No More Learning

Schwartz, Chinese Communism and the Rise of Mao,Cam- bridge, Harvard University Press, 1951, 9.
28 Hu Shih, op. cit. , 44,
34 Pa Chin, The Family, quoted in Lang, op. cit. , 297-298. 25 Levy, op. cit. , 294-502.
38 Conrad Brandt, Stalin s Failure in China, Cambridge, Mass. , Harvard Uni- versity Press, 1958, 48.
37 "The Diary of A Madman/' Ah Q and Others, Selected Stones of Lu Shun, translated by Wang Chi-shen, Columbia University Press, 1941, 205-219. The character of Ah Q, who appears in the title story of this volume became a symbolic rallying point for protest. He was a caricature of all that Lu Shun condemned in Chinese culture: the tendencies, in the face of personal oppres- sion, to remain passive, to rationalize philosophically, or to take out resentment on those lower in the social hierarchy. "Ah Q-ism" became a term of rebuke, usually referring to these influences from the past, in contrast to the ideals of the "modem student"--active self-assertion, a feeling of personal dignity, and commitment to social change,
^Schwartz, op. cit. , 9.
28 Lu Shun, in W ang, ed. , op. cit,, 16.
80 Apart from the case histories in this study, much evidence of intensified intra- and extra-family conflict can be found in the sociological studies of Levy and Lang, cited above.
raThe last two quotations are from Brandt, Schwartz, and Fairbank, op. cit. , 19-20.
82 These youthful emotions were frequently in advance of, and more extreme than, the Party's own program. The formation of the Socialist Youth Corps, which later became the Chinese Communist Youth Corps, antedated the forma- tion of the Communist Party; and it maintained considerable autonomy even after the Party had been organized (Brandt, op. cit. , 46-49).
M Schwartz, op. cit. , 21.
34 See Current Background, Nos. 315 and 3 2 5 ; and Theodore Hsi-en Chen and Sin Ming Chiu, "Thought Reform in Communist China,'* Far Eastern Survey, 24:177-184.
85 Mao Tse-tung, "Opposing Party Formalism," Brandt, Schwartz, and Fair- bank, op. cit. , 396.
wAiSsu-ch'i,"OnProblemsofIdeologicalReform/'Notez,Chapter2.
"Ibid.
88Mao Tse-tung, "Correcting Unorthodox Tendencies in Learning, The Party, and Literature and Arts,'* Brandt, Schwartz, and Fairbank, op. cit. , 386.
wAi, op. cit.
40 Hu Hsien-chin, "The Chinese Concept of 'Face/ " American Anthropolo-
gist (1944) 46:45-65.
41 This injunction from Ai could also apply to those who found Party policy
? NOTES 497
inconsistent with Marxist-Leninist writings, or who had difficulty accepting official attempts to reconcile the two.
43 Ai Ssu-ch'i, "Recognize Clearly. "
"Ibid.
44 Mao Tse-tung, "Correcting Unorthodox Tendencies," Brandt, Schwartz, and Fairbank, op. cit. , 382.
48 Mao Tse-tung, "In Opposition to Liberalism/' in Boyd Compton, Mao's China: Party Reform Documents, 1942-44, Seattle, University of Washington Press, 1952, 184-185,
48Ibid. , 187.
47 From Hu Shih-t<<, "Confession/' reprinted by the Hong Kong Standard, September 24, 1950, and also in Edward Hunter, Brainwashing in Red China, 303-307.
48 Liu Shao-chi, "The Class Character of Man/' written in June, 1941, in- cluded in an undated edition of How to be a Good Communist, Foreign Lan- guages Press, 109-110.
49 "The May 4 Movement," Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung, London, Lawrence & Wishart, 1954, Vol. Ill, 11. Mao's description of his personal transformation is recorded in one of his speeches reprinted in Brandt, Schwartz, and Fairbank, op. cit. , 410--411.
60 Ai Ssu-ch'i, "Recognize Clearly," supra. CHAPTER 20 (388-398)
1 Raymond A. Bauer, "Brainwashing: Psychology or Demonology? ", Journal of Social Issues (1957) 13:41-47. See also, by the same author, The New Man in Soviet Psychology, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1952.
2 These trials are discussed in Nathan Leites and Elsa Bernaut, Ritual of Liqui- dation, Glencoe, III. , The Free Press, 1954. They were fictionalized, with great psychological accuracy, by Arthur Koestler in the novel, Darkness at Noon, New York, Macmillan, 1941. Both of these books deal with the special ethos of the "old Bolshevik. " F. Beck and W. Godin, Russian Purge and the Extraction of Confession, New York, Viking Press, 1951, conveys vividly the experiences within a Soviet prison of outsiders caught up in the great purge.
