The ancient village self-government
Village organisation
The village headman
The village police
Famine relief
Rural boards
The Bengal ferry committees
Local committees elsewhere .
Village organisation
The village headman
The village police
Famine relief
Rural boards
The Bengal ferry committees
Local committees elsewhere .
Cambridge History of India - v4 - Indian Empire
S.
I
The Company's chaplains
Danish missionaries
Policy of religious toleration
Activity of Protestant missions
Ecclesiastical establishments
Disabilities of Indian Christians
Religious festivals and temple endowments
Slavery
Sacrifice of children at Sagar Island
Female infanticicie
The question of sati
Protests against permission
Carey's description
The nizamat adalat's report.
The rules of 1812-1815
Ewer's remonstrance
Other protests
Company's orders of 1823
Ram Mohan Roy's petition
Bentinck resolves to prohibit sati .
PAGE
121
121
I 22
123
124
125
125
127
128
129
131
133
134
135
135
137
139
139
140
140
1
CHAPTER VIII
THE COMPANY'S MARINE
By the late S. M. EDWARDES, C. S. I. , C. V. O.
>
144
144
145
146
The Surat squadron
Early wars with Gheria
The Bombay dockyard
Growth of the Marine, 1740-72
Capture of the Ranger
Co-operation with Hughes
Organisation of the Marine .
Marine regulations
Services in the Persian Gulf. and elsewhere
The Indian Marine
Later developments
Marine surveys
147
147
147
148
149
150
151
151
.
## p. xiii (#15) ############################################
CONTENTS
xiii
CHAPTER IX
THE ARMIES OF THE EAST INDIA COMPANY
>
PAGE
By Lt. -Col. SIR WOLESLEY Haig, K. C. I. E. , C. S. I. , C. M. G. , C. B. E. ,
M. A. , Lecturer in Persian, in the School of Oriental Studies, in
the University of London.
Early garrisons
153
Origin of sepoys
153
Growth of the presidency armies
154
Recruitment of European officers
157
Recruitment of sepoys
158
The reorganisation of 1796
159
Officers' pay
160
Cadets.
161
Military life.
161
Recrganisation of 1824
The Barrackpore mutiny
162
European and officers' mutinies
162
mutiny
163
The Madras officers
' mutiny
163
Local and irregular units
165
Demoralisation of the Bengal army
165
162
CHAPTER X
THE MUTINY
By T. Rice HOLMES, M. A. , Litt. D.
Revenue causes of discontent
Nana Sahib's pension
Dalhousie's annexations
Railway and telegraph
The attitude of the people
The Bengal army.
The general service order
Proselytising officers
The greased cartridges
Mutiny of the 19th and 34th Native Infantry
Mutiny at Meerut
Mutiny at Delhi
Indecision of the authorities
The position at Agra
Attitude of the civil population
Conduct of the Indian princes
Tayler at Patna
Neill at Benares
Allahabad
Wheeler at Cawnpore.
The Cawnpore massacres
Lawrence at Lucknow
Havelock's campaign
167
167
168
169
169
171
172
173
173
174
175
177
177
178
179
179
180
181
182
183
183
184
187
## p. xiv (#16) #############################################
xiy
CONTENTS
Outram joins Havelock
Lucknow relieved
John Lawrence in the Panjab
Siege of Delhi
Proposed cession of Peshawur
Nicholson's march
The storm of Delhi
Sir Colin Campbell's march to Lucknow
Tantia Topi .
The recovery of Lucknow
Canning's proclamation
Kunwar Singh
Position in Bombay
Mutiny in Central India
Sir Hugh Rose's campaign
Reduction of the Rohilkhand
The Mutiny not organised
Dalhousie unjustly blamed
PAGE
189
190
190
192
193
194
195
196
198
199
200
200
200
201
202
203
204
205
ADMINISTRATIVE DEVELOPMENT, 1858–1918
CHAPTER XI
THE HOME GOVERNMENT, 1858-1918
.
.
By Sir H. VERNEY LOVETT, K. C. S. I.
The East India Company's petition
Parliamentary bills
The Act of 1858
The debates .
The Council of india
Thc Amendment Act of 1869
Lord Salisbury as secretary of state
General po icy of the India Office
Attitude of parliament
Morley and the Council of India
Lord Crewe's proposed reforms
The changes
of
1911
The Mesopotamia Commission
Montagu's visit to India
The functions of parliament
The functions of the crown
206
207
208
210
212
214
214
215
.
216
.
