35 He passed a corn law without opposition, which
provided
a corn allowance of five modii for the people, and he made many other promises: to recall the exiles, to rescind the acts of Sulla, and to restore to its owners the land which had been used for military colonies.
Roman Translations
Because of this he was killed, although he could have escaped; 5 he refused their request to act as their leader, out of shame that he should survive after the loss of his army.
# The consul Mallius was alarmed by this victory of the Cimbri, and sent a letter begging Caepio to join forces with him and confront the Gauls with a large combined army; but Caepio refused. Caepio crossed the Rhone and boasted to his soldiers that he would bring help to the frightened consul; but he did not even want to discuss with him [12] how to conduct the war, and he disdained to listen to the envoys whom the senate sent, asking the generals to co-operate and jointly to protect the state. The Cimbri sent envoys to arrange a peace and to ask for land and for corn to sow, but he dismissed them so brusquely that they attacked the next day. His camp was situated not far away from Mallius' camp, 10 but he could not be persuaded, though he was so close, to join together their armies.
# The greater part of the army was destroyed . . . . . . [the battle was fought] on the day before the nones of October. Rutilius Rufus says that at least 70,000 regular troops and light-armed troops perished on this one day . . . .
# A Roman matron, acting as if disturbed in the mind, sat [13] on the throne of Jupiter. Therefore the Capitolium was again ritually cleansed. 20 A statue of Mars was said to have fallen on its head in the territory of the Sabines. And some time before the games were planned, when the trumpet-players sounded their instruments by the altar, black snakes suddenly appeared and continued to swarm in front of the altar and bite many of the bystanders, until the trumpets fell silent. Then the snakes suddenly vanished.
Several matrons came forward, after being warned by the same dream and on the same night, with a message about the sacred offerings; and several sacrifices were performed on this account. The noblest of the boys sang a hymn to the gods, which had been specially composed by a poet.
# [Cn. Mallius was sent into exile on the same charge as Caepio, by a decree of the people which was proposed by Saturninus. ]
25 # [Cn. Pompeius was born in this year. ] [14] The consul Rutilius, the colleague of Mallius, remained in sole charge of the government. # [Cicero also was born in this year. ] Therefore, since the whole state was in trepidation and fear of an attack by the Cimbri, Rutilius made the young men take an oath, that none of them would travel anywhere outside Italy. Messengers were sent along all the coasts and ports of Italy, with instructions that no-one under the age of 25 years should be allowed to board a boat . . . .
BOOK 35 L
[15] # [The senate] did not wish to do anything contrary [to the omens], and therefore decided - something which it had never previously done on behalf of the priests - that the contents of the [Sibylline] books should be read out in public. It was agreed that it was signified in the verses that, if Cinna and six of the tribunes were banished from the country, there would be peace, quiet and security.
Marius also had received an omen during his earlier adventures. # When the barbarian fled from his room and left it open, [16] Marius went outside and saw an ass, which was being offered food but was going off in search of water. 5 # Marius thought that this was a sign that he should do the same, and so he asked to be taken down to the sea, by which way he narrowly escaped.
# When Marius had collected about a thousand supporters, he sailed to Telamon to join Cinna. Brutus and the other exiles flocked to him from Spain. The men who had seen him at the height of his victories now saw him [17] unkempt and poorly dressed, and he addressed all of them as a suppliant, who had been oppressed by his enemies. In this way he quickly enlisted a legion of volunteers. # He gave soldiers to Cinna, with Sertorius and Papirius as his officers, 10 and he gave part of the cavalry to Milonius, with orders to advance on Rome, which was expected to be undefended. This brought success to Cinna.
[18] # Pompeius accepted the order of the senate, to come to the aid of the state, with dubious loyalty; he kept introducing delays, until Marius slipped into the port. # After staying there until night-time, Marius was allowed to take control of Ostia by Valerius, who was in charge of the cavalry garrison. 15 Pompeius no longer put off war with Sertorius, and openly fought against him. Envoys were sent to both sides, but achieved nothing, because Cinna believed that he had the upper hand.
# Marius with his supporters gained control of the Janiculum, [19] after killing many of his opponents, who were captured and slaughtered on Marius' orders. Octavius received six cohorts from Pompeius, and crossed the Tiber. Milonius was killed, and the other soldiers whom Sertorius sent to help Milonius were driven back. 20 [. . . ] thousand of Octavius' men were killed, including a senator, Aebutius, and seven thousand of their enemies. The Janiculum could have been captured the same day, but Pompeius would not allow Octavius to advance any further, and forced him to recall Crassus. He did not want the fighting to stop before the elections, so that he himself could obtain a formidable office. The two Catuli and Antonius went as envoys of the senate to beg Metellus, whose camp was situated nearby, [20] to come to the aid of his fatherland.
During the fighting between Pompeius and Sertorius, a common soldier from Pompeius' army, while he was stripping the body of an enemy, recognised that it was his brother. 25 He built a pyre for his brother and in the middle of the funeral rites, after uttering many curses, he slew himself with his sword. This incident struck everyone as a great condemnation of the civil war and changed their attitudes. Nobody was able to refrain from tears.
# The inhabitants of Nola advanced against the town of Abella, and burnt it down. Marius routed Servilius at Ariminum; he killed a few of his men, and accepted the surrender of the rest, whose loyalty he had undermined.
# The senate was asked by the envoys of Metellus to decide about the allegiance of the Samnites, who said that they would not agree to peace except on condition that they and all the deserters should receive the citizenship, [21] and have their property returned. The senate refused, wishing to preserve the ancient dignity of the Roman people. 30 When Cinna heard about this, with the help of Flavius Fimbria he enlisted the Samnites on the terms which they requested, and joined their forces to his.
# Meanwhile Pompeius continued to confuse everything . . . . He saw that the senate was opposed to all the exiles and in particular to Cinna's cause, but even so he persuaded it to give a safe reception to the envoys who were sent by Cinna. He secretly discussed plans with Cinna, but did not share the information with Octavius. Everyone who surrendered was granted citizenship; they promised to supply many thousands of soldiers, but sent scarcely sixteen cohorts. 35 And the army was smitten by such a great pestilence, [22] that seventeen thousand of Octavius's supporters died.
While Pompeius was lying ill in bed, a storm began; Pompeius himself was struck by lightening, and the top of his tent was destroyed. He showed no sign of life, and the army was left without a general for several days. Then, because Pompeius did not recover quickly, C. Cassius was sent to the camp, in order to take over command of the army, until he was restored to health. 40 When he appeared, Pompeius was suddenly aroused and . . . to the envoys who were . . . whether he was content . . . . It was clear to Cassius that Pompeius was near to dying.
On the third day after that, Pompeius died from a remarkable wasting disease. The people of the city disrupted his funeral, [23] knocked his body off its bier, and kept on dragging him through the dirt. Everyone agreed that this contemptible man had been justly punished by heaven for his treachery and greed. But the senators and tribunes restrained the crowd, and protected the body with their clothes. 45 Historians relate that the body was taken on a common bier to be buried.
# Octavius brought Pompeius' soldiers into his own camp. Metellus led his army against Cinna, but his soldiers suddenly seized all the standards and with a loud cry greeted the army of Cinna, who greeted them back. Alarmed by this turn of events, Metellus led his army away, and was amongst the first to say that an envoy should be sent to Cinna to discuss peace. On his return Crassus pressed for a battle, and advised Metellus that he . . . . should seek out Cinna with no further delay 50 . . . . [24] engaging in battle with Fimbria, he was miserably defeated but not killed, when Metellus . . . .
. . . . # Sulla immediately returned to Athens and punished the leaders of the revolt and those guilty [of aiding them] . . . . violently killed the rest.
# Mithridates had collected many soldiers from all the states, and after learning of the disaster he supplemented them with new levies. He sent out 65,000 foot-soldiers and cavalrymen, and seventy scythed chariots, with Dorylaus as their general. [25] # Archelaus promptly added another [ten] thousand men whom he had collected from the islands, which he was plundering again with his warships.
65 On the first day the soldiers from Pontus were routed and the son of Archelaus was killed. Weakened and subdued, they remained within their fortifications throughout the night. # In the morning there was a fiercer attack, and our soldiers captured their camp. [26] They killed an enormous number of the enemy, and captured more than 25,000 men, who were later sold into slavery. Archelaus escaped to Chalcis in a small boat.
70 The king's garrison at Abdera slipped away after the capture of Philippi.
# Sulla and Archelaus held talks at Aulis, and Sulla named the terms on which Mithridates could obtain peace. Mithridates eventually accepted these terms, because he was alarmed by the arrival of Fimbria, as I shall explain in due course, and Sulla promised that he would not change any of the terms. The terms were as follows: Archelaus should hand over the fleet to Sulla, and the king should withdraw from all the islands, [27] Asia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia and Gallograecia. 75 He should release the envoys Q. Oppius and M'. Aquilius, and he should send back all the other prisoners, of whom there was a substantial number. Particular mention was made of the Macedonians, who had been outstandingly faithful, that their wives and children should be returned to them. In addition, the king should give seventy fully equipped decked ships to the allies, and should himself provide the food, clothing and pay for them.
