vom Erkennen und Empftnden der menschlichen Seele, 1778 ; Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit, 1784 ff. [Eng. tr. , Lond. 1800]; Gott, Gesprdche fiber Spinoza's System, 1787 ; Briefe zur Beforderung der Humanitat, 1793 ff. (on his later philosophical literary activity, cf. below, Part
VI. ch. 2). Cf. R. Haym, H. nach seinem Leben und seineh Werken (Berlin, 1877-85) ; E. Melzer, H. ate Geschichtsphilosoph (Neisse, 1872) ; M. Kronen- berg, H. 's Philosophie (Heidi. 1889) [art. Herder in Enc. Brit, by J. Sully].
Cf. also J. Witte, Die Philosophie unserer Dichterheroen (Bonn, 1880).
CHAPTER I.
THE THEORETICAL
QUESTIONS.
"The proper study of mankind is man. " This word of Pope's is characteristic of the whole philosophy of the Enlightenment, not only in the practical sense that this philosophy finds the ultimate end of all scientific investigation to be always man's "happiness," but also, in the theoretical point of view, in so far as this philosophy, as a whole, aims to base all knowledge upon the observation of the actual processes of the psychical life. After Locke had set up the principle,1 that prior to all metaphysical considerations and contro versies the general question must be decided of how far human insight reaches, and that this in turn is possible only by exact exhi bition of the sources from which knowledge derives, and of the course of development by which it is brought about, — from that time epistemology, the theory of knowledge, was brought into the
front rank of philosophical interests, and at the same time empirical psychology was recognised as the authoritative and decisive court of last resort for epistemology. The legitimate reach of human ideas
should be judged by the way in which they arise. Thus experiential psychology with all the tacit assumptions which are customary in it becomes at once the basis of the whole philosophical view of the world, and the favourite science of the age, and is at the same time the instrument of mediation between science and general literature. As in this latter field, the predominant characteristic among both Englishmen and Germans was that of depicting minds and reflect ing or viewing one's self in the literary looking-glass, so philosophy should draw only the image of man and of the activities of his con sciousness. Societies for the " observation of man " were founded, all sorts of dilettante accounts of remarkable experiences were gar nered in large "magazines," and the government of the French Republic in its official system of instruction,1 replaced "philoso phy " by the sounding title, "Analyse de l'entendeinent humain. "
1 Introduction to the Essay. CI.
Pierre Bayle, the type of sceptical polyhistory, born 1647 at Carlat, led a life disquieted by twice changing his Confession, was finally a professor in Sedan and Rotterdam, and died 1706. His influential life work is embodied in his Dietionnaire Historique et Critique (1695 and 1697). Cf. L. Feuerbach, P. Bayle nach seinen fur die Geschichte der Philosophic und Menschheit interessan- testen Momenten, Ansbach, 1833.
Of the works of Voltaire (Francois Arouet le Jeune, 1694-1778 ; the main events of his literary life are his flight to London, his stay with the Marquise du Chatelet in Cirey, his visit with Frederick the Great in Potsdam, and his rest in old age at the country seat Ferney, near Geneva), the following are principally to be considered here : Lettres sur les Anglais (1784), Mitaphysiqne de Newton (1740), Elements de la Philosophic de Newton mis a la Purtee de lout le Monde (1741), Examen important de Mylord Bolingbroke (1736), Can- dide ou sur V Optimisme (1767), Dietionnaire Philosophique (1764), Le Philosophe Ignorant (1767), Reponse au Systeme de la Nature (1777), the poem Les Svstemes, etc. Cf. E. Bersot, La Philosophic de V. (Paris, 1848); D. F. Strauss,
maticians such as Maupertuis (1098-1759 ; active in connection with the Berlin Academy ; Essai de Philosophic Morale, 1760 ; Essai de Cosmologie, 1751 ; controversial writings between him and the Wolffian, S. Konig, collected Leips. 1758), or d'Alembert (Melanges de Litterature, <THistoire et de Philoso phic, 1752); others proceed more naturalistically, such as Button (1708-1788; Histoire Naturelle Ge. nerale et Particuliere, 1749 ff. ) and Jean Battiste Robinet (1735-1820; De la Nature, 1761 ; Considerations Philosophiques de la Grada tion Naturelle des Formes d'Etre 1767).
