Terenzo Mamlanl passed through this entire development (1800-1885;
Coufessioni
di tin Mebtfisir,,, 18*55) l.
Windelband - History of Philosophy
Mansel (1820-1871 ; Metaphysics or the Phi- lovphy of Consciousness, 1860), is separated from a tendency inclining toward •tImmIc metaphysics : J.
Veitch, K.
Lowndes (Introduction to the Philosophy "f Primary Beliefs, IHit5).
Leechman.
McCosb.
and others.
Following a suggestion from one aspect of Hamilton's thought, a movement an*ie which sought to develop formal logic as a calculus of symbols. To this movement belong G. Boole (The Mathematical Analysis of Logic, 1847 ; An
Analysis of the Isites of Thought, 1854) ; De Morgan (Ftirmal Logic, 1847) ; Th. Spencer Baynes (An Essay on the Veir Analytic of Logical Forms, 1850) ;
J. Venn f Symbolic Logic, 1881 ; Logic of Chance, 1870 ; Principles of Logic, 1889) [C. 8. Peirce, Algebra nf Lome, 1807 ; Ladd and Mitchell, in Studies in Logic,
W. Stanley JeTons ( Pure I^oi/ic, 1804 ; Principles nf Science, 1874) ;
•d. by Pelrce. Boston. '18*31. Compare on this A. Rlehl ( Vierieljohrttthr. /. writs. Philos. 1877) and L. Liard (Le* LogtcUns Anglais Contcmporain*, 1878). The combined influence of Kant and the later German theism impressed lbs
(1764-
630 Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century. [Part V. 'I.
philosopher of religion, James Martineau (who is also the most prominent recent representative of intuitionist ethics [Type* of Ethical Theory, 1885 ; A Study of Religion, 1888 ; Seat of Authority in Rel. , 189U]; cf. A. W. Jackson. J. M. , Boston, 1900), and likewise F. W. Newman (The Soul, etc. , 1849 ; The ism, 1858), A. C. Fraser and others. Since Hutchinson Stirling (The Secret of Hegel, 1865 ; What is Thought f 1000) German idealism in its whole develop ment and in its metaphysical aspect, particularly in the Hegelian form, has called forth a vigorous idealistic movement, of which the leading representative was the late Thomas Hill Green (18:50-1882), Professor at Oxford. [His Introd. to Hume was followed by criticisms on Lewes and Spencer and (posthumously j by the Prolegomena to Ethics, 1883, and complete works (except the Proleg. ), 3 vols. , Lond. and N. Y. 1885, 1886, 1888; cf. W. H. Fairbrother, The Phi losophy of T. II. (? . , Lond. 1896. ] In sympathy with this idealistic and more or less Hegelian interpretation of Kantian principles are F. H. Bradley (Logic, Lond. 1883 ; Ethical Studies, 1876; Appearance and Reality, 189:)), H. Boaan qttet (Logic, 2 vols. , 1888 ; Hist, of ^Esthetics, 1892 ; Fhilos. of the State, 1899,
Religion, ; E. Caird 1880)
J. Caird to the Philosophy etc. ) ; Phil, (Introduction
of
of Kant, 2 vols. , 1889 ; Essays, 2 vols. , 1892 ; Evolution of Religion.
( Critical
1893); Seth and Haldane (Essays in Phil. Criticism, 1883) ;
(Social Philosophy, 1890). Cf. A. Seth, Hegelianism and Personality, 1887, and the review of this in Mind, by D. G. Ritchie.
These movements above noted stand under the principle of Evolution; the same principle became authoritative for the investigation of organic nature through Charles Darwin (Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. 1859; Descent of Man, 1871; The Expression of the Emotions, 1872). The same principle was formulated in more general terms and made the basis of » comprehensive System of Synthetic Philosophy by Herbert Spencer
J. Mackenzie
(bom 1820), First Principles, 1862, 6th ed. 1901; Principles of Psychology, 1855, 5th ed.
1890; Principles of Biology, 1864-1867, 4th ed. 1888; Principles of Sociology, 1876-1896 ; Principles of Ethics, 1879-1893. Cf. on him O. Gaupp, Stuttgart, 1897 [T. H. Green, in Works ; F. H. Collins, Epitome of the Synthetic Philoso phy, 1889. ] Huxley, Wallace, Tyndall, G. H. Lewes (Problems of Life and Mind, 3d ed. 1874), belong in the main to this tendency.