# Mithridates made peace on these terms with Sulla at Dardanus. After his reconciliation with the Romans, he dismissed Ariobarzanes like a slave, and set off for Pontus with the rest of his fleet.
# While the terms of the treaty were being negotiated, Sulla's officer Hortensius routed the Maedi and Dardani, who were harassing the allies. 80 Sulla himself had led an army into the territory of the Maedi, before [28] he crossed over to Asia for the talks. After the slaughter of the enemy forces who were harassing Macedonia, he received the surrender of the Dardani and Denselatae.
# [Sulla] held investigations at Ephesus, and executed the leaders of the revolt. He imposed fines on the cities, and gained possession of the towns which were still resisting.
# Curio restored Nicomedes to the throne of Bithynia, to which he attached Paphlagonia. Nicomedes was courteous and more civilised than his father of the same name. He was devoted to the Romans, so that he was not involved in any wicked treachery, and he honourably maintained his loyalty free from all evil.
85 [29] His brother Socrates was not tempted by jealously to seek control of the kingdom, because he had had enough trouble from his previous adventures. Nicomedes, who was rightly called Euergetes {"the benefactor"} because he brought prosperity to his needy subjects and won over many with his generosity, had not been content with the one legitimate son which he had by Aristonica, but he brought up another son called Socrates, who was born to the concubine Hagne of Cyzicus. He sent away Socrates and his mother to Cyzicus, with 500 talents.
# When this {Nicomedes} died in old age, possibly by poison, he was succeeded by the son of Aristonica . . . . After the loss of his mother he married the sister of his father, [30] who had been dear to his father during his lifetime. After only nine days she either died from disease or was murdered, and then he married Nysa, the daughter of Ariarathes king of Cappadocia. 90 Socrates reported to king Mithridates that Nysa was urging him to wage war on his brother.
Socrates was given a splendid reception by Mithridates, who even called him Chrestus {"the good"}, as a better name. He then went to Rome to ask for recognition as king, but he was unsuccessful and returned to Cyzicus. He was too ashamed to go back to the king. After murdering his sister there out of greed, he was pursued both by Nicomedes Philopator and by the inhabitants of Cyzicus, and came to Euboea, where he stayed with a certain Cornelius, a Roman knight. He was welcomed kindly enough by Cornelius, and to his young son . . . to learn crimes . . . .
BOOK 36 L
[31]. . . warned by . . . he avoided a contest.
# And Pompeius, when he was 25 years old and still a Roman knight - something which no-one had previously done - celebrated a triumph as pro-praetor from Africa, on the fourth day before the Ides of March. Some writers say that on this occasion the Roman people were shown elephants in the triumph. But when he came to enter the city, the triumphal arch was too small for the four elephants yoked to his chariot, although they tried it twice.
5 # Triumphs were also celebrated by Murena, from Asia, and by Valerius Flaccus, [32] from Celtiberia and Gaul.
# The brothers Licinius and Terentius Lucullus staged a battle between bulls and elephants in their games as curule aediles. # Claudius had previously displayed a similar battle as aedile, in the circus during the Ludi Circenses.
# The inhabitants of Volaterrae surrendered to the Romans, after an uprising in which the ex-praetor Carbo, whom Sulla had put in charge of them, was stoned to death (he was the brother of Cn. Carbo). The proscribed men were expelled from the city, and were cut down by cavalry sent by the consuls Claudius and Servilius. # Before that [in the previous year] the Samnites at Nola had done the same, out of fear of a siege. 10 Papirius Mutilus fled from Nola, but after even his wife Bassia refused to let him in by night at Teanum, because he was one of the proscribed men, he stabbed himself with a dagger.
Sulla was also granted the province of Cisalpine [Gaul].
. . . . 25 # [Sulla] had left instructions that he should be buried, and not cremated, but [33] L. Philippus stated that it was better for him to be cremated, to avoid Sulla suffering the same fate as had previously happened to Marius, # whose body had been dragged from his sepulchre by enemy soldiers and torn apart. Therefore a period of public mourning was declared, and the Roman matrons mourned for Sulla for a whole year. His body was burnt in the Campus Martius at Rome, after a very grand funeral which was attended a great mass of the people. After his pyre was set on fire, a large shower of rain came down.
30 We have come to [the period covered by] the histories of Sallustius but, as we have determined, we will not include anything which delays us and is not urgent. For it is said that Sallustius should be read, not as a historian, but as an orator. He finds fault with his own times and reproves their misdeeds; he includes speeches and describes variously places, mountains, rivers and other such things; he assigns blame and makes detailed comparisons.
# But when the tribunes of the plebs called on the consuls [34] to restore the tribunician power, Lepidus was the first to refuse, and most of the crowd at an assembly agreed with him when he said, in a speech which still survives, that it was not beneficial for the tribunician power to be restored.
35 He passed a corn law without opposition, which provided a corn allowance of five modii for the people, and he made many other promises: to recall the exiles, to rescind the acts of Sulla, and to restore to its owners the land which had been used for military colonies.
# The inhabitants of Faesulae broke into the strongholds of the veterans. After killing many of the veterans and reclaiming their land, they defended their actions before the senate, on the grounds that [35] the rural population had been forced to do this after being driven from their homes. The consuls were assigned an army and set off for Etruria, as the senate instructed.
# Lepidus . . . into the mountains . . . led back his army. 40 But when weapons were brought together and Catulus was not slower . . . Where anyone seemed to be near him as he went beside the coast and the lake, he avoided the tops of the mountains.
# With peace so uncertain, the senate resorted to the most solemn oaths, that they should not move their armed forces anywhere further. When he had come close to the city, Lepidus sent ahead his envoy . . . . 45 For he was by nature a troublemaker and incapable of staying quiet. . . . them with peace . . . .
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Festus : Breviarium
of the accomplishments of the Roman people
Festus wrote this little compendium of Roman history in about 370 A. D. , during the reign of the emperor Valens.
The translation is by Thomas M. Banchich and Jennifer A. Meka (Canisius College Translated Texts, Number 2, 2001). It is already available on the Roman Emperors website, but has been copied here and re-formatted to make it simpler to link to the translation. See key to translations for an explanation of the format of the translation.
The Latin text of the Breviarium can be found elsewhere on this website.
[1] L Your Clemency {Valens} enjoined that a summary be made. To be sure, I, in whom the facility of broader discourse is lacking, shall comply happily with what has been enjoined. And, having followed the fashion of accountants, who express immense sums through fewer numbers, I shall indicate, not explicate, past events. Receive, therefore, what has been succinctly summed up in very concise sayings, so you may seem, most glorious princeps, not so much to recite as to enumerate to yourself the years and duration of the state and the events of yore.
[2] L From the foundation of the city to the rise of Your Perpetuity, by which Rome has been allotted a very prosperous imperium of brothers, are reckoned 1,117 years. Thus, under kings are reckoned 243 years {753-510 B. C. }; under consuls, 467 years {509-43 B. C. }; under imperatores, 407 years {43 B. C. - 364 A. D. }. 2 For 243 years, kings, seven in number, reigned in Rome. Romulus reigned 37 years; senators for five days and one year; Numa Pompilius reigned 43 years; Tullus Hostilius reigned 44 years; Ancus Marcius reigned 24 years; Priscus Tarquinius reigned 38 years; Servius Tullius reigned 44 years; Lucius Tarquinius Superbus was expelled in the twenty-fourth year of his reign. 3 From Brutus and Publicola to Pansa and Hirtius there were 916 consuls, beyond those who were those chosen as replacements in the same year by some allotment, through four hundred and sixty-seven years. For nine years, consuls were lacking in Rome, thus: for two years Rome was under decemvirs, for three years under military tribunes, and for four years without magistrates. 4 From Octavianus Caesar Augustus to Jovian, there were imperatores, 43 in number, through 407 years.