217
218
219
220
222
222
225
CHAPTER XII
THE INDIAN GOVERNMENTS, 1858–1918
By Sir H. VERNEY LOVETT, K. C. S. I.
>
The governor-general
Canning's reforms
The Councils Act of 1861
The portfolio system
226
226
228
229
## p. xv (#17) ##############################################
CONTENTS
XV
Subsequent changes in the governor-general's council
Powers of the governor-general
The legislative council of 1853
Inclusion of Indian members
Other changes in the legislature
The home government's control of legislation
Thc Morley-Minto reforms
The provincial governments
Relations between the central and provincial governments
PAGE
230
231
233
234
235
237
238
238
240
CHAPTER XIII
DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION IN BENGAL, 1858-1918
By Sir H. VERNEY LOVETT, K. C. S. I.
Changes in the size of the province
Position of the magistrate-and-collector
Growth of Calcutta
Honorary magistrates
Courts of law
Neglect of Eastern Bengal
Communications in the province
Tenancy tegislation
The bhadralok
Trade and industry
Political agitation and crime
The Bengal District Administration Committee
245
245
246
246
247
247
248
249
251
251
252
253
CHAPTER XIV
DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION IN BOMBAY, 1858-1918
:
By the late S. M. EDWARDES, C. S. I. , C. V. O.
Subordinate states in Kathiawar, etc.
Relations with border states
The survey settlement
Land-revenue in Sind
The presidency government
Judicial organisation
Revenue administration
Port trusts
Public works
Forests.
Education
Agriculture
Miscellaneous departments
255
256
256
257
257
259
261
263
263
264
264
265
266
.
## p. xvi (#18) #############################################
xvi
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XV
DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION IN MADRAS, 1858–1918
By A. BUTTERWORTH, C. S. I.
PAGE
Madras during the Mutiny
267
Tidal wave at Masulipatam
267
The Guntur famine
267
Moplah rebellions
268
Troubles in the Circars
268
The Shanar riots.
269
Political agitation and crime
270
Judicial organisation
270
Revenue settlement
271
Agriculture
272
Forests
272
Local self-government
-
273
Communications in the province
274
Provincial finance
275
CHAPTER XVI
DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION IN THE UNITED
PROVINCES, CENTRAL PROVINCES, AND
THE PANJAB, 1858–1918
By Sir PATRICK FAGAN, K. C. I. E.
Crime and police :
276
Judicial organisation
277
Scheduled districts
278
Land-revenue administration
278
Tenant-right
281
Record of rights
282
Irrigation
283
Famines
285
Forests
Excise
287
Agricultural development
289
Co-operative credit
290
I ocal self-government
291
The district officer
292
286
CHAPTER XVII
THE DEVELOPMENT OF FAMINE POLICY
By Sir H. VERNEY LOVETT, K. C. S. I.
294
The rainfall .
Means of irrigation
Early famines in India
The Orissa ſamine
The Bihar famine .
295
296
298
300
## p. xvii (#19) ############################################
CONTENTS
xvii
.
The famine of 1876-8
The Strachey Commission
The Famine Code
Methods of relief .
The famine of 1896–7
The famine of 1900
The MacDonnell Commission
The famine of 1907-8.
The growth of resistance to famine conditions
The scarcity of 1918
PAGE
300
301
304
305
306
307
309
309
310
311
314
315
315
316
316
316
CHAPTER XVIII
THE FINANCES OF INDIA, 1858–1918
By H. R. C. HAILEY, C. I. E.
Reorganisation after the Mutiny .
The revenues
Land revenues
Opium
alt
Customs
Miscellaneous
Income-tax.
Public works and irrigation finance
Financial decentralisation
Currency and the fall in silver
The course of finance, 1873-93
Currency reform
The gold exchange standard
General course of finance, after 1893
Revenues, 1913-14
Public debt
Development of the currency system
War finance.
.
.
317
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
325
. 327
327
328
330
336
336
CHAPTER XIX
THE GROWTH OF EDUCATIONAL POLICY, 1858-1918
By SIR H. VERNEY LOVETT, K. C. S. I.
Position after the Mutiny
335
The Departments of Public Instruction
The universities
The schools
General position in 1865-6
339
Progress of western influences
341
Obstacles to the spread of rural education
338
342
The Aligarh College
344
Female education
345
Chiefs' colleges
345
The Hunter Commission
The ed tional services
New universities
346
348
348
## p. xviii (#20) ###########################################
xviii
CONTENTS
Curzon's reforms
The Universities Act of 1904
The rise of political agitation
Problems of the future .