Sensualism appears in connection with materialism in Julien Offrai de Lamettrie (1709-1761 ; Histoire Naturelle de V Ame, 1745; V Homme Machine, 1748 ; VArtde Jouir, 1751 ; (Euvres, Berlin, 1751 ; on him F. A. Lange, Gesch. des Mater. , I. 326 ff. [Eng. tr. Hist, of Mater. , Vol. II. 49 ff. ] ; Nerfee Quepat, Paris, 1873); it appears solely as psychological theory with Charles Bonnet (1720-1793 ; Essai de Psychologic, 1755 ; Essai Analytique sur les Facullis de VAme, 1769 ; Considerations sur les Corps Organises, 1762 ; Contemplation de la Nature, 1764 ; Palingenesies Philosophiques, 1769), and with a positivistic pointing in Etienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715-1780 ; Essai sur VOrigine de la
V. (Leips. 1870); J. Morley, V. (Lond. and N. Y. 1872).
More sceptical in metaphysical aspects appear natural scientists and mathe
Connaissance Humaine, 1746; Traite des Systimes, 1749; Traiti des Sensa tions, 1754 ; Logique, 1780 ; Langue des Calculs in the complete edition, Paris, 1798 ; cf. F. Rethorfi, C. ou VEmpirisme et le Rational isme, Paris, 1864). The last representatives of these theories are, on the one hand, Pierre Jean George Cabanis (1767-1808 ; Les Rapports du Physique et du Moral de V Homme, 1802 ;
(Euvres, Paris, 1821-25), on the other side, Antoine Louis Claude Destutt de Tracy (1754-1836; Elements d" Ideologic, in 4 parts, 1801-16, together 1826). — Cf. Fr. Picavet, Les Ideologues (Paris, 1891).
The literary concentration of the Enlightenment movement in France was the Encyclopaedia (Encyclopedic ou Dietionnaire Raisoonides Sciences, des Art* et des Metiers, 28 vols. , 1762-1772, supplement <uid maex, 7 \uls. , extending to 1780). Besides d'Alembert, who wrote me introduction, the editor and intellectual head of the circle from which it proceeded was Denis Diderot (1713-1784; Pensees Philosophiques, 1746 ; Pensees sur /' Interpretation de la Nature, 1754 ; of the posthumous publications the Promenade d'un Sceptique, the Entretien
Philoiophy of the Enlightenment. 443
d'Alemhtrt et de Diderot, and the Rive cTAlembert are to be emphasised , worthy of mention also is the Essai de Peinture; (Euvret Completes, Paris, 1875, 20 vols. ; cf. K. Rosenkranz, D. , $ein Leben und seine Werke, Leips. 1866 ; J. Morley, D. and the Encyclopedists, Lond. 1878). Further collaborators upon the Encyclopedia (aside from Voltaire and Kousseau, who became separated from the work at an early date) were Turgot (article Existence), Daubenton. Jaucourt, Duclos, Grimm, Holbacb, etc. From the same circle ("Les Philo- KipKes ") proceeded later the Byateme de la Nature (pseud, author, Mirabeau, 1770), which is in the main to be attributed to Dietrich von Holbach (1723-1789, from the Palatinate ; Le bon Sens ou Idees Naturelles oppose** aux Idees Sur- naturelles, 1772 ; Elements de la Morale Universelle, 1776, etc. ). [On the Systeme de la Nature cf. Lange, Hist, of Mat. , II. 92 ft. ] With him co-oper ated Grimm (1723-1807 ; Correspondence LitUraire, 1812), the mathematician Lagrange, the Abbe Galiani, Naigeon, and others ; the concluding chapter, " Abrege du Code de la Nature. " is perhaps from Diderot's pen ; Helvrftiua wrote a very popular exposition, " Vrai Sens du Systeme de la Nature," 1771. The same writer (Claude Adrien Helvetius, 1716-1771) gave the sharpest expres sion to the morals of the sensualislic associational psychology in his much read book, De VEsprit C1768 ; cf. also his posthumous work, De VHomme de ses Facultis etdeson Education, 1772V