[3] L Therefore, how much Rome has advanced under these three types of rule -- that is, regnal, consular, and imperial -- I shall briefly sketch. Under seven kings through 243 years, Roman imperium did not advance beyond Portus and Ostia, within 18 miles from the gates of the city of Rome, seeing that she was as yet small and founded by shepherds, while neighboring cities were hemming her in. 2 At the same time, through 467 years under consuls, among whom there sometimes were dictators, too, Italy was occupied as far as beyond the Po, Africa was subjugated, the Spains added, and Gaul and Britain made tributaries. As for Illyricum, Histri, Libyrni, and Dalmatae were mastered; it passed to Achaea; Macedonians were subjugated; with Dardanians, Moesians, and Thracians it warred; and it reached all the way to the Danube. 3 After Antiochus had been expelled, Romans first set foot in Asia; when Mithridates had been conquered, his kingdom was occupied; Armenia Minor, which he likewise had held, was obtained by arms; a Roman army reached Mesopotamia; a treaty was initiated with the Parthians; against Carduenians and Saracens and Arabs it warred; all of Judaea was conquered; Cilicia and Syria came into the power of the Roman people. Egypt's kings became allies. 4 Moreover, under the imperatores, through 407 years, while many principes were directing the diverse fortune of the state, the Maritime Alps, Cottian, Raetian, and Norican Alps, the Pannonias, and the Moesias accrued to the Roman world, and the entire bank of the Danube was reduced to provinces. All Pontus, Armenia Major, all Oriens, with Mesopotamia, Assyria, Arabia, and Egypt, passed under the jurisdiction of Roman imperium.
[4] L Moreover, in what order the Roman state acquired individual provinces is described below. Sicily was made first of the provinces. When Hieron, King of the Sicilians, had been defeated, Marcellus obtained her. Then directed by praetors, she afterward was committed to praesides; now she is administered by consulars. 2 Metellus conquered Sardinia and Corsica; he celebrated a triumph over the Sardinians; the Sardinians have often rebelled. There had come to be a joint administration of these islands; afterward praetors held them; now they are ruled individually by praesides. 3 Roman arms were sent across to Africa for the defense of the Sicilians. Thrice Africa rebelled; in the end, after Carthage had been destroyed by Scipio Africanus, she was made a province; now she functions under proconsuls. 4 Numidia used to be held by friendly kings, but war was declared against Jugurtha because of the murder of Adherbal and Hiempsal, sons of King Micipsa; and after he had been worn down by the consul Metellus and captured by Marius, Numidia came into the power of the Roman people. The Mauretanias were obtained from Bocchus. But, with all Africa subjugated, King Juba was still holding the Moors -- he who, after he had been conquered by Augustus Caesar in the course of the civil war, voluntarily committed suicide. 5 Thus did the Mauretanias begin to be ours and six provinces were made through all Africa; Africa itself, where Carthage is, is proconsular, Numidia consular, Byzacium consular, Tripolis and the two Mauretanias -- that is, Sitifensis and Caesariensis -- are praesidal.
[5] L Through Scipio we first bore aid to Spaniards against the Africans. We obtained the rebelling Lusitanians in Spain through Decimus Brutus and we attained the sea from Gades to Ocean. Afterward, Sylla, having been dispatched against the Spaniards, who were in an uproar, conquered them. 2 The Celtiberians in Spain often rebelled, but, when Scipio the Younger had been dispatched, they were, with the destruction of Numantia, subjugated. Nearly all Spain was brought under sway through Metellus and Pompeius on the occasion of the Sertorian War; afterward, when his imperium had been extended for five years, they were subdued by Pompeius. 3 Ultimately, too, the Cantabrians and Asturians, who, relying on the mountains, were resisting, were destroyed by Octavianus Caesar Augustus. 4 And now through all Spain there are six provinces: Tarraconensis, Carthaginensis, Lusitania, Gallaecia, Baetica, also across the strait in the soil of African land is a province of the Spains, which is named Tingimauritania. Of these, Baetica and Lusitania are consular, the others praesidal.
[6] L With the Gauls the Roman people had the gravest wars. For the Gauls also used to hold the part of Italy in which Mediolanum now is as far as to the Rubicon River, trusting in a number of men so great that in a war they assailed Rome herself, and, when the Roman armies had been destroyed, entered the walls of the city and besieged the Capitolium, to the citadel of which 600 most noble senators had fled: it was these who ransomed themselves from the siege with 1000 pounds of gold. Afterward, Camillus, who was in exile, with a multitude gathered from the fields, defeated the Gauls as they were returning with victory; the gold and standards which the Gauls had taken he brought back. 2 Many consuls, praetors, and dictators contended with the Gauls with varied result. Marius drove the Gauls from Italy; when the Alps had been crossed, he battled successfully against them. 3 C. Caesar, with ten legions which had 3,000 Italian soldiers each, over nine years subjugated the Gauls from the Alps as far as to the Rhine, battled with barbarians settled beyond the Rhine, crossed to Britain, and, in the tenth year, made the Gauls and Britains tributaries. 4 There are in Gaul, Aquitania, and the Britains eighteen provinces: the Maritime Alps, the province of Viennensis, Narbonensis, Novempopulana, two Aquitanias, the Graian Alps, Maxima Sequanorum, two Germanies, two Belgicas, two Lugdunenses; in Britannia, Maxima Caesariensis, Flavia Caesariensis, Britannia Prima, and Britannia Secunda.
[7] L From the shore of the sea, we gradually moved on Illyricum. The consul Laevinus, having first entered the Adriatic and the Ionian Sea, obtained the coastal cities. Crete was made a province by the proconsul Metellus, who was called "Creticus. " 2 When Greeks were seeking succor in our protection, we came to Achaea. The Athenians sought our aid against Philippus, King of the Macedonians. For a while Achaea was free under our good offices; finally, when ambassadors of the Romans had been done violence at Corinth, after Corinth had been captured by the proconsul Lucius Mummius, all Achaea was obtained. 3 The Epirotes, who once with Pyrrhus the king had even presumed to cross to Italy, and the Thessalians, when they had been conquered, were added together with our territories of Achaea and Macedon. 4 Macedonia thrice rebelled -- under Philippus, under Perseus, under Pseudo-Philippus. Flamininus defeated Philippus, Paulus Perseus, Metellus Pseudo-Philippus, by whose triumphs Macedonia was joined to the Roman people. 5 The Illyrians, who had borne aid to the Macedonians, we conquered on that same occasion through Lucius Ancius, a praetor, and we received them, with King Gentius, in capitulation. Curio, a proconsul, subjugated the Dardanians and Moesiacians and was the first commander of Romans to penetrate all the way to the Danube. 6 Under Julius Octavianus Caesar Augustus, a road was made through the Julian Alps; when all the Alpini had been conquered, the provinces of the Norici were added. After Batho, King of the Pannonians, had been subdued, the Pannonias came under our sway. After the Amantians between the Save and Drave had been laid low, the area adjoining the Save and environs of Pannonia Secunda were obtained.
[8] L The Marcomanni and Quadi were driven from the environs of Valeria, which are between the Danube and Drave, and a frontier between Romans and barbarians was established from Augusta Vindelicum through Noricum, Pannonia, and Moesia. 2 Trajan conquered the Dacians, under King Decibalus, and made Dacia, across the Danube in the soil of barbary, a province which in circumference had 1,000 miles; but it was lost under imperator Gallienus, and, after Romans had been transferred from there by Aurelian, two Dacias were made in the regions of Moesia and Dardania. 3 Illyricus has 18 provinces: two of Noricas, two of Pannonias, Valeria, Savia, Dalmatia, Moesia Superior, Dardania, two of Dacias, and in the Macedonic diocese are seven provinces: Macedonia, Thessaly, Achaea, two Epiruses, Praevalis, and Crete.
[9] L It was run across to Thrace on the occasion of the Macedonian War. The Thracians were the most savage of all races. The Scordisci, equally cruel and cunning, also used to dwell in the environs of Thrace. Many tales are told about the savagery of their divinatory rites, that to their own gods they sometimes made sacrifices of prisoners, that they were accustomed to drink human blood in skulls. 2 A Roman army was often destroyed by them. Marcus Didius checked the wandering Thracians, Marcus Drusus confined them within their own borders, Minucius annihilated them in the ice of the Hebrus River. Through Appius Claudius, a proconsul, those who used to inhabit Rhodope were conquered. Earlier a Roman fleet obtained the coastal cities of Europe. Through Thrace, Marcus Lucullus first clashed with the Bessi. 3 The head of our race conquered Thrace herself. He subjugated the Haemimontani, Eumolpiada -- which is now called Philippopolis -- , Uscudama -- which presently is called Hadrianopolis -- he brought under our sway, he took Cabyle. He occupied cities situated above Pontus: Apollonia, Calathum, Parthenopolis, Tomi, and Hister; reaching all the way to the Danube, he displayed Roman arms to the Scythians. 4 Thus were the six provinces of Thrace added to the sway of our state: Thrace, Haemimontus, Moesia Inferior, Scythia, Rhodope, and Europa, in which now have been established the secondary defenses of the Roman world.
[10] L Now the Eastern parts and the entire Oriens and the provinces simply located in the vicinity, which have furnished authors for your scepters, I shall explicate, so that the interest of Your Clemency {Valens}, which you have in these same being preserved, may be more amply aroused. 2 Asia became known to the Romans through the partnership of King Attalus, and we took possession of it by the law of inheritance, when it had been bequeathed in Attalus' will. Nevertheless, lest the Roman people should hold anything not obtained by strength, it was delivered by means of arms by us from Antiochus, the Syrians' greatest king. 3 On the same occasion, Lydia, ancient seat of kings, Caria, Hellespontus, and Phrygia came under the power of the Roman people. 4 Having contended with Rhodes and the peoples of the islands, at first extremely hostile, we afterward began to employ these same as most trustworthy assistants. Thus, at first, Rhodes and the islands were conducting affairs independently; afterward, when the Romans kindly invited them, they attained to the status of dependent and, under princeps Vespasian, the province of the Islands was created.