8 The Great Learning, in The Four Books, translated by James Legge, Lon- don, Perkins, 310-313. All subsequent references to Confucian writings are to this translation.
4 The Doctrine of the Mean, Legge, 394.
"See David S. Nivison, "Communist Ethics and Chinese Tradition," The Journal of Asian Studies (1956) 16:51-74; and the same author's, "The Prob- lem of 'Knowledge' and 'Action' in Chinese Thought since Wang Yang-ming/' Studies in Chinese Thought, 112--145.
a Lily Abegg, The Mind of East Asia, Thames and Hudson, London, 1952, Chapters 2 and 3.
7 In terms of logic, both follow the 'law of opposition," rather than the tra- ditional Western pattern of the "law of identity"; but their difference lies in the Chinese emphasis upon "adjustment" in relationship to this opposition, in contrast to the Marxist emphasis upon "struggle. " See Chang Tung-sun, "A
? 498 THOUGHT REFORM
Chinese Philosopher's Theory of Knowledge," The Yenching Journal of Social
Studies (Peking, 1939) 1:155-189.
"Robert Van Gulik, The Chinese Bell Murders, New York, Harper Bros. ,
1958, 258.
*Boyd Compton, op. eft. , xv-lii; and Brandt, Schwartz, and Fairbank, op. cit
372~375-
10 Compton, op. cit. , xlvi.
u Weston LaBarre, "Some Observations on Character Structure in the Orient: IL The Chinese," Psychiatry (1946) 9:215-237.
" Once during a discussion with one of my Chinese interpreters, I mentioned the interest of American psychiatrists in the subject of interpersonal relations. His immediate reply was, "What else is there? " In this interest in what goes on between people, there is something Sullivanian in every Chinese. See also John H. Weakland, "The Organization of Action in Chinese Culture," Psy- chiatry (1950) 13:361-370.
13 Confucian Analects, Legge, 94.
u The Great Learning, Legge, 326.
v The Texts of Taoism, translated by James Legge, London, 1891, Part I, 70.
"Ronald Knox, Enthusiasm, London, Oxford University Press, 1950. See also William Sargent, Battle for the Mind, New York, Doubleday, 1957, for a different approach to relating thought reform to ecstatic religious practice.
CHAPTER 21 (399-415)
1 In this sense, thought reform had some similarity to a primitive initiation ceremony; it initiated one into the world of Chinese Communism. SeeBranislaw Malinowski, Magic, Science, and Religion, New York, Doubleday, 1955, 37-41-
*Current Background, No. 376, February 7, 1956.
8 See Theodore Hsi-en Chen, "The Thought Reform of Intellectuals," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science (1959) 321:82-89, 86. For my discussion of the Hundred Flowers episode, I also drew on the fol- lowing sources: "Contradiction" and "The Storm," pamphlets published by China Viewpoints, Hong Kong, 1958; Benjamin Schwartz, "New Trends in Maoism? ", Problems of Communism (1957) 6:1-8, and "China and the Com- munist Bloc: A Speculative Reconstruction," Current History (1958) 35:321- 326; Michael Walzer, "When the 100 Flowers Withered," Descent, Autumn 1958, 360-374; and Chinese Communist Press reports translated by the American Consulate General in Hong Kong and reproduced in the New Yorfc Times from April, 1957, through the followingyear.
CHAPTER 22 (419-437)
1 Personal "closure" implies abandoning man's inherent strivings toward the outer world as well as much of his receptivity to his own inner impulses, and retreating into what Ernest Schachtel has called "the closed pattern of related- ness to the world institutionalized in . . . [a] particular culture or cultural subgroup (Metamorphosis, New York, Basic Books, 1959, 75).
1 Helen Lynd, On Shame and the Search for Identity, New York, Harcourt, Brace &Co. , 1958, 57.
? NOTES 499
'Alex Inkeles, "The Totalitarian Mystique: Some Impressions of the Dy- namics of Totalitarian Society/' Totalitarianism, edited by Carl Friedrich, Cam- bridge, Mass. , Harvard University Press, 1953, 88 and 91.
*Ifaid, 91.
8 In Camus' novel, The Fall (New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1957, 127), Clamence states: "My great idea is that one must forgive the Pope. To begin with, he needs it more than anyone else. Secondly, that's the only way to set oneself above him. . . . "
a Helen Lynd, op. cit. , 57. 7 Camus, The Fatt, 120.