PAGE
349
351
352
355
358
360
362
CHAPTER XX
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SERVICES, 1858-1918
By Sir H. VERNEY LOVETT, K. C. S. I.
The Indian Civil Service
Recruitment
357
Indian competition
359
The Statutory Civil Service .
The uncovenanted civil service
361
The police service
The public works department
The finance department
362
363
The forest service
Miscellaneous services
364
364
The Indian Medical Service
365
Regulations regarding admission to the Indian Civil Service
365
The Public Services Commission of 1886
The question of simultaneous examinations
368
Exchange compensation allowances
Police reform
371
372
Reorganisation of the public works department
373
Curzon's other reforms
374
Employment of military officers in civil offices
375
Decline in popularity of the services
375
Public Services Commission of 1912
366
376
CHAPTER XXI
LAW REFORM
By the late Sir FRANCIS DU PRÉ OLDFIELD, LL. M. , Professor of
Jurisprudence in the University of Manchester, formerly a
Puisne Judge of the High Court of Madras.
Confusion of the law
379
The Indian High Courts Act of 1861
380
Later development of the courts
380
The need of codification
381
The Indian law commissions
384
The Civil Procedure and Criminal Procedure Codes
385
Later codes
Revision of the codes
385
Sources of the codes
The use of concrete examples
Hindu law
The Hindu joint family
390
Hindu testamentary powers
393
Other modifications of Hindu law
394
386
387
388
389
## p. xix (#21) #############################################
CONTENTS
xix
CHAPTER XXII
THE INDIAN ARMY, 1858–1918
By SIR WOLSELEY HAIG, K. C. I. E. , C. S. I. , C. M. G. , C. B. E. , M. A.
.
Transference of the Company's armies
The White Mutiny
Reconstitution of the sepoy forces
The local and general lists
Military establishments
Civil employment of military officers
Reduction of the Madras sepoy regiments
Disappearance of the presidency armies
The reorganisation of 1907
The Imperial Service Troops
Indianisation
The reorganisation of 1922 :
PAGE
395
395
396
396
397
397
398
399
400
400
.
401
401
FOREIGN POLICY, 1858–1918
CHAPTER XXIII
CENTRAL ASIA
.
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
409
410
411
411
.
By H. H. DODWELL, M. A.
London control of foreign policy .
Dost Muhammad
The Afghan war of succession
The policy of masterly inactivity
Russian expansion
The purposes of Russia
Diplomatic discussions .
Mayo and Sher 'Ali
Northbrook and Argyll
Seistan Boundary Commission
Non-recognition of the Afghan heir
Sher 'Ali and Kaufmann
Salisbury's policy :
The occupation of Quetta
The proposed Afghan mission
The European situation
Stolietoff's mission
Chamberlain's mission
Attitude of the home government
The Second Afghan War
Cavagnari's murder at Kabul
The reoccupation of Kabul .
Abd-ur-rahman
Liberal policy
Ripon's settlement
Policy of the Second Afghan War
Russia and Mr Gladstone
412
412
414
415
416
417
417
.
418
.
419
419
420
420
421
421
422
422
.
## p. xx (#22) ##############################################
XX
CONTENTS
PAGE
423
424
The Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission
The Panjdeh incident
Delimitation of the northern Afghan frontier
Tibet
The Russian railways
Habib-ullah.
The Anglo-Russian Entente
The Third Afghan War
426
426
428
428
429
430
CHAPTER XXIV
THE CONQUEST OF UPPER BURMA
By G. E. HARVEY, I. C. S.
432
433
433
434
435
435
436
437
438
King Mindon
British agents in Burma
Yunnan trade
Withdrawal of the residency
Thibaw's accession
The massacre of the kinsmen
The attempts of rivals.
The Franco-Burmese treaty.
The Third Burmese War
The annexation of Upper Burma
The effects of the annexation
The government of Lower Burma
District administration
Recruitment among the Burmese
Judicial administration
Public works department
Education
Dacoity
Immigration
Crime
Employment of the Burmese
439
440
441
442
442
443
444
444
445
446
446
447
CHAPTER XXV
THE NORTH-WEST FRONTIER, 1843-1918
By C. C. Davies, Ph. D.
448
The Sind frontier .
Jacob's policy
The Panjab frontier
Early Panjab policy and organisation
Dera Ghazi Khan, the meeting-place of the two systems
Reforms, 1872-8
Relations with Kalat
Sandeman and Baluchistan
Possible lines of defence
The Indus line
449
449
450
452
453
454
'455
456
457
.