[11] L The proconsul Servilius, who had been dispatched to a pirate war, obtained Pamphylia, Lycia, and Pisidia. Bithynia we attained through the will of the late King Nicomedes. 2 Gallograecia -- that is Galatia (and indeed, as the name echoes, "Galatians" is from "Gauls") -- we invaded because it had supplied aid to Antiochus against the Romans. Mummius, a proconsul, pursued the Galatians and, when some of them fled toward Olympus, some toward Mount Magaba (which now is called Modiacus), forced them from the heights to the plains, and, after they had been conquered, reduced them to perpetual peace. Afterward, Deiotarus the tetrarch controlled Galatia with our permission. In the end, under Octavianus Caesar Augustus, Galatia was reduced to the status of a province and Lollius, a propraetor, first administered her. 3 The Cappadocians first sought our partnership under King Epafrax, and, afterward, Ariobarzanes, King of Cappadocia, who had been expelled by Mithridates, was restored by Roman arms. The Cappadocians always were among our assistants and so nurtured the Roman majesty that Mazaca, the greatest city in Cappadocia, was named Caesarea in honor of Caesar Augustus. Ultimately, under imperator Claudius Caesar, when Archelaus, King of the Cappadocians, had come to Rome and, having been detained there a long while, gone to his rest, Cappadocia changed to the status of a province. 4 Pontus, after Mithridates, King of Pontus, had been conquered by Pompeius, received the form of a province. King Pylaemenes, a friend of the Roman people, controlled Paphlagonia. Having often been driven thence from his kingdom, he was restored by us and, with his death, the legal status of a province was imposed on Paphlagonia.
[12] L In what manner Roman control spread beyond the heights of Mount Taurus will be demonstrated through a consecutive arrangement of locations rather than of times. 2 Antiochus, the most powerful king of Syria, waged a formidable war on the Roman people. He had 300,000 armed men, and also drew up a battle line of scythed chariots and elephants. After he had been conquered in Asia at Magnesia by the consul Scipio, brother of Scipio Africanus, when a peace had been agreed upon, he was allowed to reign beyond the Taurus. His sons retained the rule of Syria under the patronage of the Roman people. When these had died, we acquired the provinces of the Syrias. 3 Servilius, a proconsul, having been dispatched to a bandit war, subjugated he Cilicians and the Isaurians, who had allied themselves with pirates and seagoing marauders, and first established a road through Mount Taurus; and he celebrated a triumph over the Cilicians and Isaurians and thus received the cognomen "Isauricus. "
[13] L Cyprus, renowned for riches, seduced the poverty of the Roman people in order to be occupied. A federate king was ruling her, but so great was the poverty of Roman finances and so immense the report of the wealth of Cyprus that, after a law had been issued, Cyprus was ordered confiscated. When this announcement had been received, the Cyprian king took poison in order to forfeit his life before his riches. Cato transported the Cyprian wealth to Rome by means of ships. Thus, more avariciously than justly, did we attain jurisdiction of the island. 2 Cyrene, together with the other cities of Libya's Pentapolis, were obtained through the liberality of an older Ptolemy. We acquired Libya after the mastery of King Appion had been suppressed. 3 All Egypt had been subject to friendly kings, but, when Cleopatra, together with Antonius, had been conquered, in the times of Octavianus Caesar Augustus she took the form of a province and first among the Alexandrians Cornelius Gallus, a Roman judge, took charge.
[14] L Through the confines of Armenia, under Lucius Lucullus, Roman arms were first sent across the Taurus. The phylarchs of the Saracens, after they had been defeated, withdrew to Osrhoene. In Mesopotamia, Nisibis was captured by the same Lucullus. 2 Afterward, through Pompeius, these same locations were obtained by arms. Syria and Phoenicia were received in a war with Tigranes, King of the Armenians. Arabs and Judaeans were conquered in Palestine. 3 In the end, under the princeps Trajan the crown of the King of Armenia Major was offered, and through Trajan Armenia, Mesopotamia, Assyria, and Arabia were made provinces and an eastern frontier was established above the banks of the Tigris. 4 But Hadrian, who succeeded Trajan, envying Trajan's glory, returned Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria of his own volition and wanted the Euphrates to be a median between Persians and Romans. 5 But afterward, under the two Antonines, Marcus and Verus, and under Severus, Pertinax, and other Roman principes who battled against the Parthians with varied result, Mesopotamia was four times lost and four times regained. 6 In the times of Diocletian, after the Romans had been defeated in an initial encounter, when, however, King Narses, had been overcome in a second engagement and his wife and daughters had been captured and cared for with the utmost concern for their chastity, when peace had been made, Mesopotamia was restored and the frontier above the banks of the Tigris was reformed, so that we attained sway over five peoples settled beyond the Tigris. The terms of this treaty, having been preserved, endured to the time of the Divine Constantine.
[15] L Now I know, Renowned princeps, where your intent is heading. You assuredly seek to know how often the arms of Babylonia and Rome were joined and in what places spears contended with arrows. The outcomes of wars I shall briefly enumerate. In a few, you will discover the enemy, as a result of stealth, to have rejoiced; however, you will judge the Romans always to have been revealed victors as a result of genuine courage. 2 First, Arsaces, King of the Parthians, after a delegation had been dispatched, asked and obtained from Lucius Sylla the good offices of the Roman people. 3 Lucius Lucullus pursued to Armenia Mithridates, who had been deprived of the rule of Pontus. The same man, with 18,000 Romans, conquered Tigranes, the Armenians' king, with 7,000 armored horsemen and 2,000 archers. He subdued Tigranocerta, the greatest city of Armenia. He obtained Madaena, a rich region of Armenia, he descended through Melitene to Mesopotamia, and took Nisibis, along with the king's brother. After he had prepared to march against Persia, he accepted a successor.
[16] L Cn. Pompeius, of proven good fortune, after he had been dispatched to a Mithridatic War, having attacked Mithridates in Armenia Minor, prevailed in a night battle and, when forty-two thousand of the enemy had been killed, he occupied his camp. Mithridates, with his wife and two companions, fled to the Bosphorus and when, in desperation of his affairs, he drank poison, and when the poison's strength did not prove sufficient, he commanded that he be run through with a sword by one of his own soldiers. 2 Pompeius pursued Tigranes, King of the Armenians, Mithridates' supporter; the latter, after the crown had been offered, gave himself up near Artaxata. By him were received Mesopotamia, Syria, and a considerable part of Phoenicia; and he also was allowed to reign within Armenia Major. 3 Likewise, Pompeius imposed a king, Aristarchus, on the Bosphorians and Colchians; fought with the Albani; granted peace to Orhodes, King of the Albani, after he had thrice been defeated; received in surrender Hiberia, with King Atrax; and defeated Saracens and Arabs. After Judaea had been captured, he obtained Jerusalem and made a treaty with the Persians. 4 Returning to Antioch, he, delighted by the loveliness of the place and its abundance of waters, consecrated the grove belonging to Daphne, with a wood added on.
[17] L Marcus Crassus, a consul, was dispatched against rebelling Parthians. He, when he was asked for peace by a legation dispatched from Persia, said that he would respond at Ctesiphon. He crossed the Euphrates at Zeugma, and, having been guided by a deserter, a certain Mazzarus, descended into an remote wilderness of plains. 2 There the army was surrounded by formations of archers flying around them from all sides, with Silas and Surenas, the King's prefects, and was overwhelmed by the impact of the missiles. Crassus himself -- when, after he had been enticed to a parlay, he was nearly captured alive -- had escaped while his tribunes resisted, and, seeking flight, was killed. 3 His severed head, with his right hand, were borne to the king and then maintained for sport, so that molten gold might be poured into his throat: to wit, in order that he who, burning with lust for plunder, after he had been asked by the king to grant peace, had declined, flames of gold might consume his remains even after he perished. 4 Lucius Cassius, Crassus' quaestor, a vigorous man, gathered the remains of the scattered army. Against the Persians, who were rushing toward Syria, he thrice contended in most admirable fashion and, after they had been repelled across the Euphrates, he ravaged them.
[18] L The Parthians, with Labienus, who had been of the Pompeian faction and, having been defeated, had fled to Persia, commander, rushed toward Syria and occupied the whole province. 2 On Mount Caper, P. Ventidius Bassus, with a few men, engaged the Parthians who had invaded Syria with Labenius in command, escaped, killed Labienus, and, pursuing the Persians, cast them into utter destruction. In this engagement, he killed Pacorus, the king's son, on the same day on which Crassus had been defeated, lest the death of a Roman commander ever be left unavenged. 3 Ventidius first celebrated a triumph over the Persians. M.