8 Ibid,, 8 and 138.
"A somewhat similar point of view is expressed by Hannah Arendt in her comprehensive study, The Origins of Totalitarianism, New York, Meridian Books, 1958, 468-474.
10 In this respect, thought reform is clearly a child of its era, for Weaver claims that "progress" is the " 'god term' of the present age," and also lists "progressive/' "science," "fact," and "modern" as other widely-used "god terms" ("Ultimate Terms in Contemporary Rhetoric," Perspectives (1955), n , 1-2, 141). All these words have a similar standing in thought reform. Thought re- form's "devil terms" are more specifically Communist, but also included are such general favorites as "aggressor" and "fascist. "
11 Edward Sapir, "Language/' Culture, Language and Personality, Berkeley, Calif. , University of California Press, 1956, 17.
"John K, Fairbank and Mary C. Wright, "Documentary Collections on Modern Chinese," The Journal of Asian Studies (1957) 17:55-56, intro.
14 Camus, The Rebel, New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1954, 141.
M Benjamin Schwartz, op. cit. , 4--5.
"Erik Erikson, "Wholeness and Totality," in Friedrich, ed. , op. eft. , 165,
"Mao Tse-tung, "On the People's Democratic Dictatorship/' Brandt, Schwartz, and Fairbank, op. cit. , 456-457.
-IWi. 457-
" I have borrowed the term "peak experiences" from A. H. Maslow (Presi- dential Address, Division of Personality and Social Psychology, American Psy- chological Association, Chicago, 111. , September i, 1956, mimeographed), al- though my use of it is perhaps somewhat broader than his. In his terminology, he might see the imposed "peak experience" as lacking in genuine "cognition of being. "
19 "Openness to the world," or "world-openness," and "embeddedness" are conceptualized by Schachtel (Metamorphosis, 22-77), a s perpetually antagonistic human emotional tendencies.
CHAPTER 23 (438-461)
1 Bettelheim, "Individual and Mass Behavior/' Note 2, Chapter 6.
1 Anna Freud, The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence, New York, Inter- national Universities Press, 1946.
"Erich Fromm, throughout his writings, frequently uses the term, "self-
? JOO THOUGHT REFORM
realization" to suggest the goal of psychotherapy and of life itself. Kurt Gold- stein speaks similarly of the organism's "trend to actualize itself. "
4 C. M. Bowra, The Greek Experience, New York, World Publishing Co,, 1957, 198-201.
BMichael Polanyi, Personal Knowledge, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1958, 300-303.
fl George Orwell, "Such, Such Were the Joys," A Collection of Essays, Double- day Anchor Books, New York, 1954, 9-55.
7 Lionel Trilling, The Liberal Imagination, Garden City, New York, Double- day Anchor Books, 19^4, 6 and 10.
9 In this section I shall not enter into the long-standing controversy over dis- tinctions between psychoanalysisand psychonanalytic therapy, or between medi- cal and nonmedical psychoanalytic and psychotherapeutic work. I believe that the principles expressed here apply, at least in spirit, to all of these agents of psychological re-education. What I say about psychoanalytic training is most specific to that situation, but may also be applied in lesser degree to other forms of psychological and psychiatric (or, medical psychological) training. Similarly, the ideas expressed about transference, resistance, and reality apply to all forms of psychoanalytically-influenced therapeutic work, while those about milieu therapy relate primarily to hospital settings. Ideas about theory apply to all systematic attempts to understand man.
8 Erik Erikson, "The First Psychoanalyst," Freud and the 2oth Century, edited by Benjamin Nelson, New York, Meridian Books, 1957, 80.
10 See, for instance, Franz Alexander, Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy, New York, Norton, 1956, Chapters IX-XII (including both the author's discussion and those of leading psychoanalysts whose opinions he solicited); Eriksont Young Man Luther, 151-154; Leslie Farber, "The Therapeutic Despair," Psychiatry (1958) 21:7-20; Erich Frornm, Sigmund Freutfs Mission, New York, Harper & Bros. , 1959, Chapters VIII-X; Thomas S. Szasz, "Psychoanalytic Training-A Socio-Psychological Analysis of Its History and Present Status," The International Journal of Psychoanalysis (1958), 39:598-613; Clara Thomp- son, "A Study of the Emotional Climate of Psychoanalytic Institutes," Psy- chiatry (1958) 21:45-51; and Allen Wheelis, op. cit. , Chapters II, V, and VII.
"Erickson, Young Man Luther, 152.
"IKd, 153.
u Somewhat analogous ideas have been expressed by George Winokur,
" 'Brainwashing*--A Social Phenomenon of Our Time," Human Organization (1955) 13:16-18; and by J. C. Moloney, "Psychic Self-Abandon," supra; and
Meerloo, Rape of the Mind, supra.