[Other works in evolutionary ethics are, L. Stephen, The Science of Ethics, Ix>nd. 1882 ; S. Alexander, Moral Order and Progress, Lond. 1889 ; C. M. Williams, The Ethics of Evolution, Lond. and N. Y. 1893. This last contains useful summaries of the chief works. ]
[In America idealistic lines of thought were introduced (in opposition to the prevalent Scottish philosophy) through the medium of Coleridge's interpretation of Kant, by James Marsh (1829) and Henry's trans, of V. Cousin's Lectures on Locke (1834), more directly from Germany by L. P. Hickok (Rational Psy chology, 1848; Bmp. Psych. , 1854 (rev. ed. by J. H. Seelye, 1882) ; Moral Science, 1853 (rev. ed. by J. H. Seelye), etc. ). W. T. Harris, in the Jour. Spec. Philosophy, and elsewhere, has done an important work in the same line. Of more recent writers, J. Royoe (The Religious Aspect of Philosophy, 1886; Spirit of Modern Philos. , 1802; The World and the Individual, 1900), J. Dewey (Psychology, 1886 ; Outlines of Ethics, 1891), are closer to the school of Green, while G. T. Ladd (Phys. Psychology, 1887 ; Introd. to Phil. , 1891 ; Psychology Descriptive and Explanatory, 1894 ; Philos. of Mind, 1895 ; PhilTM, of Knowledge, 1897 ; A Theory of Reality, 1899) and B. P. Bowne (Meta- physics. Psychological Theory, Ethical Theory, etc. ) stand nearer to Lotze. Ormond (The Foundations of Knowledge, 1900) combines idealistic motive. -, with those of Scottish thought. The extremely suggestive work of W. James (Psychology, 2 vols. , 1890) should also be mentioned, and as representatives of the modern treatment of this science, in addition to the works of Ladd and Dewey cited above, J. M. Baldwin (Psychology, 2 vols. , 1890 f. ; Mental Devel opment, 1895-1897) and G. S. Hall (in Am. Jour. Psychology) may be named as American writers, and Jas. Ward (art. Psychology in Enc. Brit. ), S. H. Hodgson ( Time and Space, 1866 ; The Philosophy of Reflection, 1878 ; Meta physics of Experience, 1898), James Sully (The Human Mind, 2 vols. . 1892), and G. F. Stout (Analytic Psychology, 1896) as Englishmen. Darwin, Romanes, and Lloyd Morgan have treated comparative psychology. The Dictionary of Psychology and Philosophy, ed. by J. M. Baldwin with cooper*
Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century. 631
tion of British and American writers, will give historical material as well as definitions (in press). ]
The Italian philosophy of the nineteenth century hag been determined more than the French by political motives, and in the content of the thought*
that have been worked over for these ends, it has been dependent
French, partly upon German, philosophy. At the beginning the Kncyclopte- dint*' view of the world, both in its practical and it* theoretical aspects, was
dominant In men like Oioja (1760-1829) or his friend, Romagnoai (17(11- 1835), while as early as Pasquale Qaluppi (1771-1846 ; Saggio Filosojico sulla Critica delle Cunosceme Umane, 1320 ft ; Filosofla delta 'Volouta, 1832 ff. ) Kantian influences assert themselves, — to be sure, under the psychologists
form of the Leibnizian virtual innateness.
At a later period philosophy, which was mainly developed by the clergy, was
influenced essentially by the political alliance of the Papacy with democratic Liberalism, inasmuch as Rationalism wished to unite itaelf with revealed faith. The most characteristic representative of this tendency and the most attractive
personally was Antonio Boamini-Serbati (1797-1855; Xuuvo Saggio suit' Ori gin* delle Idee, 1830; Principii delta Srietua Morale, 1831 ; Post hum, Teosojia, 1*59 II. ; Saggio Storico-Critico suite Cateyorie e la Dialettiea, 1884) [Eng. tr. of the first, Origin of Idea*, 3 vols. . Loud. 188:1 f. ; also It's Philtut. System, by T. Davidson, with int. bibliog. , etc. , Loud. 1882 ; Psychology, vols. , Lond. and Boston, 1884-1889]. Ct. op him F. X. Kraus (Deutsche Kuiolxchiiu, 1890). The combination of Platonic, Cartesian, and Schellingian ideas proceeds in still wore pronounced lines to an Ontologism. i. e. an <i priori science of Being, in Vincenzo Oiobertl (1801-1852; Deyli Errori Filosojico di Rosmitii. 1842; iHlmdmione alia Filosofla, 1840 Prolologia, 1857. Ct. B. Spaveuta, La Filo-
iiflix di G. , 180:1).
Terenzo Mamlanl passed through this entire development (1800-1885; Coufessioni di tin Mebtfisir,,, 18*55) l. uigi Ferri (1820-1806), l. abanca, Bonatetli, and others followed it, though intlueuced also by Ueruian and French views.