The theory of English constitutionalism was adopted in France by Montes quieu (1689-1766 ; Lettres Persanes, 1721 ; De V Esprit des Lois, 1748). Social problems were treated on the one side by the so-called Physiocrats such as Queanay (Tableaux Economiques, 1768; ; Turgot (Reflexions sur la Forma tion et la Distribution des Richesses, 1774, opposed by Ualiani, Dialogues sur le
Commerce des Dies') and others, on the other side by the Communists such as Morally (Code de la Nature, 1766), and Mably, the brother of Condillac (De la legislation ou Principes des Lois, 1776.
The most notable figure of the French Enlightenment was Jean Jacques Rousseau (born, 1712, In Geneva, died, 1778, in Ermenonvllle after an adven turous life, which toward the end was troubled by melancholy and hallucinations of persecution). His main writings — aside from the autobiographical Confes sions [tx. , Lond. 1876] — are Discours sur lei Sciences et les Arts (1760), his- euurs sur V Origine et les Fondemens de VIntgalitt parmi Irs Hommes (\~~3), La Nouvelle Htloise (1761), Emile ou sur V Education (1762) [abr. tr. , Boston, 18861, Du Control Social (1762). Cf. F. Brockerhoff, if. , sein Leben und seine
Werke (Leips. 1863 and 1874) ; E. Feuerlein in " Der Oedanke " (Berlin, I860) ; L. Moreau, J. J. R. et le Steele Philosophique (Paris, 1870) ; J. Morley, . /. J. R. ( Loud. 1873) ; R. Fester, R. und die deutsche Ueschichtsphilosophie (Stuttgart, 1MX» ; [E. Caird, R. in Essays, Vol. I. |.
The philosophical theory of the Revolution was developed chiefly by Charles Francois de St. -Lambert (1716-1803 ; Principes des Marurs chez toutes les Nations ou Catechisme Universel, 1798), Const. Fr. C'hassebreuf Comte de Volney (1767-1820; Les Ruines, 1791; La Loi Naturelle ou Principes Phy siques de la Morale, diduits de F Organisation de V Homme el de V Vnicers ou
Catfchisme du Citoyen Francois, 1793), Marie Jean Ant. Nic. de Condorcet ( 1743-1794 ; Esquisse <Tun Tableau Historique du l*rogres de V Esprit Humain, 1796), Dominique Garat (1749-1833; cf. Conte Rendu des Stance* des Ecoles Normales, IL 1-40). Cf. L. Ferraz, La Philosophic de la Revolution (l*aris, 1800).
Gottfried WUhelm Leibnis, the many-sided founder of German philosophy, was born, 1640, in Lei pule, studied there and at Jena, received his decree in Altorf, and was then, through his acquaintance with Boyneburg, drawn into the diplomatic service of the Elector of Mayence. In this service, pursuing political and scientific plans of his own, he travelled as a member of an embassy to Paris and London, with an incidental visit to Spinoza in The Hague, and then entered the service of the court of Hanover and Brunswick as librarian and court his torian. In all these positions he was active in his public and diplomatic capacity
in the Interests of the German national spirit and of peace between the Confes sions. Later he lived at the court of the first Prussian (Jueen Sophie Charlotte, a Hanoverian princess, in Charlottenberg and Berlin, where the Academy was founded under his direction ; afterwards he lived for some time iu Vienna, to