# The consul Mallius was alarmed by this victory of the Cimbri, and sent a letter begging Caepio to join forces with him and confront the Gauls with a large combined army; but Caepio refused. Caepio crossed the Rhone and boasted to his soldiers that he would bring help to the frightened consul; but he did not even want to discuss with him [12] how to conduct the war, and he disdained to listen to the envoys whom the senate sent, asking the generals to co-operate and jointly to protect the state. The Cimbri sent envoys to arrange a peace and to ask for land and for corn to sow, but he dismissed them so brusquely that they attacked the next day. His camp was situated not far away from Mallius' camp, 10 but he could not be persuaded, though he was so close, to join together their armies.
# The greater part of the army was destroyed . . . . . . [the battle was fought] on the day before the nones of October. Rutilius Rufus says that at least 70,000 regular troops and light-armed troops perished on this one day . . . .
# A Roman matron, acting as if disturbed in the mind, sat [13] on the throne of Jupiter. Therefore the Capitolium was again ritually cleansed. 20 A statue of Mars was said to have fallen on its head in the territory of the Sabines. And some time before the games were planned, when the trumpet-players sounded their instruments by the altar, black snakes suddenly appeared and continued to swarm in front of the altar and bite many of the bystanders, until the trumpets fell silent. Then the snakes suddenly vanished.
Several matrons came forward, after being warned by the same dream and on the same night, with a message about the sacred offerings; and several sacrifices were performed on this account. The noblest of the boys sang a hymn to the gods, which had been specially composed by a poet.
# [Cn. Mallius was sent into exile on the same charge as Caepio, by a decree of the people which was proposed by Saturninus. ]
25 # [Cn. Pompeius was born in this year. ] [14] The consul Rutilius, the colleague of Mallius, remained in sole charge of the government. # [Cicero also was born in this year. ] Therefore, since the whole state was in trepidation and fear of an attack by the Cimbri, Rutilius made the young men take an oath, that none of them would travel anywhere outside Italy. Messengers were sent along all the coasts and ports of Italy, with instructions that no-one under the age of 25 years should be allowed to board a boat . . . .
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[15] # [The senate] did not wish to do anything contrary [to the omens], and therefore decided - something which it had never previously done on behalf of the priests - that the contents of the [Sibylline] books should be read out in public. It was agreed that it was signified in the verses that, if Cinna and six of the tribunes were banished from the country, there would be peace, quiet and security.
Marius also had received an omen during his earlier adventures. # When the barbarian fled from his room and left it open, [16] Marius went outside and saw an ass, which was being offered food but was going off in search of water. 5 # Marius thought that this was a sign that he should do the same, and so he asked to be taken down to the sea, by which way he narrowly escaped.
# When Marius had collected about a thousand supporters, he sailed to Telamon to join Cinna. Brutus and the other exiles flocked to him from Spain. The men who had seen him at the height of his victories now saw him [17] unkempt and poorly dressed, and he addressed all of them as a suppliant, who had been oppressed by his enemies. In this way he quickly enlisted a legion of volunteers. # He gave soldiers to Cinna, with Sertorius and Papirius as his officers, 10 and he gave part of the cavalry to Milonius, with orders to advance on Rome, which was expected to be undefended. This brought success to Cinna.
[18] # Pompeius accepted the order of the senate, to come to the aid of the state, with dubious loyalty; he kept introducing delays, until Marius slipped into the port. # After staying there until night-time, Marius was allowed to take control of Ostia by Valerius, who was in charge of the cavalry garrison. 15 Pompeius no longer put off war with Sertorius, and openly fought against him. Envoys were sent to both sides, but achieved nothing, because Cinna believed that he had the upper hand.
# Marius with his supporters gained control of the Janiculum, [19] after killing many of his opponents, who were captured and slaughtered on Marius' orders. Octavius received six cohorts from Pompeius, and crossed the Tiber. Milonius was killed, and the other soldiers whom Sertorius sent to help Milonius were driven back. 20 [. . . ] thousand of Octavius' men were killed, including a senator, Aebutius, and seven thousand of their enemies. The Janiculum could have been captured the same day, but Pompeius would not allow Octavius to advance any further, and forced him to recall Crassus. He did not want the fighting to stop before the elections, so that he himself could obtain a formidable office. The two Catuli and Antonius went as envoys of the senate to beg Metellus, whose camp was situated nearby, [20] to come to the aid of his fatherland.
During the fighting between Pompeius and Sertorius, a common soldier from Pompeius' army, while he was stripping the body of an enemy, recognised that it was his brother. 25 He built a pyre for his brother and in the middle of the funeral rites, after uttering many curses, he slew himself with his sword. This incident struck everyone as a great condemnation of the civil war and changed their attitudes. Nobody was able to refrain from tears.
# The inhabitants of Nola advanced against the town of Abella, and burnt it down. Marius routed Servilius at Ariminum; he killed a few of his men, and accepted the surrender of the rest, whose loyalty he had undermined.
# The senate was asked by the envoys of Metellus to decide about the allegiance of the Samnites, who said that they would not agree to peace except on condition that they and all the deserters should receive the citizenship, [21] and have their property returned. The senate refused, wishing to preserve the ancient dignity of the Roman people. 30 When Cinna heard about this, with the help of Flavius Fimbria he enlisted the Samnites on the terms which they requested, and joined their forces to his.
# Meanwhile Pompeius continued to confuse everything . . . . He saw that the senate was opposed to all the exiles and in particular to Cinna's cause, but even so he persuaded it to give a safe reception to the envoys who were sent by Cinna. He secretly discussed plans with Cinna, but did not share the information with Octavius. Everyone who surrendered was granted citizenship; they promised to supply many thousands of soldiers, but sent scarcely sixteen cohorts. 35 And the army was smitten by such a great pestilence, [22] that seventeen thousand of Octavius's supporters died.
While Pompeius was lying ill in bed, a storm began; Pompeius himself was struck by lightening, and the top of his tent was destroyed. He showed no sign of life, and the army was left without a general for several days. Then, because Pompeius did not recover quickly, C. Cassius was sent to the camp, in order to take over command of the army, until he was restored to health. 40 When he appeared, Pompeius was suddenly aroused and . . . to the envoys who were . . . whether he was content . . . . It was clear to Cassius that Pompeius was near to dying.
On the third day after that, Pompeius died from a remarkable wasting disease. The people of the city disrupted his funeral, [23] knocked his body off its bier, and kept on dragging him through the dirt. Everyone agreed that this contemptible man had been justly punished by heaven for his treachery and greed. But the senators and tribunes restrained the crowd, and protected the body with their clothes. 45 Historians relate that the body was taken on a common bier to be buried.
# Octavius brought Pompeius' soldiers into his own camp. Metellus led his army against Cinna, but his soldiers suddenly seized all the standards and with a loud cry greeted the army of Cinna, who greeted them back. Alarmed by this turn of events, Metellus led his army away, and was amongst the first to say that an envoy should be sent to Cinna to discuss peace. On his return Crassus pressed for a battle, and advised Metellus that he . . . . should seek out Cinna with no further delay 50 . . . . [24] engaging in battle with Fimbria, he was miserably defeated but not killed, when Metellus . . . .
. . . . # Sulla immediately returned to Athens and punished the leaders of the revolt and those guilty [of aiding them] . . . . violently killed the rest.
# Mithridates had collected many soldiers from all the states, and after learning of the disaster he supplemented them with new levies. He sent out 65,000 foot-soldiers and cavalrymen, and seventy scythed chariots, with Dorylaus as their general. [25] # Archelaus promptly added another [ten] thousand men whom he had collected from the islands, which he was plundering again with his warships.
65 On the first day the soldiers from Pontus were routed and the son of Archelaus was killed. Weakened and subdued, they remained within their fortifications throughout the night. # In the morning there was a fiercer attack, and our soldiers captured their camp. [26] They killed an enormous number of the enemy, and captured more than 25,000 men, who were later sold into slavery. Archelaus escaped to Chalcis in a small boat.
70 The king's garrison at Abdera slipped away after the capture of Philippi.
# Sulla and Archelaus held talks at Aulis, and Sulla named the terms on which Mithridates could obtain peace. Mithridates eventually accepted these terms, because he was alarmed by the arrival of Fimbria, as I shall explain in due course, and Sulla promised that he would not change any of the terms. The terms were as follows: Archelaus should hand over the fleet to Sulla, and the king should withdraw from all the islands, [27] Asia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia and Gallograecia. 75 He should release the envoys Q. Oppius and M'. Aquilius, and he should send back all the other prisoners, of whom there was a substantial number. Particular mention was made of the Macedonians, who had been outstandingly faithful, that their wives and children should be returned to them. In addition, the king should give seventy fully equipped decked ships to the allies, and should himself provide the food, clothing and pay for them.