As opponents this tendency found, on the one hand, the rigid Orthodoxiem <>f Ventura IT'. '. ' 18t;i Tappaielll and Liberatore (Drlla Conosreuza Intel- letnale, 1865), and, on the other hand, politically radical Scepticism, as repre sented by Guiseppe Ferrari (1811-1808 La Filosofla delle Reroluzioni, 1861) and Antonio Franckl (La Religione del 19. Secolo, 1863). The Kantian philosophy was introduced by Alf. Teata (1784-1800; Delia Critica delta lingione Punt, 1841» ff. ), and uioru successfully by C. Canton! (born 1840; cf. above, 632), F. Tocco, S. Turbiglio, and others. Hegel's doctrine wa* intro duced by A. Vara (1813-1885), It. Spaventa (1817-188:5), and Fr. Fiorentino, and Comte's positivism by Cataneo, Ardigo, and I. aliriola. [Cf. for this Italian thought the App. in Ueberweg's Hit. Phil. , Eng. tr. , Vol. II. 401 ff. ]
In Germany (cf. J. E. Erdmann. History of Phil. [Eng. tr. Vol. III. ] :Ui\ ff. ) the first development was that of the great philosophic schools in the third and fourth decades of the century. Herbert's following proved the most complete in Itself and firmest in it* adherence. In were prominent: M.
Drobiech (Religionsphilosophie, 1840; Psychologic, 1842; Die moralischt Statisttk und die menschliche Willensfreiheit, 1807), R. Zimmermann (jEs- thetik. Vienna, 18415), I> Btriimpell (Jfnttplpunkte der Metophysik, 1840; Einleitung in die Philosophir, 1880), T. Ziller (Einleitung in die Allgemrine Pddagogik, I860). special divarication of the school formed by the so-called Volkerpeycholorie [Comparative or Folk-Psychology], as opened by M. Itasexoa (Leben der Seele, 1856 f. ) and H. Stein thai (Aliriss der Sprach- tsistenschafl, I,; Einleilung in die Psychologic und Sprachtrissenschaft, 1871) cL their common programme in Vol. of the Zeitschrift fiir dlkerpsyeholoyie und Sprachmssensrhoft.
The Hegelian School had rich experience in it* own life of the blessing of dialectic; split even in the Thirties upon religious antitheses. The important historian* of philosophy, Zeller and Prantl, Erdmann and Kuno Fischer, went their way, not confused by this. Between the two parties, with consid erable degree of independent thinking, stand K. Rosenkrans (1805-1879;
partly upon
still
Wisstnschafl der tnglsehcn Idee. 1868 f. ) and Friedrich Tbeodor Vlacher (1807-
18S7
jStkttik, 1*40-1*68 Auch Emer, 1879).
;
i
p.
;
a
it
I
I.
V
is
. '!
;
A
),
it
;
;
;
632 Philosophy of ilte Nineteenth Century. [Part VII
The "right wing" of the Hegelian school, which resisted a pantheistic inter pretation of the master, and emphasised the metaphysical importance of per sonality, attracted those thinkers who stood in a freer relation to Hegel, and maintained Fichtean and Leibniziau motifs. Such were I. H. Fichte (son of the creator of the Wissenschaftslehre, 1797-1879 ; Beiträge zur Characteristic, der neueren Philosophie, 1829 ; Ethik, 1850 ff. ; Anthropologie, 1856), C. Fort- lage (1806-1881; System der Psychologie, 1856), Christ. Weisse (1801-1880; System der Ästhetik, 1830 and 1871 ; Grundzüge der Metaphysik, 1835 ; Ihi> philosophische Problem der Gegenwart, 1842 ; Philosophie des Christenthumi, 1855 ff. ), H. Ulrioi (180Ö-1884 ; Das Grundprincip der Philosophie, 1845 f. ; Gott und die Natur, 1861 ; Gott und der Mensch, 1866); further, E. Trahn- dorf (1782-1863; JEsthetik, 1827), Mor. Carriere (1817-1895; Ästhetik, 185! '. 3d ed. 1885 ; Die Kunst im Zusammenhang der Kulturentwickelung, 5 vols. ).
Related to these was, on the one side, K. Rothe (1797-1867; Theolngisehr Ethik, 2d ed. 1867-1871 ; cf. on his speculative system, H. Holtzmann, 1899), who interwove many suggestions from the idealistic development into an origi nal mysticism, and on the other side A. Trendelenburg, who set the concep tion of " Motion " in the place of Hegel's dialectical principle, and thought thereby to combat Hegel's philosophy. His merit, however, lies in the stimulus which he gave to Aristotelian studies (1802-1872; Logische Untersuchungen. 1840 ; Naturrecht, 1860).
To the " Left" among the Hegelians belong Arnold Huge (1802-1880 ; joint editor with Echtermeyer of the Halle'sehe Jahrbücher, 1838-1840, and of the Deutsche Jahrbücher, 1841 f. ; coll. writings in 10 vols. , Mannheim, 184« ff. "). Ludwig Feuerbach (1804-1872 ; Gedanken über Tod und Unsterblichkeit, IS}»: Philosophie und Christentum, 1839; Wesen des Chrislenthums, 1841 ; U>w» der Religion, 1846; Theogonie, 1857 ; Works, 10 vols. , Leips. 1840 ff. ). Cf. K. Grün (L. F. , Leips. 1874), David Friedrich Strauss (1808-1874 ; Das Lei** Jesu, 1835; Christliche Glaubenslehre, 1840 f. ; Der Alte und der neue Glaube,
1872 ; Works, 12 vols. , Berlin, 1876 ff. ). Cf. A. Hausrath, D. F. Str. und die Theologie seiner Zeit (Heidelberg, 1876 and 1878).