" In his presidential address of that year to the American Psychoanalytic
Association (Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy, 177-178), Alexander stated: "They [psychoanalysts] should lose the defensive attitude of a minority group, the militant soldiers of a Weltanschaung attacked by and therefore antagonistic to the world. Rather than disseminators of the gospel, they must become self- critical scientists. For psychoanalysis as a whole, this leads to the simple but unavoidable conclusion that the sooner psychoanalysis as a 'movement' disap- pears, the better/'
16 Szasz, op. cit. "Thompson, op. cit.
? NOTES JOl
17 See John P. Spiegel's discussion of the relationship of cultural values to concepts of resistance and reality in "Some Cultural Aspects of Transference and Countertransference," Individual and Familial Dynamics, edited by Jules H. Masserman, Grune and Stratton, 1959, 160-182,
18 See, for instance, Robert Waelder, "The Problem of the Genesis of Psychi- cal Conflict in Earliest Infancy," International Journal of Psychoanalysis (1937) 18:473; Mabel Blake Cohen, "Countertransference and Anxiety/' Psychiatry
(1952) 15:231-243; and Leo Berman, "Countertransference and Attitudes of the Analyst in the Therapeutical Process/' Psychiatry (1949) 12:159-166.
"Janet Mackenzie Rioch, "The Transference Phenomena in Psychoanalytic Therapy/' in An Outline of Psychoanalysis, edited by Thompson, Mazer, and Witenberg, New York, The Modern Library, 1955, 498, 500, 501.
"Merton M. Gill and Margaret Brenman, Hypnosis and Related States, New York, International Universities Press, 1959, have compared hypnosis with "brainwashing," primarily in relationship to the reliance upon induced regres- sion common to both. I would place greater emphasis upon the totalism con- tained in both, along the lines of my discussion in Chapter 21, and would further raise the question of whether such totalism might not be one of the truly fundamental aspects of the hypnotic process.
31 See papers by D. O. Hebb> E, S. Heath, and E. A.
Stuart, Canadian Journal of Psychology (1954) 8:152, and by John C. Lilly, Psychiatric Research Re- ports (1956) No. 5, i; for a general review, see P. Solomon, H. Liederman, J. Mendelson, and D. Wexler, American Journal of Psychiatry (October, 1957)
"4:357-
22 See, for instance, Paul Sivadon, "Technics of Sociotherapy," in Symposium
on Preventive and Social Psychiatry, supra, 457-464; Kai T. Erikson, "Patient Role and Social Uncertainty--A Dilemma of the Mentally 111," Psychiatry (1957) 20:263-274; D. McK. Rioch and A. H. Stanton, "Milieu Therapy," Psychiatry (1953) 16:65-72; A. H. Stanton and M. S, Schwartz, The Mental Hospital, New York, Basic Books, 1954; and William Caudill, The Psychiatric Hospital as a Small Society, Cambridge, Mass. , Harvard University Press, 1958.
88 Malleus Maleficarum, translated by Montague Summers, London, The Pushkin Press, 1951. See also Henry Charles Lea, A History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages (3 vols. ), New York, S. A. Russell, 1956; and Giorgio Di Santillana, The Crime of Galileo, University of Chicago Press, 1955.
* L . B. Smith, "English Treason Trials and Confessions in the Sixteenth Century," Journal of the History of Ideas (1954) 15:471.
*See Fromm, Escape from Freedom.
98 Norman Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millenium, London, Seeker and Warburg, 1957-
28 See also Hadley Cantril, The Psychology of Social Movements, New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1951, Chapter 6.
29 S. Radhakrishnan, East and West, New York, Harper and Bros. , 1956, 41. 80 Erich Fromm, Psychoanalysis and Religion, New Haven, Yale University
Press, 1950, presents a rather similar point of view.
'"Carnus, The Rebel, 269.
88 See Edward A. Shils, The Torment of Secrecy, Glencoe, 111. , The Free Press,
27 Ronald Knox, op. cit, 580,
? 502 THOUGHT REFORM
1956. 1 wish to emphasize that I am referring to just one theme within American populism; I would tend to be more cautious than Shils in relating the general populist movement to McCarthyism.
"Michael Polanyi, " T h e Two Cultures'/' Encounter (1959) 13:61.