444 Philotophy of the Enlightenment. [Part V.
consult archives. Here be gave the stimulus for the foundation of an academy, a project which was later carried out, and the St. Petersburg Academy was also due to his influence. He died, 1716, at Hanover. The manifold nature of his activity, and the way in which his life was split up, is shown also in the fact that his scientific views are, for the most part, deposited only in fragmentary essays, and in an incredibly extensive correspondence. The best edition of his philo sophical writings is the most recent by C. J. Gerhardt, 7 vols. (Berlin, 1876-90;. The metaphysical treatises have been cited above (p. 382). For bis influence upon the philosophy of the Enlightenment, the following come chiefly into con sideration, aside from the correspondence with Bayle and Clarke: Esaai* dt Thiodicee sur la Bonti de Dieu, la Liberti dt l'Homme et I'Origint du Mnl (Amsterdam, 1710), and the Xouceaux Essais sur I'EnUndrmi-nt Humain. first published in 1765, by Raspe. Cf. G. E. Guhrauer, G. W. Frhr. r. L. (Breslau. 1842) ; E. Pfleiderer, L. alt Patriot, Staatsmann und Bildungstrager (Leips. 1870); art. L. in Erich und Gruber's Enc. , by W. Windelband ; L. Feuer- bacb, Darstellung, Enttcicklung und Kritik der L. 'schen Phil. (Ansbacb, 184-1) ; E. Xourisson, La Philosophic dt L. (Paris, 1860) ; L. Grote, L. und stint Zeit
J. T. Men, L. (Lond. 1884); [J. Dewey, Leibniz's -Veto Essays, Chicago, 1888; art. Leibniz in Enc. Brit. , by Sorley ; Eng. tr. of Imp. Phil. Wonts, by G. M. Duncan, New
(Hanover, 1869); O. Caspari, L. 's Philosophit (Leips. 1870) ;
Haven, 1890 ; of the Sew Essays, by A. G. Langley, Lond. and N. Y. 1893]. Among the most influential " Enlighteners " in Germany was Leibniz's con
temporary and fellow-countryman, Christian Thomasius (1655-1728; Einlei- tung zur Vernunftlehre, Ausfuhrung der Vernunftlehre, both in 1691 ; F. inl. znr Sittenlfhre, 1692 ; Ausfuhrung d. Sittenlehre, 1696 ; Fundamenla Juris Xatutvt et Gentium ex Sensu Communi Deducta, 1705 ; cf. A. Luden. C. Th. , Berlin, 1805).
The centre of scientific life in Germany during the eighteenth century was formed by the teaching and school of Christian Wolff. He was born, 1679. in Breslau, studied at Jena, was Privat-docent at Leipsic, and taught in Halle until he was driven away in 1723 at the instigation of his orthodox opponents ; he then became Professor at Marburg. In 1740 Frederick the Great called him back to Halle with great honour, and he was active there until bis death in 1754.
He treated the entire compass of philosophy in Latin and German text books ; the latter all bear the title VernSnftige Gedanken [" Rational Thoughts," treating psychology, metaphysics, physics, physiology, botany, astronomy, ethics, politics, etc. ] ; in detail: von den Kraflen des menschlichen Verstander, 1712 ; von Gott, der Welt und der Seele des Menschen, auch alien Dingen uber- haupt, 1719; von der Menschen Thunund Lassen, 1720; torn gesellnchafllichen Leben der Menschen, 1721 ; von den Wirkungen der Natur, 1723 ; von den Absichten der natiirlichen Dinge, 1724; von den Theilen der Menschen, Thiert und Pfianzen, 1725. The Latin works, Philosophia Rationalis sive Logica. 1718; Philosophia Piima sive Ontologia, 1728; Cosmologia, 1731; Psychnlo- gia Empirica, 1732 ; Rationalis, 1734 ; Theologia Xaturalis, 1736 ; Philosophia Practica Universalis, 1738 ; Jus Xaturm, 1740 ff. ; Jus Gentium, 1749 ; Philo sophia Moralis, posthumously pub. , 1756. — Cf. K. G. Ludovici, Ausfiihrlicher Entwurfeiner vollstandigen Historieder Wolf schen Philosophic (Leips. 1736 ff. ). Also W. L. G. v. Eberstein, Versuch einer Geschichte der Logik und Metaphysik bei den Deutschen von Leibniz an (Halle, 1799).