# Mithridates made peace on these terms with Sulla at Dardanus. After his reconciliation with the Romans, he dismissed Ariobarzanes like a slave, and set off for Pontus with the rest of his fleet.
# While the terms of the treaty were being negotiated, Sulla's officer Hortensius routed the Maedi and Dardani, who were harassing the allies. 80 Sulla himself had led an army into the territory of the Maedi, before [28] he crossed over to Asia for the talks. After the slaughter of the enemy forces who were harassing Macedonia, he received the surrender of the Dardani and Denselatae.
# [Sulla] held investigations at Ephesus, and executed the leaders of the revolt. He imposed fines on the cities, and gained possession of the towns which were still resisting.
# Curio restored Nicomedes to the throne of Bithynia, to which he attached Paphlagonia. Nicomedes was courteous and more civilised than his father of the same name. He was devoted to the Romans, so that he was not involved in any wicked treachery, and he honourably maintained his loyalty free from all evil.
85 [29] His brother Socrates was not tempted by jealously to seek control of the kingdom, because he had had enough trouble from his previous adventures. Nicomedes, who was rightly called Euergetes {"the benefactor"} because he brought prosperity to his needy subjects and won over many with his generosity, had not been content with the one legitimate son which he had by Aristonica, but he brought up another son called Socrates, who was born to the concubine Hagne of Cyzicus. He sent away Socrates and his mother to Cyzicus, with 500 talents.
# When this {Nicomedes} died in old age, possibly by poison, he was succeeded by the son of Aristonica . . . . After the loss of his mother he married the sister of his father, [30] who had been dear to his father during his lifetime. After only nine days she either died from disease or was murdered, and then he married Nysa, the daughter of Ariarathes king of Cappadocia. 90 Socrates reported to king Mithridates that Nysa was urging him to wage war on his brother.
Socrates was given a splendid reception by Mithridates, who even called him Chrestus {"the good"}, as a better name. He then went to Rome to ask for recognition as king, but he was unsuccessful and returned to Cyzicus. He was too ashamed to go back to the king. After murdering his sister there out of greed, he was pursued both by Nicomedes Philopator and by the inhabitants of Cyzicus, and came to Euboea, where he stayed with a certain Cornelius, a Roman knight. He was welcomed kindly enough by Cornelius, and to his young son . . . to learn crimes . . . .
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[31]. . . warned by . . . he avoided a contest.
# And Pompeius, when he was 25 years old and still a Roman knight - something which no-one had previously done - celebrated a triumph as pro-praetor from Africa, on the fourth day before the Ides of March. Some writers say that on this occasion the Roman people were shown elephants in the triumph. But when he came to enter the city, the triumphal arch was too small for the four elephants yoked to his chariot, although they tried it twice.
5 # Triumphs were also celebrated by Murena, from Asia, and by Valerius Flaccus, [32] from Celtiberia and Gaul.
# The brothers Licinius and Terentius Lucullus staged a battle between bulls and elephants in their games as curule aediles. # Claudius had previously displayed a similar battle as aedile, in the circus during the Ludi Circenses.
# The inhabitants of Volaterrae surrendered to the Romans, after an uprising in which the ex-praetor Carbo, whom Sulla had put in charge of them, was stoned to death (he was the brother of Cn. Carbo). The proscribed men were expelled from the city, and were cut down by cavalry sent by the consuls Claudius and Servilius. # Before that [in the previous year] the Samnites at Nola had done the same, out of fear of a siege. 10 Papirius Mutilus fled from Nola, but after even his wife Bassia refused to let him in by night at Teanum, because he was one of the proscribed men, he stabbed himself with a dagger.
Sulla was also granted the province of Cisalpine [Gaul].
. . . . 25 # [Sulla] had left instructions that he should be buried, and not cremated, but [33] L. Philippus stated that it was better for him to be cremated, to avoid Sulla suffering the same fate as had previously happened to Marius, # whose body had been dragged from his sepulchre by enemy soldiers and torn apart. Therefore a period of public mourning was declared, and the Roman matrons mourned for Sulla for a whole year. His body was burnt in the Campus Martius at Rome, after a very grand funeral which was attended a great mass of the people. After his pyre was set on fire, a large shower of rain came down.
30 We have come to [the period covered by] the histories of Sallustius but, as we have determined, we will not include anything which delays us and is not urgent. For it is said that Sallustius should be read, not as a historian, but as an orator. He finds fault with his own times and reproves their misdeeds; he includes speeches and describes variously places, mountains, rivers and other such things; he assigns blame and makes detailed comparisons.
# But when the tribunes of the plebs called on the consuls [34] to restore the tribunician power, Lepidus was the first to refuse, and most of the crowd at an assembly agreed with him when he said, in a speech which still survives, that it was not beneficial for the tribunician power to be restored.
35 He passed a corn law without opposition, which provided a corn allowance of five modii for the people, and he made many other promises: to recall the exiles, to rescind the acts of Sulla, and to restore to its owners the land which had been used for military colonies.
# The inhabitants of Faesulae broke into the strongholds of the veterans. After killing many of the veterans and reclaiming their land, they defended their actions before the senate, on the grounds that [35] the rural population had been forced to do this after being driven from their homes. The consuls were assigned an army and set off for Etruria, as the senate instructed.
# Lepidus . . . into the mountains . . . led back his army. 40 But when weapons were brought together and Catulus was not slower . . . Where anyone seemed to be near him as he went beside the coast and the lake, he avoided the tops of the mountains.
# With peace so uncertain, the senate resorted to the most solemn oaths, that they should not move their armed forces anywhere further. When he had come close to the city, Lepidus sent ahead his envoy . . . . 45 For he was by nature a troublemaker and incapable of staying quiet. . . . them with peace . . . .
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Festus : Breviarium
of the accomplishments of the Roman people
Festus wrote this little compendium of Roman history in about 370 A. D. , during the reign of the emperor Valens.
The translation is by Thomas M. Banchich and Jennifer A. Meka (Canisius College Translated Texts, Number 2, 2001). It is already available on the Roman Emperors website, but has been copied here and re-formatted to make it simpler to link to the translation. See key to translations for an explanation of the format of the translation.
The Latin text of the Breviarium can be found elsewhere on this website.
[1] L Your Clemency {Valens} enjoined that a summary be made. To be sure, I, in whom the facility of broader discourse is lacking, shall comply happily with what has been enjoined. And, having followed the fashion of accountants, who express immense sums through fewer numbers, I shall indicate, not explicate, past events. Receive, therefore, what has been succinctly summed up in very concise sayings, so you may seem, most glorious princeps, not so much to recite as to enumerate to yourself the years and duration of the state and the events of yore.
[2] L From the foundation of the city to the rise of Your Perpetuity, by which Rome has been allotted a very prosperous imperium of brothers, are reckoned 1,117 years. Thus, under kings are reckoned 243 years {753-510 B. C. }; under consuls, 467 years {509-43 B. C. }; under imperatores, 407 years {43 B. C. - 364 A. D. }. 2 For 243 years, kings, seven in number, reigned in Rome. Romulus reigned 37 years; senators for five days and one year; Numa Pompilius reigned 43 years; Tullus Hostilius reigned 44 years; Ancus Marcius reigned 24 years; Priscus Tarquinius reigned 38 years; Servius Tullius reigned 44 years; Lucius Tarquinius Superbus was expelled in the twenty-fourth year of his reign. 3 From Brutus and Publicola to Pansa and Hirtius there were 916 consuls, beyond those who were those chosen as replacements in the same year by some allotment, through four hundred and sixty-seven years. For nine years, consuls were lacking in Rome, thus: for two years Rome was under decemvirs, for three years under military tribunes, and for four years without magistrates. 4 From Octavianus Caesar Augustus to Jovian, there were imperatores, 43 in number, through 407 years.
[3] L Therefore, how much Rome has advanced under these three types of rule -- that is, regnal, consular, and imperial -- I shall briefly sketch. Under seven kings through 243 years, Roman imperium did not advance beyond Portus and Ostia, within 18 miles from the gates of the city of Rome, seeing that she was as yet small and founded by shepherds, while neighboring cities were hemming her in. 2 At the same time, through 467 years under consuls, among whom there sometimes were dictators, too, Italy was occupied as far as beyond the Po, Africa was subjugated, the Spains added, and Gaul and Britain made tributaries. As for Illyricum, Histri, Libyrni, and Dalmatae were mastered; it passed to Achaea; Macedonians were subjugated; with Dardanians, Moesians, and Thracians it warred; and it reached all the way to the Danube. 3 After Antiochus had been expelled, Romans first set foot in Asia; when Mithridates had been conquered, his kingdom was occupied; Armenia Minor, which he likewise had held, was obtained by arms; a Roman army reached Mesopotamia; a treaty was initiated with the Parthians; against Carduenians and Saracens and Arabs it warred; all of Judaea was conquered; Cilicia and Syria came into the power of the Roman people. Egypt's kings became allies. 4 Moreover, under the imperatores, through 407 years, while many principes were directing the diverse fortune of the state, the Maritime Alps, Cottian, Raetian, and Norican Alps, the Pannonias, and the Moesias accrued to the Roman world, and the entire bank of the Danube was reduced to provinces. All Pontus, Armenia Major, all Oriens, with Mesopotamia, Assyria, Arabia, and Egypt, passed under the jurisdiction of Roman imperium.