**Dr. T. F. Fox, editor of Lancet, quoted in The New Yorfe Times, October 22, 1959.
"This close relationship between godhood and devildom has a long tradition: Margaret Murray demonstrated, in The God of The Witches, New York, Ox- ford University Press, 1952, that the devil himself is no one but the Horned God widely worshipped during the Bronze Age and Iron Age of pre-Christian Europe, and that "the God of the old religion becomes the Devil of the new," This statement has a good deal of significance for thought reform and totalism in general.
88 Albert Einstein, Out of My Later Years, New York, Philosophical Library, 1950, 21-23.
87}. Robert Oppenheimer, The Open Mind, New York, Simon & Schuster,
! 955> 93-94-
M J. Bronowski, Science and Human Values, New York, Julian Messner Inc. ,
1956.
CHAPTER 24 (462-472)
1 J . L. Talmon, "Utopianism and Politics," Commentary (1959) 28:149-154,
W2-1 have in mind the writings of Schachtel, Erikson, Fromm, Riesman, and Wheelis, which I have already cited; and also, recent work by Margaret Mead: New Lives for Old, New York, William Morrow Co. , 1956; "Cultural Dis- continuities and Personality Transformation," The Journal of Social Issues (1954) 8:3-16; and "The Implications of Culture Change for Personality Development," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 17:633-646.
8 Camus, The Rebel, 19.
4 William James, Varieties of Religious Experience, 163-185.
e Schachtel, Metamorphosis, p. 6.
*Mark Schorer, William Blake: The Politics of Vision, New York, Vintage
Books, 1959, 27.
7 Joseph Campbell, Hero with a Thousand Faces, 26.
8Germaine Bre'e, Camus, New Brunswick, N. J. , Rutgers University Press, 1959, 21; 20-46.
9 William James, op. eft,, 242 and 371.
10 Michael Balint, "The Final Goal of Psychoanalytic Treatment," in An
Outline of Psychoanalysis, 434.
U A large literature on "social influence" and "persuasibility" has recently developed. See particularly the descriptions of the already classical Asch experi- ments: S. E. Asch, "Effects of Group Pressures upon the Modification and Distortion of Judgment," Readings in Social Psychology, New York, Henry Holt, 1952. See also E, T. Borgetta and R. F. Bales, Small Groups, New York, Knopf, 1955; and C. Hovland and I. Janice, editors, Personality and PersuasibiUtyf
? NOTES 503
New Haven, Yale University Press, 1959; and Herbert C. Kelman, Compliance, Identification, and Internalization: A Theoretical and Experimental Approach to the*Study of Social Influence (monograph in preparation).
"John Dewey, Letter to Corinne Chisholm (Mrs. Frank G. Frost), De- cember 7, 1949* published in Daedalus, Summer, 1959, 558.
* William James, op. dt. t 196. 14 See Margaret Mead, op. cit. "Camus, The Rebel, 261. "Campbell, op. cit. , 388.
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? ? INDEX
Accepting attitude, 73
Acting out by prisoners, 145, 489 Adolescence
and authority,88
of Chinese intellectual, 275-287 and guilt, 98
identity crisis, 356
Ch'en Tu-hsiu, 369, 375 Childhood
"breakdown," 340
Chinese intellectual, 275-287 education, 88, 279
European, 96
illness, 97
resistance, 88
sex guilt, 334
superstitions, 302
China and "new society," 14 Chinese intellectuals
cultural perspectives, 359-387 defined, 9, 244
self-expression, 368
thought reform of, 241-415 women, 338
Chou En-lai, 246, 402 Claustrophobia, spiritual, 490 Coercion
ethical appeals, 13
in re'-education, 438 of students, 248, 293
Communication controls, 420 group, 178
in re-education, 178
Compulsion, 20, 36 to confess, 74 repetition, 223
Confessions, 5, 20, 38, 66, 102, 210, 343, 425
of Chinese intellectuals, 247, 473- 484
collective, 262
constructing, 25, 42, 47, 75, 81,
347
cult of, 425
dream-like state, 45 espionage, 42, 138
"false," 22, 104, 454
final, 55, 80, 266-273 formal signing, 32, 59 germ warfare, 325
of homosexuality, 213 political, 476
preliminary, 74
pressures, 52
public, 264, 322 reconstructing, 25, 30, 347 rejected, 22, 51
religious, 102
in Russia, 390
sequence, 82
sexual, 160, 426
student, 262
totalist, 425
types of, 102
Adaptation to thought reform, 401 American Psychoanalytic Association.