Among the Wolffians may be named, perhaps, G. B. Bilfiiiger (1693-1750, Dilucidationes Philosophies de Deo, Anima Humana, Mundo, etc. , 1725) ; M. Knutzen (died 1751 ; Systema Causarum Efficientium, 1746 ; cf. B. Erd- mann, M. Kn. und seine, Zeit. Leips. 1876) ; J. Chr. Oottsched (1700-1766; Erste Grunde der yesammten Weltweissheit, 1734) ; Alex. Baumgarten (1714- 1762; Metaphysica, 1739; ^Esthetica, 1750-58).
As representatives of the geometrical method appear M. G. Hansen (1683- 1762; Ars Inveniendi, 1727) and G. Ploucquet (1716-1790; cf. A. F. Bock, Summlung von Schriften, toelche dem logisrhen Calciil des Hernn P. bttreffen, Frankfort and Leips. 1766) ; as opponents of the same, Pierre Crouaas (1663- 1748; Logik, 1712 and 1724; Lehre vom Schiinen, 1712), Andreas Rudiger (1071-1731 ; De Sensu Vert el Falsi, 1709; Philosophia Synthetica, 1707) ami Chr. A. Croatua (1712-1775 ; Enttcurf der nothwendigen Vernunfticahrheiten,
1745 ; Wey zur Geioissheit und Zuverlassiykeit der menschlichen Erkenntnist,
1747. )
An eclectic intermediate position is taken by J. Fi\,Budde (1667-1729;.
Philosophy of the Enlightenment. 445
Institution** Pkilo*ophioz Eclectics, 1706) and by the historians of philosophy, J. J. Bracket and D. Tiodmann, and also by Joh. Lossius (Die physiehen Ursachen des Wahren, 1776) ami A. Platner (1744-1818; Philoiophische Aphorismen, 1776 and 1782).
Of more independent importance are J. H. Lambert (born, 1728. at Miil- hausen. died, 1777, in Berlin ; Kosmologische Britfe, 1761 ; Neue* Organon, 1764; Arehitektonik, 1771) and Nic. Tetena (17. 36M806; Philotophisehe Ver- ntrhe iiber die Mentchliche A'atur und ihre Entwicklung, 1776 f. ; cf. Fr. Harms,
Ueber die Ptycholoyie dee N. T, Berlin, 1887). Both stand in literary connec tion with Kant (cf. l'art VI. ch. 1), whose pre-critical writings belong like wise in this setting ; these are principally Allgemeine Saturgetehiehte und
Theorir de* Himmel*, 1766 ; Principiorum Primortim Cognitioni* Melaphysicoz Xora Dilueidatio, 1765 ; Mohndologia Phytiea, 1756 ; Die falsehe Spitzfindig- keit der virr syllogistischen Figvren, 1762 ; Der einzig mogliche, Beieeitgrund zu einer Demonstration det Daseins Oottes, 1763 ; Versiteh. den Begriff der nega- tiren Griissen in die Welticeisheit einzufuhren, 1763 ; Ueber die Deutlichkeit der Grundsatze der naturliehen Theologie und Moral, 1764 ; Beobaehtungen iiber
da* fiefnhl de* Schtinen und Erhabenen, 1764 ; TrSume eine* Geistersehere, ertnutert durch TrSume der Metaphysik, 1766; De Mundi Sensibilis atque iHtelligibili* Forma et Principiis, 1770. CI. R. Zimmerman, Lambert der Vor- gUnger Kant'*, 1879. [On Lambert and Tetens, cf. A. Riehl, Der philoso- phiM-he Kritirirmut, Leips. 1876. For the pre-critical writings of Kant, K. Caird, The Critical Philonophy of Immanuel Kant, Glasgow, Lond. , and N. Y. 1889. Fischer's Kant; Cohen, Die *y*temati*chen Begriffe in Kant'* vorkrit- iachen Sehriften, and the works cited in first par. , p. 636. ]