## p. xxi (#23) #############################################
CONTENTS
xxi
The administrative and Durand lines .
Quetta
Kandahar
Difficulties of tribal control
The forward policy
Influence of the amir
The Durand agreement
Chitral
Tribal risings of 1897
Curzon's policy
The North-West Frontier Province
Tribal customs and the jirga system
Land tenures
The arms traffic
The frontier during the late
PAGE
458
458
459
460
461
461
462
463
465
466
467
470
472
473
war
.
.
475
CHAPTER XXVI
INDIA AND THE WAR
By L. F. RUSHBROOK WILLIAMS, M. A. , Foreign Minister
to H. H. the Maharaja of Patiala.
476
477
478
The functions of the Indian army
Attitude of the princes and the people
Failure to take advantage of the initial enthusiasm
Services overseas
Consequent difficulties of administration
Indian recruitment
Provision of officers and medical personnel
Munitions and supplies
Financial help
Revolutionary attempts
The crisis of 1918
Attitude of the educated classes
The declaration of 1917
The effects of the war
479
480
481
482
483
483
485
485
486
488
488
.
.
CHAPTER XXVII
THE RELATIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT OF
INDIA WITH THE INDIAN STATES, 1858-1918
By H. H. DODWELL, M. A.
Position in 1858.
Peculiarities of the Indian treaties
Their constructive interpretation .
Their confirmation in 1858 .
Attitude of the early viceroys
The proclamation and the sanads of adoption
The position of the crown
489
490
491
492
493
493
494
.
## p. xxii (#24) ############################################
xxii
CONTENTS
Kashmir
Successions in the Indian states
Their military forces
Examples of internal interference: Alwar, Jabwa, Tank and Kalat
The case of Malhar Rao Gaekwar
The rendition of Mysore
Common economic interests
Obsolescence of the treaties
Curzon's policy
Attitude of the princes .
The Imperial Service Troops
The Chamber of Princes
Minto's change of policy
PAGE
495
496
497
498
499
50r
503
503
504
506
507
507
509
.
.
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT, 1858–1919
CHAPTER XXVIII
LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT
By J. H. LINDSAY, M. A.
.
The ancient village self-government
Village organisation
The village headman
The village police
Famine relief
Rural boards
The Bengal ferry committees
Local committees elsewhere .
Mayo's reforms
Ripon's reforms
The Bengal Local Self-Government Act
Comparative failure of the rural boards
The presidency towns
Justices of the peace
The question of conservancy
Changes, 1863-7
Reform in Bombay
Reform in Calcutta
Reform in Madras
Early committees in the district towns
The Municipal Act of 1850
Later provincial legislation
Ripon's reforms in the municipalities
Octroi duties
Non-official chairmen
511
512
513
514
515
516
516
517
517
518
520
521
523
523
524
.
.
525
.
526
527
528
.
529
530
531
534
535
537
## p. xxiii (#25) ###########################################
CONTENTS
xxiii
CHAPTER XXIX
THE NATIONAL CONGRESS AND EARLY
POLITICAL LITERATURE
By SIR RICHARD BURN, C. S. I.
Social reforms
Surendranath Banerjee
The Ilbert Bill
The Arya Samaj and Theosophy
The National Congress
The Muslim attitude
Dufferin's policy
The Act of 1892
The principle of election
.
PAGE
538
538
539
539
540
541
541
543
545
548
CHAPTER XXX
THE RISE OF AN EXTREMIST PARTY
By Sir H. VERNEY LOVETT, K. C. S. I.
The influence of the press
Reactionary Hinduism.
B. G. Tilak .
The murders at Poona
The partition agitation in Bengal
The appearance of terrorism
Unrest in the Panjab
The India House conspiracy
Attitude of the moderates
Restrictions on the press
The split of the congress
The prosecution of Tilak
Outrages in Bengal
Gokhale accepts the reforms
Hindu character of the extremist movement
549
549
550
551
552
553
553
554
554
555
555
556
557
559
CHAPTER XXXI
THE REFORMS OF 1909
By SIR RICHARD BURN, C. S. I.
Lord Minto's appointment
Congress proposals
Discussions with Morley
Repressive measures
Minto's proposals
Morley's criticisms
The King's message of 1908
The Muslims demand separate representation
Discussions in parliament
Indian members of council
Method of election
Budget procedure
560
560
561
562
563
565
565
566
567
569
570
572
.
ม
## p. xxiv (#26) ############################################
xxiv
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XXXII
POLITICAL MOVEMÉNTS, 1909–1917.