From the Materialism controversy are to be mentioned : K. Moleschott (Kreislauf des Lebens, 1852), Rudolph Wagner (Ueber Wissen und Glauben, 1854; Der Kampf um die Seele, 1857), C. Vogt (Köhlerglaube und Wissen schaft, 1854 ; Vorlesungen über den Menschen, 1863), L. Büchner (Kraft und Stoff, 1855) [Force and Matter, Lond. l.
Related to this materialism was the development of the extreme Sensualism in the form in which it was presented by H. Czolbe (1819-1873; Neue Dar stellung des Sensualismiis, 1855 ; Grundzüge, der extensionalen Erkenntniss- theorie, 1875), and by F. Ueberweg (1826-1871), who was originally more closely related to Beneke (cf. A. Lange, History of Materialism, IL). In a similar relation stood the so-called Monism which E. Haeckel (born 1814 ; Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte, 1868 ; Welträlhsel, nth ed. 1900 : cf. Loots, Anti-Haeckel, 1900, and Fr. Paulsen, E. ' H. als Philosoph. Preuss. Jahrl*. 1900) has attempted to develop, and finally the socialistic Philosophy of His tory, whose founders are Fr. Engels (Ludwig Feuerbach und der Ausgang der klassischen deutschen Philosophie, 1888 ; Der Ursprung der Familie, des Pri- vateigenthums und des Staates, 1884) and Karl Marx (Das Kapital, 1867 ff. . Capital, 1801); cf. on Engels and Marx, R. Stammler, Wirthschaft und Hecht, 1896 ; L. Wolfmann, Der historische Materialistnus, 1900.
By far the most important among the epigones of the German Philosophy was Rudolph Herrn. Lotze (1817-1881 ; Metaphysik, 1841 ; Logik, 1842 ; Medi- cinische Psychologie, 1842; Mikrokosmus, 1856 ff. ; System der Philosophie. 1. Logik, 1874 ; IL Metaphysik, 1870) [Microcosmus, tr. by Hamilton and Jones, Edin. and N. Y. 1885 ; Logic and Metaphysics, 2 vols, each, tr. ed. by B. ßosan- quet, Oxford, 1884, also 1888 ; Outlines, ed. by G. T. Ladd, Boston, 1886 ff. ). Cf. O. Caspari, H. L. in seiner Stellung zur deutschen Philosophie (188;? ); E. v. Hartmann, L. 's Philosophie (Berlin, 1888); H. Jones, Phüos. of /. . , 189i
Interesting side phenomena are : G. T. Fechner (1801-1887 ; Nanna, 1848; Physical, und philos. Atomenlehre, 1865; Elemente der Psychophysik, 1860; Drei Motive des Glaubens, 1868 ; Vorschule der Ästhetik, 1876 ; Die Tagesan sicht gegenüber der Nachtansicht, 1879) and Eug. Dühring (born 1833 ; Natür liche Dialektik, 1865 ; Werth des Lebens, 1866 ; Logik und Wissenschafistheorie
Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century. 688
IP'S). — The following from the Catholic aide have taken part in the develop ment of philosophy : Fr. Hermea (1775-1831 ; Einleitung in die christkatho-
lische Theologie, 1819), Beruli. Bolaano (1781-1848;
1837), Anton GUnther (1785-1803; Ges. Schriften, Vienna, 1881), and Wil-
helm Roaenkrants (1824-1874 ; Wissenschaft des Wi*»en», 1860).
I'hiloaophic interest in Germany, which was much crippled about the middle of the century, has strongly revived, owing to the union of the study of Kant with the demands of natural science. The former, called forth by Kuno Fischer's work (1800). evoked a movement which has been characterized in various aspects a. « Neo-Kantianlam. To it belong, as principal members, A. Lange (1828- 1876; History of Materialism, 1800) and (). Liebmann (born 1840; Analyst* der Wirklichkeil, 3 Aufl. , 1900). In theology it was represented by Alb. Hitachi ( Theologie und Metaphysik, 1881). [A. T. Swing, Theol. of A. S. 1901. ]
Theoretical Physics became significant for philosophy through the work prin cipally of Rob. Mayer (Bemerkungen liber die Krafte der unbelebten Natur, 1845 ; Ueber das mtchanische ^Equivalent der Warme, 1850 ; cf. on him A.