Deism found a vigorous and instnictive support in Germany anions numer ous Wolffian*, though nothing new in principle was added. Characteristic of this was the translation of the Bible by Lorens Schmidt. The standpoint of historical criticism of the biblical writings was maintained by Salomon Semler
The sharpest consequences of the deistic criticism were drawn hy Samuel Reimarua (1699-1768; Abhamllungen eon den vornehmsten M'ahr- kriten der nnOirlirhen Religion, 1754 ; Brtrachtitng iiber die Triebe der Thiere, 1760, especially his Sehutzerhrift fur die verniinftigen Verehrrr (fotte*, 1767 [not pub. ], from which Leasing' edited the " Wolfenbiittler Fragmente," and, wi more recent time, Dav. Fr. Strauss edited an extract, Leipe. 1862). Joh. Chr. Rdelmann was a Spinozistic free-thinker (1698-1767). Cf. K. Monckeberg, Ilrimaru* und Edelmann (Hamburg, 1867).
The movement of the so-called Pietism, allied to Mysticism, which was begun by Spener (1635-1706), and carried forward with organising energy by Aug. Herm. Francke (1663-1727), had only an indirect influence upon phil osophy during this period ; at a still farther distance stand the more isolated members of mystic sect* such as Gottfried Arnold (1666-1714) and Conrad
IMppel (1673-1734).
Eaxtpixical psychology was represented among the Germans in the eigh
teenth century by numerous names, comprehensive collections, text-books, and •pecial investigations. There are C'asimir von Creuz (1724-1770), Joh. Gottl. Kruger ( Vertueh einer erperimentalen Seelenlehre, 1766), J. J. Hentsch ( Ver- eweit fiber die Folge der Veranderung der Seele, 1726), J. Fr. Weiss (De Satura Animi et Poti**imum Cordis Humani, 1761), Fr. v. Irwing (Erfahrungen mnd UnUrturhuwjen liber den Mentrhen, 1777 ff. ) et of. The " Magazin zur ErfnhrungiwerlrnUhrr," edited by Morlts (1785-1793), formed a place for col lating contributions to this favourite science. Further literature in K. Fortlage, Syttem der ftyehologie, I. 42 f.
A theory of art upon the basis of empirical psychology is found in Baum- garten's pupil, O. K'r. Meier (1718-1777), and especially in Joh. Georg Bal sas (1720-1779; Theorie der angenehmen Empfindungen, 17(li ; Ycrmitthte
Srhriften, 1773 ff. ; Allgemeine Theorie der trhSnen Kiinnte, 1771-1774, s
lexicon of aesthetics).
<>f the Popular Philoaophera may be mentioned Mom's Mendelssohn
<1720-1786; Briefe iiber die Empjlndungen, 1765; Ueber die Eridens in den i/etaphyiisrnen Winsenthaften, 1764; Pha-don, 1767; M<>rgen*lunden, 1785; Werke, ed. by Branch, Leips. 1881). the bnok-dcale* Fr. Nlcolai (17X1-1811), who published successively the Bibliothek der wrhi'men H'itsentcnaften, the
(1726-1791).