PAGE
574
575
575
576
By Sir RICHARD BURN, C. S. I.
Further restrictions on the press
Political crime
The Delhi Durbar
The change of capital and revocation of the partition of Bengal
Muslim dissatisfaction
Attempt on Lord Hardinge and the spread of revolutionary crime
Working of the new councils
Proposed executive councils in the United Provinces
Indians in South Africa
Revolutionary attempts during the war
The Khilafat agitation
The Home Rule League
Criticism of the Press Act
The Rowlatt Committee and consequent legislation
576
578
579
579
581
582
583
584
584
585
CHAPTER XXXIII
THE REFORMS OF 1919
By SIR RICHARD BURN, C. S. I.
Sir S. P. Sinha's views
Lord Chelmsford's questions
The Declaration of 1917
The Commonwealth of India scheme
Mr Curtis's activities
Montagu's visit to India
The Montagu-Chelmsford Report
The heads of provinces scheme
The Southborough Committee
The Act of 1919
Dyarchy and finance
Changes in the Government of India
The Council of State
The size of the new councils
Con. nunal representation
Position of the secretary of state
The high Commissioner for India
Rules under the act
Importance of the reforms
.
587
587
589
589
591
592
592
594
595
595
596
598
599
599
600
601
602
602
603
## p. xxv (#27) #############################################
CONTENTS
XXV
CHAPTER XXXIV
CONSTITUTIONAL CHANGES FROM 1919 TO 1969
BY VIDYA DHAR MAHAJAN, M. A. (HONS. ), LL. B. , Ph. D.
to 1935
Government of India Act, 1919
Dyarchy in the Provinces
Estimate of the Reforms of 1919
Constitutional Development from 1919
Muddiman Committee Report
The Simon Commission
The Nehru Report
Jinnah's Fourteen Points (1929)
Simon Commission Report (1920)
Round Table Conferences (1930-31)
Communal Award (1932)
Poona Pact (1932)
The White Paper Proposals (1933)
Government of India Act, 1935
Nature of Provincial Autonomy
Defects in the Act of 1935
Estimate of the Act of 1935
The August Offer (1940)
The Cripps Proposals (1942)
Rajagopalachariar Formula (1941)
Desai-Liaquat Formula (1945)
The Wavell Plan (1945)
Labour Party in Office
The Cabinet Mission (1946)
The Calcutta Killing (August, 1946)
Attlee's Statement of February, 1947
June 3 Plan (1947)
The Indian Independence Act, 1917
Demand for Constituent Assembly
Work of Constituent Assembly of India
The Constitution of India (1950)
Amendments of the Constitution
PAGES
604
608
615
616
618
620
621
627
630
632
634
637
640
641
649
656
661
663
665
670
673
674
677
679
683
684
686
688
689
696
698
701
CHAPTER XXXV
THE NATIONALIST MOVEMENT IN INDIA
BY VIDYA DHAR MAHAJAN, M. A. (Hons. ), LL. B. , Ph. D.
Causes of the Rise of Nationalism in India
Political Organisations Before 1885
Foundation of the Indian National Congress
Annual Sessions of the Congress
Rise of Extremism
Home Rule Movement
Terrorist and Revolutionary Movements
712
722
727
731
736
745
746
1
## p. xxvi (#28) ############################################
xxvi
CONTENTS
India and World War I
Non-cooperation Movement
The Swarajist Party
Quit India Movement
Why England Gave India Independence?
PAGES
763
770
775
778
783
CHAPTER XXXVI
PAKISTAN
BY VIDYA DHAR MAHAJAN, M. A. (HONS. ), LL. B. , Ph. D.
r
Work of Sir Syed Ahmed Khar.