Riehl in the Sigvsart-Abhandlungen, 1900) and H. Helmholts (Physiologische Optik, 1886 ; Sensations of Tone, 1876 ; Thatsaehen der Wahrnehmung, 1879). Beginning with physiology, Willhelm Wundt (born 1837) has developed a
comprehensive system of philosophy. From his numerous writings may be men tioned Orundziige der physiologischen Psychologic, 1878 f„ 4th ed. 1893 [Outlines of Physiological Psychology, Eng. tr. in prep, by E. Titcnenor] ; Logii, 18801.
Following a suggestion from one aspect of Hamilton's thought, a movement an*ie which sought to develop formal logic as a calculus of symbols. To this movement belong G. Boole (The Mathematical Analysis of Logic, 1847 ; An
Analysis of the Isites of Thought, 1854) ; De Morgan (Ftirmal Logic, 1847) ; Th. Spencer Baynes (An Essay on the Veir Analytic of Logical Forms, 1850) ;
J. Venn f Symbolic Logic, 1881 ; Logic of Chance, 1870 ; Principles of Logic, 1889) [C. 8. Peirce, Algebra nf Lome, 1807 ; Ladd and Mitchell, in Studies in Logic,
W. Stanley JeTons ( Pure I^oi/ic, 1804 ; Principles nf Science, 1874) ;
•d. by Pelrce. Boston. '18*31. Compare on this A. Rlehl ( Vierieljohrttthr. /. writs. Philos. 1877) and L. Liard (Le* LogtcUns Anglais Contcmporain*, 1878). The combined influence of Kant and the later German theism impressed lbs
(1764-
630 Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century. [Part V. 'I.
philosopher of religion, James Martineau (who is also the most prominent recent representative of intuitionist ethics [Type* of Ethical Theory, 1885 ; A Study of Religion, 1888 ; Seat of Authority in Rel. , 189U]; cf. A. W. Jackson. J. M. , Boston, 1900), and likewise F. W. Newman (The Soul, etc. , 1849 ; The ism, 1858), A. C. Fraser and others. Since Hutchinson Stirling (The Secret of Hegel, 1865 ; What is Thought f 1000) German idealism in its whole develop ment and in its metaphysical aspect, particularly in the Hegelian form, has called forth a vigorous idealistic movement, of which the leading representative was the late Thomas Hill Green (18:50-1882), Professor at Oxford. [His Introd. to Hume was followed by criticisms on Lewes and Spencer and (posthumously j by the Prolegomena to Ethics, 1883, and complete works (except the Proleg. ), 3 vols. , Lond. and N. Y. 1885, 1886, 1888; cf. W. H. Fairbrother, The Phi losophy of T. II. (? . , Lond. 1896. ] In sympathy with this idealistic and more or less Hegelian interpretation of Kantian principles are F. H. Bradley (Logic, Lond. 1883 ; Ethical Studies, 1876; Appearance and Reality, 189:)), H. Boaan qttet (Logic, 2 vols. , 1888 ; Hist, of ^Esthetics, 1892 ; Fhilos. of the State, 1899,
Religion, ; E. Caird 1880)
J. Caird to the Philosophy etc. ) ; Phil, (Introduction
of
of Kant, 2 vols. , 1889 ; Essays, 2 vols. , 1892 ; Evolution of Religion.
( Critical
1893); Seth and Haldane (Essays in Phil. Criticism, 1883) ;
(Social Philosophy, 1890). Cf. A. Seth, Hegelianism and Personality, 1887, and the review of this in Mind, by D. G. Ritchie.
These movements above noted stand under the principle of Evolution; the same principle became authoritative for the investigation of organic nature through Charles Darwin (Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. 1859; Descent of Man, 1871; The Expression of the Emotions, 1872). The same principle was formulated in more general terms and made the basis of » comprehensive System of Synthetic Philosophy by Herbert Spencer
J. Mackenzie
(bom 1820), First Principles, 1862, 6th ed. 1901; Principles of Psychology, 1855, 5th ed.
1890; Principles of Biology, 1864-1867, 4th ed. 1888; Principles of Sociology, 1876-1896 ; Principles of Ethics, 1879-1893. Cf. on him O. Gaupp, Stuttgart, 1897 [T. H. Green, in Works ; F. H. Collins, Epitome of the Synthetic Philoso phy, 1889. ] Huxley, Wallace, Tyndall, G. H. Lewes (Problems of Life and Mind, 3d ed. 1874), belong in the main to this tendency.