448
American stereotype, 325 Ancestor worship, 364 Anger, fatalistic, 280 Annihilation, fear of, 70
see also Fear, basic Anxiety, 69, 187,342
conflicts, 352
and depression, 69-72 in dreams, 187
and guilt, 487 post-release, 187, 195 prison, 487
Bacteriological warfare, see Germ warfare
Behavior, criminal, 24 Betrayal, 57, 293
guilt, 414 self, 68 shared, 69
"Brainwashing," 4, 117 defined, 3-7
Cadres
Chinese Communist, 255, 297 at universities,256
Campaigns, thought reform, 245, 402, 406
Camus, Albert, 426, 457, 467 Cannibalism, symbolic, 372 Catholic Church
attacks on, 55-60
and prison reform, 207
Cell chief, 15, 153, 156, 159, 167
woman, 121
see also Leadership Character
authoritarian vs. liberal, 150 Chinese, 386
class, 384
formation, 145, 469 institutionalized, 444 patterns, 151 self-judgments, 295 structure, 150, 288, 312 types, 359
Chen Feng, 395
? 506 THOUGHT REFORM
Confrontation
examples, 464
and personal change, 463 prison, 43
Confucianism, 364, 369, 390, 494 and heresy, 455
and identity, 391
in re-education, 455
Conscience, negative, 128 Conversion
Erikson, Erik, 128, 223, 488 Escapism in filial piety, 365 Espionage and re-education, 42, 52 Exhibitionism, post-release, 199 Exhortation in re-education, 439 Exile, pattern of, 491
Fairbank, John K. , 431 Family
Chinese, 396
Chinese Communist, 387 denouncing, 344, 384 identification, 332 relationships, 331 "thought reform," 195
Fantasy
acting out, 143 prison, 50
of suicide, 224
Fatalism in prison, 112 Fear
basic, 69, 70, 487 childhood, 302
of Communists, 414 of death, 238 residual, 337
sex, 295, 350, 357
supernatural, 302, 309, 350 Filial piety
in Chinese culture, 359-387 and Communism, 377 examples of, 361
"modern," 360, 367-377 traditional, 361-367
Freud, Sigmund, 143, 223, 388
Germ warfare, 122
impact of, 325
student reaction to, 348, 357
Group dynamics, 388
Group reform, 26, 55, 152-184, 341-
academic phase, 155-159 adaptive phase, 167-174 leadership, 153, 179-184 membership, 153
Catholic vs. Communist, 141 psychoanalytic, 142
trends, 131
Converts
to Chinese Communism, 400 post-release, 208-221 zealous, 400
Cowardice, feelings of, 57, 62 Crimes, recognition of, 24, 31, 42 Culture
Chinese Communist, 388-398, 399-415
post-industrial, 470 primitive, 471 transitional, 470 youth-oriented, 468
Death
and rebirth, 66-85 symbolic, 66, 71
Denumanization, 67 Delusions, 45, 432
as confession material, 46 paranoid, 70
prison, 46
psychotic, 71
of rescue, 71, 105 Demonology, 140, 143, 145 Denial, patterns of, 148, 224 Depression, 50, 69, 265, 294
conversion, 336
infantile, 314, 332
Deprivation, sensory, 238
Diary of a Madman, The, 371 Discipline and religion, 100 Dishonoring, logical, 76-79, 381 Dream of the Red Chamber, The,
adolescent, 135
anxiety, 187
of criminal guilt, 104, 297 of desertion, 328
of family, 328
post-release, 297, 351 prison, 45
Ego strength, 145
Enthusiasm, cult of, 397, 399, 413
phases, 154
resistance to, 156
status, 156
"struggle," 165, 168, 395
study program, 77, 156, 162, 167
365
Dreams, 111, 112
Guilt, 120, 128, 298,487 accepting, 164
and accusation, 23 adolescent, 98
and betrayal, 414
biological, 129
channeling, 75
in Communist world view, 30
? concealed, 93
concepts, 296, 467
criminal, 110, 210, 389
diffuse, 68
establishing, 68, 306 existential, 78, 424, 439 manipulating, 456 masturbatory, 99
neurotic, 424
post-release, 126, 191, 204, 238 racial, 128, 130
recurring, 324
residual, 337
sex, 334
sibling, 327
suppressed, 426
Hate
for past, 345, 379 projecting, 425 reconciling, 298 symbolic childhood, 276
INDEX 5 0 7
heroic, 205
ideals, 364, 385
vs. ideology, 465
"imperialist," 229, 310 judge-penitent, 427
law of, 497
liberal, 130r 358, 380 missionary, 231 mother-directed, 309
mystical, 92, 309, 422
Nazi, 439
negative, 77, 92, 101, 128, 130,