Principal Beck and the Muslims
Partition of Bengal
Lord Minto and the Muslims
Foundation of the Muslim League
The Lucknow Pact
The Khilafat Movement
The Nehru Report and the Muslims
Sir Mohammed Iqbal and Pakistan
The Cominunal Award and the Muslims
Rahmat Ali and Pakistan
Formation of Congress Ministries and Muslim League
League Propaganda against Congress Ministries
The Second World War and the Muslim League
Tentative Proposals of Jinnah (1940)
Pakistan Resolution (1940)
The August Offer and Muslim League
The Cripps Mission and the Muslims (1912)
Muslim League and Quit India Movement
Propaganda for Pakistan
Rajaji's Formula
Gandhi-Jinnah Talks (1914)
Liaquat-Desai Pact (1945)
The Simla Conference and Mr. Jinnah
Parliamentary Delegation to India
The Cabinet Mission
Formation of Interim Government
Muslim League joins Interim Govemment
Mountbatten and Partition of India
3 June Plan
Partition of India
Pakistan since 1947
Constitution of Pakistan (1956)
General Ayub takes over
Constitution of 1962
Reforms under lyub Khan
Pakistan Democratic Movement
General Yaliva Khan Takes over
Foreign Policy of Pakistan
788
790
792
793
795
798
799
807
809
811
812
814
817
822
825
828
835
836
837
838
815
816
817
818
852
852
856
860
863
867
870
875
879
882
886
892
894
896
897
## p. xxvii (#29) ###########################################
CONTENTS
xxvii
CHAPTER XXXVII
THE INDIAN STATES SINCE 1919
BY VIDYA DHAR MAHAJAN, M. A. (HONS. ), LL. B. , Ph. D.
Chamber of Princes
The Butler Committee Report
Government of India Act, 1935 and Indian States
Cripps and Indian States
Cabinet Mission and Indian States
Attitude of Indian States towards Free India
Indian States after June 3 Plari
State of Junagadh
State of Hyderabad
State of Jammu & Kashmir
Integration and Democratisation of States
The States Reorganisation Commission
The States Reorganisation Act, 1956
The Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966
Border Disputes between Maharashtra and Mysore
The Mahajan Report
PAGES
901
903
907
909
910
912
914
916
921
927
934
937
940
942
944
945
CHAPTER XXXVIII
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
BY VIDYA DHAR MAHAJAN, M. A. (HONS. ), LL. B. Ph. D.
Inauguration of Montagu-Chelmsford Reformas
The Sikh Gurdwaras Act
The Meston Settlement
The Les Commission
Hindu-Muslim Riots
The Sarda Act
Trade Union Movement
The Indian Press (Emergency Powers) Act, 1931
The ll'orld War II
The Bengal Famine
INI. Trial
Mountbatten and Partition of India
Press Lirws Enquiry Committee
Radhakrislınan University Commission
Five Year Plans
Agrarian Legislation
Foreign Settlements in India
Nehru's Foreign Policy
India and the United States
India and the Soviet Union
India and Communist China
India and Pakistan
India Today
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(TIROXOLOGICAL TABLE
INDEX
946
949
949
950
953
954
955
958
961
962
969
972
977
978
980
981
983
984
990
994
998
1008
1018
1019
1063
1071
## p. xxviii (#30) ##########################################
## p. 1 (#31) ###############################################
CHAPTER I
IMPERIAL LEGISLATION AND THE SUPERIOR
GOVERNMENTS, 1818-1857
The imperial legislation relating to India in the first half of the
nineteenth century is above all remarkable for the consistency of its
course and the steady development of the policy which it was designed
to promote. From the great India act of 1784 down to the statute
which at last in 1858 abolished the administrative functions of the
East India Company, there was a gradual, persistent evolution, in-
spired by a common group of ideas, directed to a common object, and
founded on principles in origin free alike from heady enthusiasm and
obstinate fear of reformation. The principles were derived from Burke,
but greatly modified by Whig traditions. Burke, of course, though
long a follower of the party, had never been a real Whig. He lacked
the background—the orderly conduct of a great estate—which was
essential to the formation of the true Whig character. His zeal and
sympathy were not balanced by the practical experience of directing
men and managing great affairs. He was a poor judge of character,
unable to detect the shallowness of Francis, and a poor judge of events,
unable to gauge the nature of Indian developments. Neither his
mistaken enthusiasm, nor Fox's party spirit, nor Sheridan's venal
rhetoric, was in fact capable of forming a system on which the nation's
Indian affairs might well and wisely be controlled. That was left to
men who, no longer of the party, had carried with them' much more
of its spirit than remained behind. The ideas and purposes of the
legislation carried through by Pitt and Dundas and Buckinghamshire
have already been described. 1 But it will be convenient here to begin
with the ideas of 1813, for these appear and reappear not only in
legislative principles but also in the actual administration of the period,
so that they form the most appropriate introduction to the present
volume.
H)
The most notable expression given to the ideas current in 1813 was
assuredly the great speech delivered by Lord Grenville, to which
cven forty ycars later men turned back for inspiration and guidance.
Like his successors, he was struck by the strangeness of the task. “On
prcccdents we can here have no reliance. The situation is new; the
subject on which we are to legislate knows no example. Our former
measures would be deceitful guides. ” Nor had the time come for any
final regulation of this most perplexing matter. Three points, he
i Vide v, 313 599. , supra.