[Other works in evolutionary ethics are, L. Stephen, The Science of Ethics, Ix>nd. 1882 ; S. Alexander, Moral Order and Progress, Lond. 1889 ; C. M. Williams, The Ethics of Evolution, Lond. and N. Y. 1893. This last contains useful summaries of the chief works. ]
[In America idealistic lines of thought were introduced (in opposition to the prevalent Scottish philosophy) through the medium of Coleridge's interpretation of Kant, by James Marsh (1829) and Henry's trans, of V. Cousin's Lectures on Locke (1834), more directly from Germany by L. P. Hickok (Rational Psy chology, 1848; Bmp. Psych. , 1854 (rev. ed. by J. H. Seelye, 1882) ; Moral Science, 1853 (rev. ed. by J. H. Seelye), etc. ). W. T. Harris, in the Jour. Spec. Philosophy, and elsewhere, has done an important work in the same line. Of more recent writers, J. Royoe (The Religious Aspect of Philosophy, 1886; Spirit of Modern Philos. , 1802; The World and the Individual, 1900), J. Dewey (Psychology, 1886 ; Outlines of Ethics, 1891), are closer to the school of Green, while G. T. Ladd (Phys. Psychology, 1887 ; Introd. to Phil. , 1891 ; Psychology Descriptive and Explanatory, 1894 ; Philos. of Mind, 1895 ; PhilTM, of Knowledge, 1897 ; A Theory of Reality, 1899) and B. P. Bowne (Meta- physics. Psychological Theory, Ethical Theory, etc. ) stand nearer to Lotze. Ormond (The Foundations of Knowledge, 1900) combines idealistic motive. -, with those of Scottish thought. The extremely suggestive work of W. James (Psychology, 2 vols. , 1890) should also be mentioned, and as representatives of the modern treatment of this science, in addition to the works of Ladd and Dewey cited above, J. M. Baldwin (Psychology, 2 vols. , 1890 f. ; Mental Devel opment, 1895-1897) and G. S. Hall (in Am. Jour. Psychology) may be named as American writers, and Jas. Ward (art. Psychology in Enc. Brit. ), S. H. Hodgson ( Time and Space, 1866 ; The Philosophy of Reflection, 1878 ; Meta physics of Experience, 1898), James Sully (The Human Mind, 2 vols. . 1892), and G. F. Stout (Analytic Psychology, 1896) as Englishmen. Darwin, Romanes, and Lloyd Morgan have treated comparative psychology. The Dictionary of Psychology and Philosophy, ed. by J. M. Baldwin with cooper*
Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century. 631
tion of British and American writers, will give historical material as well as definitions (in press). ]
The Italian philosophy of the nineteenth century hag been determined more than the French by political motives, and in the content of the thought*
that have been worked over for these ends, it has been dependent
French, partly upon German, philosophy. At the beginning the Kncyclopte- dint*' view of the world, both in its practical and it* theoretical aspects, was
dominant In men like Oioja (1760-1829) or his friend, Romagnoai (17(11- 1835), while as early as Pasquale Qaluppi (1771-1846 ; Saggio Filosojico sulla Critica delle Cunosceme Umane, 1320 ft ; Filosofla delta 'Volouta, 1832 ff. ) Kantian influences assert themselves, — to be sure, under the psychologists
form of the Leibnizian virtual innateness.
At a later period philosophy, which was mainly developed by the clergy, was
influenced essentially by the political alliance of the Papacy with democratic Liberalism, inasmuch as Rationalism wished to unite itaelf with revealed faith. The most characteristic representative of this tendency and the most attractive
personally was Antonio Boamini-Serbati (1797-1855; Xuuvo Saggio suit' Ori gin* delle Idee, 1830; Principii delta Srietua Morale, 1831 ; Post hum, Teosojia, 1*59 II. ; Saggio Storico-Critico suite Cateyorie e la Dialettiea, 1884) [Eng. tr. of the first, Origin of Idea*, 3 vols. . Loud. 188:1 f. ; also It's Philtut. System, by T. Davidson, with int. bibliog. , etc. , Loud. 1882 ; Psychology, vols. , Lond. and Boston, 1884-1889]. Ct. op him F. X. Kraus (Deutsche Kuiolxchiiu, 1890). The combination of Platonic, Cartesian, and Schellingian ideas proceeds in still wore pronounced lines to an Ontologism. i. e. an <i priori science of Being, in Vincenzo Oiobertl (1801-1852; Deyli Errori Filosojico di Rosmitii. 1842; iHlmdmione alia Filosofla, 1840 Prolologia, 1857. Ct. B. Spaveuta, La Filo-
iiflix di G. , 180:1).
Terenzo Mamlanl passed through this entire development (1800-1885; Coufessioni di tin Mebtfisir,,, 18*55) l. uigi Ferri (1820-1806), l. abanca, Bonatetli, and others followed it, though intlueuced also by Ueruian and French views.