143, 290, 311, 356
parasitic, 121
patient, 356, 453
patterns, 332
post-release, 84, 106, 113,115,175,
189, 216
preserving, 181, 337
pseudo, 289, 332
reinforcement, 147
religious, 99, 111, 189
renewing, 106, 229-236, 358 repentant criminal, 74, 95, 104 reversed, 93, 195, 210
vs. role, 391
search, 119, 132
shift, 83, 384, 386, 438
splitting, 33,97,180,196, 216, 227 submissive, 113
testing, 96
transitional, 190, 384
types, 293, 359
Illness as psychological escape, 332 Insomnia, prison, 57, 135 Institutions
Heresy, 454
Hero, altered idea of, 330 Homosexuality, confessions of, 213 Hong Kong, 8-15r 94
Hostility, 411
family, 277, 290 latent, 328 post-release, 35
Hu Shih, 366
Humor in prison, 137, 146
Identification
with aggressor, 439 with China, 129 family, 114, 332 group, 254, 258
thought reform, 243
Identity, 101, 145, 175, 293, 335, 380, 438, 464, 470
types, 492 Integrity
active vs. passive, 371 adolescent, 143 alternatives, 383 assault on, 67 aristocratic leader, 288 vs. belief, 467
change, 392
compromise, 127, 129, 234 concepts, 467
conflicts, 360
Confucian, 391
conveyor, 309
crisis, 89, 294, 356, 374, 401, 488 cultural, 360
diffusion, 310, 358
disintegration, 104
filial son, 362
group, 370, 380, 396
threats to, 223 Interrogation, 20-25
advanced, 30 initial, 39 length of, 21 response to, 39 ritual, 23 setting, 21
Interrogator. 73, 487 see also Cell chief
Interview
of Chinese subjects, 249 follow-up, 185-206, 332 hostility, 35
immediacy, 11
interpreters, 10, 250 post-release, 208-221
setting, 10, 61, 65, 117,249,253 tandem, 250
post-release, 222-226
? 508 THOUGHT REFORM
Isolation, 152 medical-psychiatric, 453 post-release, 349, 358 prison, 486
student, 346, 370 threat of, 320
Labor reform, 15 Land reform, 268 Language, 429
Catholic Church, 62 of interrogation, 48 patterns, 430 problems, 11 thought reform, 429 totalist, 429, 433
Latourette, Kenneth S. , 230, 491 Leadership
Chinese intellectuals, 287 Communist enforced, 180 concepts, 182
group reform, 152-184 histrionic, 180
and identity preservation, 181 and nonparticipation, 179 sadomasochistic, 180
student, 288
Morality, 292 group, 76 prison, 69
Mothering in rehabilitation, 126, 355, 358
Mysticism, 114, 422 childhood, 90 Chinese, i89, 309 filial, 364
Lebbe, Vincent, 235
Leniency and re-education, 25, 47, 72 LifeofWuHsun,The,399 andtotalism,467 Liu Shao-chi, 386, 390
Lu Hsun, 371
McCarthyism, 457 Magic craving, 289
childhood, 280
Mao Tse-tung, 13, 246, 260, 382,
433
Martyrdom, 134, 137, 144, 182
student, 290, 371 Masochism, post-release, 225 Milieu, 66, 452
control, 412, 420-422 guilty, 424
prison, 70
purging, 425
religious, 456 shaming, 424 therapy, 451 totalist, 427
Military setting and thought reform,
Missionary
in China, 231, 296 Lutheran, 299
pure proselytizers, 232 spiritual mediators, 231 types, 231
Omniscience and totalism, 421 Origins of thought reform, 388-398
Paranoid psychosis, 32, 94
Parental threats, 321
Peking Men, 234
"People's standpoint," 24, 75, 259,
religious, 233
Personal closure, 421, 436, 498 Personality
change, 64, 462-472
childhood, 463
Phobias, post-release, 195 Prison, 14, 35, 66, 70, 79, 114
academic atmosphere, 27 anxiety, 487
children in, 123 Communist types, 14 conditions, 20 confrontation, 44 delusions, 45
fatalism, 112
guilt, 487
humor, 137, 146 hygiene, 22, 26, 49, 123
latent, 94
"mystical imperative," 422 of psychoanalysis, 448
Myth
childhood, 278
father-return, 278, 280, 289, 290,
of hero, 290, 293 making, 431, 457 "personal," 92, 290 social-historical, 291
Nazi identity, 439 Neurosis
guilt, 425
psychogenic symptoms, 347 student, 344
New Tide, 367, 371 Nihilism
post-release, 194
patterns of, 471
269 Persecution, 118
? insomnia, 57, 135 isolation, 486
morality, 69
movements, 27, 52 physical abuse, 52, 69, 486 recreation; 172 re-education, 14, 236 regulations, 17