[4] L Moreover, in what order the Roman state acquired individual provinces is described below. Sicily was made first of the provinces. When Hieron, King of the Sicilians, had been defeated, Marcellus obtained her. Then directed by praetors, she afterward was committed to praesides; now she is administered by consulars. 2 Metellus conquered Sardinia and Corsica; he celebrated a triumph over the Sardinians; the Sardinians have often rebelled. There had come to be a joint administration of these islands; afterward praetors held them; now they are ruled individually by praesides. 3 Roman arms were sent across to Africa for the defense of the Sicilians. Thrice Africa rebelled; in the end, after Carthage had been destroyed by Scipio Africanus, she was made a province; now she functions under proconsuls. 4 Numidia used to be held by friendly kings, but war was declared against Jugurtha because of the murder of Adherbal and Hiempsal, sons of King Micipsa; and after he had been worn down by the consul Metellus and captured by Marius, Numidia came into the power of the Roman people. The Mauretanias were obtained from Bocchus. But, with all Africa subjugated, King Juba was still holding the Moors -- he who, after he had been conquered by Augustus Caesar in the course of the civil war, voluntarily committed suicide. 5 Thus did the Mauretanias begin to be ours and six provinces were made through all Africa; Africa itself, where Carthage is, is proconsular, Numidia consular, Byzacium consular, Tripolis and the two Mauretanias -- that is, Sitifensis and Caesariensis -- are praesidal.
[5] L Through Scipio we first bore aid to Spaniards against the Africans. We obtained the rebelling Lusitanians in Spain through Decimus Brutus and we attained the sea from Gades to Ocean. Afterward, Sylla, having been dispatched against the Spaniards, who were in an uproar, conquered them. 2 The Celtiberians in Spain often rebelled, but, when Scipio the Younger had been dispatched, they were, with the destruction of Numantia, subjugated. Nearly all Spain was brought under sway through Metellus and Pompeius on the occasion of the Sertorian War; afterward, when his imperium had been extended for five years, they were subdued by Pompeius. 3 Ultimately, too, the Cantabrians and Asturians, who, relying on the mountains, were resisting, were destroyed by Octavianus Caesar Augustus. 4 And now through all Spain there are six provinces: Tarraconensis, Carthaginensis, Lusitania, Gallaecia, Baetica, also across the strait in the soil of African land is a province of the Spains, which is named Tingimauritania. Of these, Baetica and Lusitania are consular, the others praesidal.
[6] L With the Gauls the Roman people had the gravest wars. For the Gauls also used to hold the part of Italy in which Mediolanum now is as far as to the Rubicon River, trusting in a number of men so great that in a war they assailed Rome herself, and, when the Roman armies had been destroyed, entered the walls of the city and besieged the Capitolium, to the citadel of which 600 most noble senators had fled: it was these who ransomed themselves from the siege with 1000 pounds of gold. Afterward, Camillus, who was in exile, with a multitude gathered from the fields, defeated the Gauls as they were returning with victory; the gold and standards which the Gauls had taken he brought back. 2 Many consuls, praetors, and dictators contended with the Gauls with varied result. Marius drove the Gauls from Italy; when the Alps had been crossed, he battled successfully against them. 3 C. Caesar, with ten legions which had 3,000 Italian soldiers each, over nine years subjugated the Gauls from the Alps as far as to the Rhine, battled with barbarians settled beyond the Rhine, crossed to Britain, and, in the tenth year, made the Gauls and Britains tributaries. 4 There are in Gaul, Aquitania, and the Britains eighteen provinces: the Maritime Alps, the province of Viennensis, Narbonensis, Novempopulana, two Aquitanias, the Graian Alps, Maxima Sequanorum, two Germanies, two Belgicas, two Lugdunenses; in Britannia, Maxima Caesariensis, Flavia Caesariensis, Britannia Prima, and Britannia Secunda.
[7] L From the shore of the sea, we gradually moved on Illyricum. The consul Laevinus, having first entered the Adriatic and the Ionian Sea, obtained the coastal cities. Crete was made a province by the proconsul Metellus, who was called "Creticus. " 2 When Greeks were seeking succor in our protection, we came to Achaea. The Athenians sought our aid against Philippus, King of the Macedonians. For a while Achaea was free under our good offices; finally, when ambassadors of the Romans had been done violence at Corinth, after Corinth had been captured by the proconsul Lucius Mummius, all Achaea was obtained. 3 The Epirotes, who once with Pyrrhus the king had even presumed to cross to Italy, and the Thessalians, when they had been conquered, were added together with our territories of Achaea and Macedon. 4 Macedonia thrice rebelled -- under Philippus, under Perseus, under Pseudo-Philippus. Flamininus defeated Philippus, Paulus Perseus, Metellus Pseudo-Philippus, by whose triumphs Macedonia was joined to the Roman people. 5 The Illyrians, who had borne aid to the Macedonians, we conquered on that same occasion through Lucius Ancius, a praetor, and we received them, with King Gentius, in capitulation. Curio, a proconsul, subjugated the Dardanians and Moesiacians and was the first commander of Romans to penetrate all the way to the Danube. 6 Under Julius Octavianus Caesar Augustus, a road was made through the Julian Alps; when all the Alpini had been conquered, the provinces of the Norici were added. After Batho, King of the Pannonians, had been subdued, the Pannonias came under our sway. After the Amantians between the Save and Drave had been laid low, the area adjoining the Save and environs of Pannonia Secunda were obtained.
[8] L The Marcomanni and Quadi were driven from the environs of Valeria, which are between the Danube and Drave, and a frontier between Romans and barbarians was established from Augusta Vindelicum through Noricum, Pannonia, and Moesia. 2 Trajan conquered the Dacians, under King Decibalus, and made Dacia, across the Danube in the soil of barbary, a province which in circumference had 1,000 miles; but it was lost under imperator Gallienus, and, after Romans had been transferred from there by Aurelian, two Dacias were made in the regions of Moesia and Dardania. 3 Illyricus has 18 provinces: two of Noricas, two of Pannonias, Valeria, Savia, Dalmatia, Moesia Superior, Dardania, two of Dacias, and in the Macedonic diocese are seven provinces: Macedonia, Thessaly, Achaea, two Epiruses, Praevalis, and Crete.
[9] L It was run across to Thrace on the occasion of the Macedonian War. The Thracians were the most savage of all races. The Scordisci, equally cruel and cunning, also used to dwell in the environs of Thrace. Many tales are told about the savagery of their divinatory rites, that to their own gods they sometimes made sacrifices of prisoners, that they were accustomed to drink human blood in skulls. 2 A Roman army was often destroyed by them. Marcus Didius checked the wandering Thracians, Marcus Drusus confined them within their own borders, Minucius annihilated them in the ice of the Hebrus River. Through Appius Claudius, a proconsul, those who used to inhabit Rhodope were conquered. Earlier a Roman fleet obtained the coastal cities of Europe. Through Thrace, Marcus Lucullus first clashed with the Bessi. 3 The head of our race conquered Thrace herself. He subjugated the Haemimontani, Eumolpiada -- which is now called Philippopolis -- , Uscudama -- which presently is called Hadrianopolis -- he brought under our sway, he took Cabyle. He occupied cities situated above Pontus: Apollonia, Calathum, Parthenopolis, Tomi, and Hister; reaching all the way to the Danube, he displayed Roman arms to the Scythians. 4 Thus were the six provinces of Thrace added to the sway of our state: Thrace, Haemimontus, Moesia Inferior, Scythia, Rhodope, and Europa, in which now have been established the secondary defenses of the Roman world.
[10] L Now the Eastern parts and the entire Oriens and the provinces simply located in the vicinity, which have furnished authors for your scepters, I shall explicate, so that the interest of Your Clemency {Valens}, which you have in these same being preserved, may be more amply aroused. 2 Asia became known to the Romans through the partnership of King Attalus, and we took possession of it by the law of inheritance, when it had been bequeathed in Attalus' will. Nevertheless, lest the Roman people should hold anything not obtained by strength, it was delivered by means of arms by us from Antiochus, the Syrians' greatest king. 3 On the same occasion, Lydia, ancient seat of kings, Caria, Hellespontus, and Phrygia came under the power of the Roman people. 4 Having contended with Rhodes and the peoples of the islands, at first extremely hostile, we afterward began to employ these same as most trustworthy assistants. Thus, at first, Rhodes and the islands were conducting affairs independently; afterward, when the Romans kindly invited them, they attained to the status of dependent and, under princeps Vespasian, the province of the Islands was created.