• Hansard, xxv, 710 599.
CHIVI
1
## p. 2 (#32) ###############################################
2
LEGISLATION AND SUPERIOR GOVERNMENTS
said, required special attention. The first was the need of declaring
the sovereignty of the British crown in India, as
the only solid basis on which we can either discharge our duties or maintain our
rights. . . . The British crown is de facto sovereign in India. How it became so it is
needless to enquire. This sovereignty cannot now be renounced without still greater
evils, both to that country and to this, than even the acquisition of power has ever
yet produced. It must be maintained. . . That sovereignty which we hesitate to
assert, necessity compels us to exercise.
But it should be exercised first to provide for the welfare of the Indian
population, next, but ranking far below the first, to promote the
interests of Great Britain. In Grenville's eyes there was no conflict
between the two. “Pursued with sincerity and on the principles of
a just and liberal policy, there exists between them a close connection,
a necessary and mutual dependence. ” Oppression must be prevented,
light and knowledge must be diffused. The government must be
separated “from all intermixture with mercantile interests". But it
would be fatal to the constitution of Great Britain if the Company's
patronage were ever vested in the crown or exercised by any political
party. Perhaps, he suggested, writers might be chosen “by free com-
petition and public examination from our great schools and univer-
sities".
The act then passed was far less comprehensive than the speaker
desired. The Company was again entrusted for a further period of
twenty years with the administration of the Indian territories. Its
trade was continued. But it lost the monopoly of the Indian trade;
British-born subjects were to be admitted under less arbitrary re-
strictions; the sovereignty of the British crown was asserted; and
provision was made for the development of an educational policy.
Then with an easier conscience the legislature abandoned for twenty
years the difficult and unfamiliar study of Indian problems. One might
suppose that the words of Grenville had been forgotten. But it was
not so. The general ideas which he expressed continued to dominate
the minds of legislators not only in 1833, but in 1853 as well. The
sovereignty of the crown was not only asserted but was reinforced.
The Company was maintained in its functions, but its structure was
transformed, and its mercantile interests eliminated. Great efforts
were made to improve the administration in India; and at last the
method of selecting the administrative service first advocated by
Gre ville was adopted.
But this consistency of effort exhibited also the defects of its qualities.
Admirable as were the ideas of Grenville in their time and place, they
were liable to exhaustion by the development of affairs. The time was
to come when they would be inadequate guides, when they would
need to be replaced by a new set of ideas, when the changes intro-
duced by this consistent policy would require recognition. But un-
luckily the act of 1853 exhibits no inclination to set off on a new
## p. 3 (#33) ###############################################
THE REFORMS OF 1833
3
departure. Its changes were few, stereotyped, imperfect. The motive
powers of the ideas underlying it were in fact exhausted, and no new
ideas were as yet powerful enough to take their place.
Neither of the acts of 1833 and 1853 was in any way intended to
be definitive. The need of caution was still deeply felt. As Macaulay
said in the debates on the bill of 1833, “We are trying. . . to give a
good government to a people to whom we cannot give a free govern-
ment”. Even James Mill, that zealot of representative institutions,
had declared them to be utterly out of the question. Therefoie
we have to engraft on despotism the natural fruits of liberty. In these circumstances,
Sir, it behoves us to be cautious even to the verge of timidity. . . . We are walking
in darkness—we do not distinctly see whither we are going. It is the wisdom of
a man so situated to feel his way, and not to plant his foot till he is well assured that
the ground before him is firm. 1
Twenty years later he was still the advocate of reform with caution.
“Such a bill”, he declared, “ought to make alterations, and yet it
ought not to be final. The bill. . . ought to be a large yet cautious step
in the path of progress. ”. He seems not to have noticed that the steps
were becoming shorter, or that the rate of progress was slowing down.
The ideas underlying the bill of 1833 were most clearly expressed
in the speech of Charles Grant, afterwards Lord Glenelg, and at
that time president of the Board of Control. The first point which
he emphasised was the need of abolishing the Company's trading
activities and reducing it to a purely administrative body. The union
of the characters of sovereign and trader, he observed, was “calcu-
lated to give a false impression of the character of the government”. 3
In the second place he put the need of improvement in the govern-
mental machinery in India. The presidency of Fort William was
overgrown and should be divided into two. Perhaps the governor-
general should not be required to supervise the whole conduct of
affairs and at the same time to administer a particular government;
certainly he ought to be invested with higher powers of control over
the subordinate presidencies. In the third place the laws should be
amended, the legislatures improved, the anomalous and conflicting
judicatures reformed. Slavery should be abolished, and Europeans
admitted freely into the country.