As opponents this tendency found, on the one hand, the rigid Orthodoxiem <>f Ventura IT'. '. ' 18t;i Tappaielll and Liberatore (Drlla Conosreuza Intel- letnale, 1865), and, on the other hand, politically radical Scepticism, as repre sented by Guiseppe Ferrari (1811-1808 La Filosofla delle Reroluzioni, 1861) and Antonio Franckl (La Religione del 19. Secolo, 1863). The Kantian philosophy was introduced by Alf. Teata (1784-1800; Delia Critica delta lingione Punt, 1841» ff. ), and uioru successfully by C. Canton! (born 1840; cf. above, 632), F. Tocco, S. Turbiglio, and others. Hegel's doctrine wa* intro duced by A. Vara (1813-1885), It. Spaventa (1817-188:5), and Fr. Fiorentino, and Comte's positivism by Cataneo, Ardigo, and I. aliriola. [Cf. for this Italian thought the App. in Ueberweg's Hit. Phil. , Eng. tr. , Vol. II. 401 ff. ]
In Germany (cf. J. E. Erdmann. History of Phil. [Eng. tr. Vol. III. ] :Ui\ ff. ) the first development was that of the great philosophic schools in the third and fourth decades of the century. Herbert's following proved the most complete in Itself and firmest in it* adherence. In were prominent: M.
Drobiech (Religionsphilosophie, 1840; Psychologic, 1842; Die moralischt Statisttk und die menschliche Willensfreiheit, 1807), R. Zimmermann (jEs- thetik. Vienna, 18415), I> Btriimpell (Jfnttplpunkte der Metophysik, 1840; Einleitung in die Philosophir, 1880), T. Ziller (Einleitung in die Allgemrine Pddagogik, I860). special divarication of the school formed by the so-called Volkerpeycholorie [Comparative or Folk-Psychology], as opened by M. Itasexoa (Leben der Seele, 1856 f. ) and H. Stein thai (Aliriss der Sprach- tsistenschafl, I,; Einleilung in die Psychologic und Sprachtrissenschaft, 1871) cL their common programme in Vol. of the Zeitschrift fiir dlkerpsyeholoyie und Sprachmssensrhoft.
The Hegelian School had rich experience in it* own life of the blessing of dialectic; split even in the Thirties upon religious antitheses. The important historian* of philosophy, Zeller and Prantl, Erdmann and Kuno Fischer, went their way, not confused by this. Between the two parties, with consid erable degree of independent thinking, stand K. Rosenkrans (1805-1879;
partly upon
still
Wisstnschafl der tnglsehcn Idee. 1868 f. ) and Friedrich Tbeodor Vlacher (1807-
18S7
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632 Philosophy of ilte Nineteenth Century. [Part VII
The "right wing" of the Hegelian school, which resisted a pantheistic inter pretation of the master, and emphasised the metaphysical importance of per sonality, attracted those thinkers who stood in a freer relation to Hegel, and maintained Fichtean and Leibniziau motifs. Such were I. H. Fichte (son of the creator of the Wissenschaftslehre, 1797-1879 ; Beiträge zur Characteristic, der neueren Philosophie, 1829 ; Ethik, 1850 ff. ; Anthropologie, 1856), C. Fort- lage (1806-1881; System der Psychologie, 1856), Christ. Weisse (1801-1880; System der Ästhetik, 1830 and 1871 ; Grundzüge der Metaphysik, 1835 ; Ihi> philosophische Problem der Gegenwart, 1842 ; Philosophie des Christenthumi, 1855 ff. ), H. Ulrioi (180Ö-1884 ; Das Grundprincip der Philosophie, 1845 f. ; Gott und die Natur, 1861 ; Gott und der Mensch, 1866); further, E. Trahn- dorf (1782-1863; JEsthetik, 1827), Mor. Carriere (1817-1895; Ästhetik, 185! '. 3d ed. 1885 ; Die Kunst im Zusammenhang der Kulturentwickelung, 5 vols. ).
Related to these was, on the one side, K. Rothe (1797-1867; Theolngisehr Ethik, 2d ed. 1867-1871 ; cf. on his speculative system, H. Holtzmann, 1899), who interwove many suggestions from the idealistic development into an origi nal mysticism, and on the other side A. Trendelenburg, who set the concep tion of " Motion " in the place of Hegel's dialectical principle, and thought thereby to combat Hegel's philosophy. His merit, however, lies in the stimulus which he gave to Aristotelian studies (1802-1872; Logische Untersuchungen. 1840 ; Naturrecht, 1860).
To the " Left" among the Hegelians belong Arnold Huge (1802-1880 ; joint editor with Echtermeyer of the Halle'sehe Jahrbücher, 1838-1840, and of the Deutsche Jahrbücher, 1841 f. ; coll. writings in 10 vols. , Mannheim, 184« ff. "). Ludwig Feuerbach (1804-1872 ; Gedanken über Tod und Unsterblichkeit, IS}»: Philosophie und Christentum, 1839; Wesen des Chrislenthums, 1841 ; U>w» der Religion, 1846; Theogonie, 1857 ; Works, 10 vols. , Leips. 1840 ff. ). Cf. K. Grün (L. F. , Leips. 1874), David Friedrich Strauss (1808-1874 ; Das Lei** Jesu, 1835; Christliche Glaubenslehre, 1840 f. ; Der Alte und der neue Glaube,
1872 ; Works, 12 vols. , Berlin, 1876 ff. ). Cf. A. Hausrath, D. F. Str. und die Theologie seiner Zeit (Heidelberg, 1876 and 1878).