[11] L The proconsul Servilius, who had been dispatched to a pirate war, obtained Pamphylia, Lycia, and Pisidia. Bithynia we attained through the will of the late King Nicomedes. 2 Gallograecia -- that is Galatia (and indeed, as the name echoes, "Galatians" is from "Gauls") -- we invaded because it had supplied aid to Antiochus against the Romans. Mummius, a proconsul, pursued the Galatians and, when some of them fled toward Olympus, some toward Mount Magaba (which now is called Modiacus), forced them from the heights to the plains, and, after they had been conquered, reduced them to perpetual peace. Afterward, Deiotarus the tetrarch controlled Galatia with our permission. In the end, under Octavianus Caesar Augustus, Galatia was reduced to the status of a province and Lollius, a propraetor, first administered her. 3 The Cappadocians first sought our partnership under King Epafrax, and, afterward, Ariobarzanes, King of Cappadocia, who had been expelled by Mithridates, was restored by Roman arms. The Cappadocians always were among our assistants and so nurtured the Roman majesty that Mazaca, the greatest city in Cappadocia, was named Caesarea in honor of Caesar Augustus. Ultimately, under imperator Claudius Caesar, when Archelaus, King of the Cappadocians, had come to Rome and, having been detained there a long while, gone to his rest, Cappadocia changed to the status of a province. 4 Pontus, after Mithridates, King of Pontus, had been conquered by Pompeius, received the form of a province. King Pylaemenes, a friend of the Roman people, controlled Paphlagonia. Having often been driven thence from his kingdom, he was restored by us and, with his death, the legal status of a province was imposed on Paphlagonia.
[12] L In what manner Roman control spread beyond the heights of Mount Taurus will be demonstrated through a consecutive arrangement of locations rather than of times. 2 Antiochus, the most powerful king of Syria, waged a formidable war on the Roman people. He had 300,000 armed men, and also drew up a battle line of scythed chariots and elephants. After he had been conquered in Asia at Magnesia by the consul Scipio, brother of Scipio Africanus, when a peace had been agreed upon, he was allowed to reign beyond the Taurus. His sons retained the rule of Syria under the patronage of the Roman people. When these had died, we acquired the provinces of the Syrias. 3 Servilius, a proconsul, having been dispatched to a bandit war, subjugated he Cilicians and the Isaurians, who had allied themselves with pirates and seagoing marauders, and first established a road through Mount Taurus; and he celebrated a triumph over the Cilicians and Isaurians and thus received the cognomen "Isauricus. "
[13] L Cyprus, renowned for riches, seduced the poverty of the Roman people in order to be occupied. A federate king was ruling her, but so great was the poverty of Roman finances and so immense the report of the wealth of Cyprus that, after a law had been issued, Cyprus was ordered confiscated. When this announcement had been received, the Cyprian king took poison in order to forfeit his life before his riches. Cato transported the Cyprian wealth to Rome by means of ships. Thus, more avariciously than justly, did we attain jurisdiction of the island. 2 Cyrene, together with the other cities of Libya's Pentapolis, were obtained through the liberality of an older Ptolemy. We acquired Libya after the mastery of King Appion had been suppressed. 3 All Egypt had been subject to friendly kings, but, when Cleopatra, together with Antonius, had been conquered, in the times of Octavianus Caesar Augustus she took the form of a province and first among the Alexandrians Cornelius Gallus, a Roman judge, took charge.
[14] L Through the confines of Armenia, under Lucius Lucullus, Roman arms were first sent across the Taurus. The phylarchs of the Saracens, after they had been defeated, withdrew to Osrhoene. In Mesopotamia, Nisibis was captured by the same Lucullus. 2 Afterward, through Pompeius, these same locations were obtained by arms. Syria and Phoenicia were received in a war with Tigranes, King of the Armenians. Arabs and Judaeans were conquered in Palestine. 3 In the end, under the princeps Trajan the crown of the King of Armenia Major was offered, and through Trajan Armenia, Mesopotamia, Assyria, and Arabia were made provinces and an eastern frontier was established above the banks of the Tigris. 4 But Hadrian, who succeeded Trajan, envying Trajan's glory, returned Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria of his own volition and wanted the Euphrates to be a median between Persians and Romans. 5 But afterward, under the two Antonines, Marcus and Verus, and under Severus, Pertinax, and other Roman principes who battled against the Parthians with varied result, Mesopotamia was four times lost and four times regained. 6 In the times of Diocletian, after the Romans had been defeated in an initial encounter, when, however, King Narses, had been overcome in a second engagement and his wife and daughters had been captured and cared for with the utmost concern for their chastity, when peace had been made, Mesopotamia was restored and the frontier above the banks of the Tigris was reformed, so that we attained sway over five peoples settled beyond the Tigris. The terms of this treaty, having been preserved, endured to the time of the Divine Constantine.
[15] L Now I know, Renowned princeps, where your intent is heading. You assuredly seek to know how often the arms of Babylonia and Rome were joined and in what places spears contended with arrows. The outcomes of wars I shall briefly enumerate. In a few, you will discover the enemy, as a result of stealth, to have rejoiced; however, you will judge the Romans always to have been revealed victors as a result of genuine courage. 2 First, Arsaces, King of the Parthians, after a delegation had been dispatched, asked and obtained from Lucius Sylla the good offices of the Roman people. 3 Lucius Lucullus pursued to Armenia Mithridates, who had been deprived of the rule of Pontus. The same man, with 18,000 Romans, conquered Tigranes, the Armenians' king, with 7,000 armored horsemen and 2,000 archers. He subdued Tigranocerta, the greatest city of Armenia. He obtained Madaena, a rich region of Armenia, he descended through Melitene to Mesopotamia, and took Nisibis, along with the king's brother. After he had prepared to march against Persia, he accepted a successor.
[16] L Cn. Pompeius, of proven good fortune, after he had been dispatched to a Mithridatic War, having attacked Mithridates in Armenia Minor, prevailed in a night battle and, when forty-two thousand of the enemy had been killed, he occupied his camp. Mithridates, with his wife and two companions, fled to the Bosphorus and when, in desperation of his affairs, he drank poison, and when the poison's strength did not prove sufficient, he commanded that he be run through with a sword by one of his own soldiers. 2 Pompeius pursued Tigranes, King of the Armenians, Mithridates' supporter; the latter, after the crown had been offered, gave himself up near Artaxata. By him were received Mesopotamia, Syria, and a considerable part of Phoenicia; and he also was allowed to reign within Armenia Major. 3 Likewise, Pompeius imposed a king, Aristarchus, on the Bosphorians and Colchians; fought with the Albani; granted peace to Orhodes, King of the Albani, after he had thrice been defeated; received in surrender Hiberia, with King Atrax; and defeated Saracens and Arabs. After Judaea had been captured, he obtained Jerusalem and made a treaty with the Persians. 4 Returning to Antioch, he, delighted by the loveliness of the place and its abundance of waters, consecrated the grove belonging to Daphne, with a wood added on.
[17] L Marcus Crassus, a consul, was dispatched against rebelling Parthians. He, when he was asked for peace by a legation dispatched from Persia, said that he would respond at Ctesiphon. He crossed the Euphrates at Zeugma, and, having been guided by a deserter, a certain Mazzarus, descended into an remote wilderness of plains. 2 There the army was surrounded by formations of archers flying around them from all sides, with Silas and Surenas, the King's prefects, and was overwhelmed by the impact of the missiles. Crassus himself -- when, after he had been enticed to a parlay, he was nearly captured alive -- had escaped while his tribunes resisted, and, seeking flight, was killed. 3 His severed head, with his right hand, were borne to the king and then maintained for sport, so that molten gold might be poured into his throat: to wit, in order that he who, burning with lust for plunder, after he had been asked by the king to grant peace, had declined, flames of gold might consume his remains even after he perished. 4 Lucius Cassius, Crassus' quaestor, a vigorous man, gathered the remains of the scattered army. Against the Persians, who were rushing toward Syria, he thrice contended in most admirable fashion and, after they had been repelled across the Euphrates, he ravaged them.
[18] L The Parthians, with Labienus, who had been of the Pompeian faction and, having been defeated, had fled to Persia, commander, rushed toward Syria and occupied the whole province. 2 On Mount Caper, P. Ventidius Bassus, with a few men, engaged the Parthians who had invaded Syria with Labenius in command, escaped, killed Labienus, and, pursuing the Persians, cast them into utter destruction. In this engagement, he killed Pacorus, the king's son, on the same day on which Crassus had been defeated, lest the death of a Roman commander ever be left unavenged. 3 Ventidius first celebrated a triumph over the Persians. M.