release, 84
reorganization, 52, 72
routine, 26, 55, 69, 79
"struggle," 21-25, 40, 52, 110, 160 thought reform, 17-239
status, 52, 153
Prisoner
acting out, 145, 489 advanced, 48
American, 132
anticipation by, 145 apparent convert, 117-132 Chinese, 241-415
conflicts, 154
defenses, 146
"hypnotic" state, 68 leadership, 153
obviously confused, 86-116 resistance, 145 sadomasochistic, 180 status, 20, 111, 114
stoic, 147
types, 86
women, 118-131
Projection, institutionalized, 425 Promiscuity among students, 344 Propaganda, 388
Pseudo-religion, 439 Pseudo-strength, 148
Psychiatric hospitals, 452 Psychoanalysis
criticisms of, 446
training in, 447 Psychology
Chinese Communist, 65-85, 384, 388-398,399-415
human-centered, 396 individual, 388
of pawn, 423
in re-education, 446 techniques, 65
Psychosis borderline, 33 hallucinatory, 71 paranoid, 94 post-release, 94
Psychosomatic illness, 266 and guilt, 354 post-release, 196
Punishment
and "cure," 13
INDEX 5 0 9 physical, 48, 52, 69, 486
Purge trials, 389
Purity, demand for, 423-425
Race
attitudes, 229
discrimination, 158, 170, 303 relations, 128, 233
Reality, 83, 430
testing, 33, 205, 220, 382, 421
Rebirth, 94, 130
death and,66-85, 90, 333, 336,
463
Recovery and renewal, 222-239 Re-education, 5, 19-37, 47, 79, 149,
438-^61
advanced standing, 30-32 analytic, 78
centers, 12
of Chinese intellectuals, 241-415 and coercion, 438
and compulsion, 20
and Confucianism, 455
vs. education, 441-446
and exhortation, 439
and freedom, 32-37
by group reform, 26, 152 leniency during, 25-30
logical dishonoring, 76-79 long-term effects, 236-239
open (nontotalist), 462-472 patterns, 65
procedures, 26, 65-85, 446-454 as rebirth, 20, 66
and religion, 38-64
resistance to, 145-149
and self-examination, 27, 29 therapeutic effects, 238, 439
Regression, 67
Reordering and personal change, 463 Release from prison, 60-64, 84 Religion, 134
adolescent, 98
attacks on, 55-60
and Communism, 58, 111
as discipline, 100
and music, 340
political, 454
fn prison, 39,46, 54, 111
in re-education, 38-64, 454
see also Catholic Church; Mission-
ary
Repetition compulsion, 223 Repression, 148
and guilt, 366 patterns of, 224 sexual, 356
Rescue fantasies, 45
? 51O THOUGHT REFORM
Research, &-15
Resistance, 142, 145, 152, 180
anticipating, 145
to authority, 88
childhood, 88
of Chinese intellectuals, 400 denial, 148
group, 154, 172, 177 humor as, 146
and leadership, 157 methods, 145-149 neutralizing, 146 nonparticipation, 146 organizing, 156 passive, 147
Status, 385
in prison reform, 20
Stress of leadership, 150, 154 Student
attitudes, 407 demonstrations, 371 groups, 255
modern, 369 neurotic, 344 promiscuity, 344 Struggle," 257, 341
Submission, symbolic, 270, 466 Suicide attempts, 70, 73, 155, 266 Supernatural fear, 350
Survival and influence, 149-151 Symbol, Christian, 137, 144
patterns, 133-151 picture-making, 148 post-release, 191, 197 pseudo-strength, 148 and repression, 148 reversed, 210 semantic tricks, 169 and totalism, 449 types, 145
T eaching of thought reform, Tension in family life, 119 Tests
272
Response
of apparent convert, 117-132
of apparent resister, 133-151 confused, 341
manipulating, 66
of obviously confused, 115
types, 86-116, 117-132, 133-151,
psychological, 489
Thematic Apperception Test, 308,
493
Totalism, 129, 131, 150, 182, 219,
290, 376, 417-472 alternatives, 471 doctrine vs. person, 430 and existence, 434 ideological, 419-437 individual, 419, 436 language of, 429
and McCarthyism, 457 and myth-making, 432 nihilistic, 467
political, 470
vs. psychoanalysis, 446 religious, 455
student, 290
and submission, 129 supernatural, 144 transference, 449
400
Restraint, cult of, 397 Ricci, Matteo, 231, 233 Riesman, David, 250, 454 Rites Controversy, 233 Ritual, 413
during interrogation, 23
Role vs.