From the Materialism controversy are to be mentioned : K. Moleschott (Kreislauf des Lebens, 1852), Rudolph Wagner (Ueber Wissen und Glauben, 1854; Der Kampf um die Seele, 1857), C. Vogt (Köhlerglaube und Wissen schaft, 1854 ; Vorlesungen über den Menschen, 1863), L. Büchner (Kraft und Stoff, 1855) [Force and Matter, Lond. l.
Related to this materialism was the development of the extreme Sensualism in the form in which it was presented by H. Czolbe (1819-1873; Neue Dar stellung des Sensualismiis, 1855 ; Grundzüge, der extensionalen Erkenntniss- theorie, 1875), and by F. Ueberweg (1826-1871), who was originally more closely related to Beneke (cf. A. Lange, History of Materialism, IL). In a similar relation stood the so-called Monism which E. Haeckel (born 1814 ; Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte, 1868 ; Welträlhsel, nth ed. 1900 : cf. Loots, Anti-Haeckel, 1900, and Fr. Paulsen, E. ' H. als Philosoph. Preuss. Jahrl*. 1900) has attempted to develop, and finally the socialistic Philosophy of His tory, whose founders are Fr. Engels (Ludwig Feuerbach und der Ausgang der klassischen deutschen Philosophie, 1888 ; Der Ursprung der Familie, des Pri- vateigenthums und des Staates, 1884) and Karl Marx (Das Kapital, 1867 ff. . Capital, 1801); cf. on Engels and Marx, R. Stammler, Wirthschaft und Hecht, 1896 ; L. Wolfmann, Der historische Materialistnus, 1900.
By far the most important among the epigones of the German Philosophy was Rudolph Herrn. Lotze (1817-1881 ; Metaphysik, 1841 ; Logik, 1842 ; Medi- cinische Psychologie, 1842; Mikrokosmus, 1856 ff. ; System der Philosophie. 1. Logik, 1874 ; IL Metaphysik, 1870) [Microcosmus, tr. by Hamilton and Jones, Edin. and N. Y. 1885 ; Logic and Metaphysics, 2 vols, each, tr. ed. by B. ßosan- quet, Oxford, 1884, also 1888 ; Outlines, ed. by G. T. Ladd, Boston, 1886 ff. ). Cf. O. Caspari, H. L. in seiner Stellung zur deutschen Philosophie (188;? ); E. v. Hartmann, L. 's Philosophie (Berlin, 1888); H. Jones, Phüos. of /. . , 189i
Interesting side phenomena are : G. T. Fechner (1801-1887 ; Nanna, 1848; Physical, und philos. Atomenlehre, 1865; Elemente der Psychophysik, 1860; Drei Motive des Glaubens, 1868 ; Vorschule der Ästhetik, 1876 ; Die Tagesan sicht gegenüber der Nachtansicht, 1879) and Eug. Dühring (born 1833 ; Natür liche Dialektik, 1865 ; Werth des Lebens, 1866 ; Logik und Wissenschafistheorie
Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century. 688
IP'S). — The following from the Catholic aide have taken part in the develop ment of philosophy : Fr. Hermea (1775-1831 ; Einleitung in die christkatho-
lische Theologie, 1819), Beruli. Bolaano (1781-1848;
1837), Anton GUnther (1785-1803; Ges. Schriften, Vienna, 1881), and Wil-
helm Roaenkrants (1824-1874 ; Wissenschaft des Wi*»en», 1860).
I'hiloaophic interest in Germany, which was much crippled about the middle of the century, has strongly revived, owing to the union of the study of Kant with the demands of natural science. The former, called forth by Kuno Fischer's work (1800). evoked a movement which has been characterized in various aspects a. « Neo-Kantianlam. To it belong, as principal members, A. Lange (1828- 1876; History of Materialism, 1800) and (). Liebmann (born 1840; Analyst* der Wirklichkeil, 3 Aufl. , 1900). In theology it was represented by Alb. Hitachi ( Theologie und Metaphysik, 1881). [A. T. Swing, Theol. of A. S. 1901. ]
Theoretical Physics became significant for philosophy through the work prin cipally of Rob. Mayer (Bemerkungen liber die Krafte der unbelebten Natur, 1845 ; Ueber das mtchanische ^Equivalent der Warme, 1850 ; cf. on him A.
Riehl in the Sigvsart-Abhandlungen, 1900) and H. Helmholts (Physiologische Optik, 1886 ; Sensations of Tone, 1876 ; Thatsaehen der Wahrnehmung, 1879). Beginning with physiology, Willhelm Wundt (born 1837) has developed a
comprehensive system of philosophy. From his numerous writings may be men tioned Orundziige der physiologischen Psychologic, 1878 f„ 4th ed. 1893 [Outlines of Physiological Psychology, Eng. tr. in prep, by E. Titcnenor] ; Logii, 18801.