446 The Enlightenment : Theoretical Question*. [Part V.
Briefe die neueste deutsche Literatur betreffend, the Allgtmeine deutsche Biblio- thek, and the Neue Allgemeine deutsche Bibliothek; further J. Aug. Eberhaxd (1738-1809), Joh. Bernh. Basedow (1723-1790), Thomas Abbt (1738-1766), Joh. Jac. Engel (1741-1802; editor of the Philosoph fur die Welt), J. J. H. Feder (1740-1821), Chr. Meiners (1747-1810), Chr. Oarve (1742-1798).
A highly interesting position personally is occupied by Frederick the Great the Philosopher of Sanssouci. On him, cf. Ed. Zeller, Fr. d. Gr. als. Philosoph (Berlin, 1886).
Of Lessing's writings those of chief importance for the history of philosophy are the Hamburger Dramaturgie, the Erziehung des menschen Geschlechts. the Wolfenbiittler Fragmenle, and the theological controversial writings. Cf. Rob. Zimmerman, Leibniz und Leasing (Studien und Kritiken, I. 126 ff. ) ; E. Zirngiebl, Der . 1acobi- Mendelssohn' sche Streit fiber Lessing's Spinozismus
(Munich, 1861) ; C. Hebler, Leasing- Studien (Bern, 1862) ; W. Dilthey {Prevss. Jahrb. 1879). [Eng. tr. of the Ham. Dram, and Education of Human Race in Bohn Lib. ; of Laoccoon, by Phillimorc, Loud. 1875 ; cf. Sime, Lessing, Lond.
1873, 1879. ]
Among Herder's writings belong in this period, Ueber den Ursprung der
Sprache, 1772 ; Auch eine Philosophic der Geschichte der Menschheit, 1774 ; Vom Erkennen und Empftnden der menschlichen Seele, 1778 ; Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit, 1784 ff. [Eng. tr. , Lond. 1800]; Gott, Gesprdche fiber Spinoza's System, 1787 ; Briefe zur Beforderung der Humanitat, 1793 ff. (on his later philosophical literary activity, cf. below, Part
VI. ch. 2). Cf. R. Haym, H. nach seinem Leben und seineh Werken (Berlin, 1877-85) ; E. Melzer, H. ate Geschichtsphilosoph (Neisse, 1872) ; M. Kronen- berg, H. 's Philosophie (Heidi. 1889) [art. Herder in Enc. Brit, by J. Sully].
Cf. also J. Witte, Die Philosophie unserer Dichterheroen (Bonn, 1880).
CHAPTER I.
THE THEORETICAL
QUESTIONS.
"The proper study of mankind is man. " This word of Pope's is characteristic of the whole philosophy of the Enlightenment, not only in the practical sense that this philosophy finds the ultimate end of all scientific investigation to be always man's "happiness," but also, in the theoretical point of view, in so far as this philosophy, as a whole, aims to base all knowledge upon the observation of the actual processes of the psychical life. After Locke had set up the principle,1 that prior to all metaphysical considerations and contro versies the general question must be decided of how far human insight reaches, and that this in turn is possible only by exact exhi bition of the sources from which knowledge derives, and of the course of development by which it is brought about, — from that time epistemology, the theory of knowledge, was brought into the
front rank of philosophical interests, and at the same time empirical psychology was recognised as the authoritative and decisive court of last resort for epistemology. The legitimate reach of human ideas
should be judged by the way in which they arise. Thus experiential psychology with all the tacit assumptions which are customary in it becomes at once the basis of the whole philosophical view of the world, and the favourite science of the age, and is at the same time the instrument of mediation between science and general literature. As in this latter field, the predominant characteristic among both Englishmen and Germans was that of depicting minds and reflect ing or viewing one's self in the literary looking-glass, so philosophy should draw only the image of man and of the activities of his con sciousness. Societies for the " observation of man " were founded, all sorts of dilettante accounts of remarkable experiences were gar nered in large "magazines," and the government of the French Republic in its official system of instruction,1 replaced "philoso phy " by the sounding title, "Analyse de l'entendeinent humain. "
1 Introduction to the Essay. CI.