To a large extent these projects were carried into law. “This
political monster of two natures-subject in one hemisphere, sovereign
in another”, was made much less anomalous by being required with
all convenient speed after 12 April, 1834, to close down its commercial
business, and to pension or otherwise provide for its commercial
servants, under the superintendence of the Board of Control. Its
capital became a charge on the territorial revenues and provision was
· Hansard, 3rd Ser. XIX, 512-13.
2 Idem, CXXVIII, 741.
: Idem, XVIII, 705.
• Idem, XVIII, 727 599.
5 Macaulay, idem, XIX, 509.
3 & 4 Will. IV, c. 85, ss. 4, 6.
6
1-2
## p. 4 (#34) ###############################################
4
LEGISLATION AND SUPERIOR GOVERNMENTS
!
1
1
1
made for its repayment in forty years, or earlier should the govern-
ment of the Indian territories be taken away from it. 1 This was in
fact making leisurely provision for the time when the Company might
at last be abolished. But at the moment abolition was regarded as
premature, for the old jealousy of the executive was still strong.
Macaulay expressed the general attitude with customary point and
vigour. Authority ought not to be vested in the crown alone, for in
such matters parliament could not provide the necessary criticism and
control.
That this house is, or is ever likely to be, an efficient check on abuses practised in
India, I altogether deny. . . . What we want is a body independent of the govern-
ment, and no more than independent—not a tool of the Treasury, not a tool of the
opposition. . . . The Company. . . is such a body. ?
The problems connected with the Indian governments were less
easy of solution. The original bill declared that “the whole civil and
military government of all the said territories and revenues in India
shall be.
The Company's chaplains
Danish missionaries
Policy of religious toleration
Activity of Protestant missions
Ecclesiastical establishments
Disabilities of Indian Christians
Religious festivals and temple endowments
Slavery
Sacrifice of children at Sagar Island
Female infanticicie
The question of sati
Protests against permission
Carey's description
The nizamat adalat's report.
The rules of 1812-1815
Ewer's remonstrance
Other protests
Company's orders of 1823
Ram Mohan Roy's petition
Bentinck resolves to prohibit sati .
PAGE
121
121
I 22
123
124
125
125
127
128
129
131
133
134
135
135
137
139
139
140
140
1
CHAPTER VIII
THE COMPANY'S MARINE
By the late S. M. EDWARDES, C. S. I. , C. V. O.
>
144
144
145
146
The Surat squadron
Early wars with Gheria
The Bombay dockyard
Growth of the Marine, 1740-72
Capture of the Ranger
Co-operation with Hughes
Organisation of the Marine .
Marine regulations
Services in the Persian Gulf. and elsewhere
The Indian Marine
Later developments
Marine surveys
147
147
147
148
149
150
151
151
.
## p. xiii (#15) ############################################
CONTENTS
xiii
CHAPTER IX
THE ARMIES OF THE EAST INDIA COMPANY
>
PAGE
By Lt. -Col. SIR WOLESLEY Haig, K. C. I. E. , C. S. I. , C. M. G. , C. B. E. ,
M. A. , Lecturer in Persian, in the School of Oriental Studies, in
the University of London.
Early garrisons
153
Origin of sepoys
153
Growth of the presidency armies
154
Recruitment of European officers
157
Recruitment of sepoys
158
The reorganisation of 1796
159
Officers' pay
160
Cadets.
161
Military life.
161
Recrganisation of 1824
The Barrackpore mutiny
162
European and officers' mutinies
162
mutiny
163
The Madras officers
' mutiny
163
Local and irregular units
165
Demoralisation of the Bengal army
165
162
CHAPTER X
THE MUTINY
By T. Rice HOLMES, M. A. , Litt. D.
Revenue causes of discontent
Nana Sahib's pension
Dalhousie's annexations
Railway and telegraph
The attitude of the people
The Bengal army.
The general service order
Proselytising officers
The greased cartridges
Mutiny of the 19th and 34th Native Infantry
Mutiny at Meerut
Mutiny at Delhi
Indecision of the authorities
The position at Agra
Attitude of the civil population
Conduct of the Indian princes
Tayler at Patna
Neill at Benares
Allahabad
Wheeler at Cawnpore.
The Cawnpore massacres
Lawrence at Lucknow
Havelock's campaign
167
167
168
169
169
171
172
173
173
174
175
177
177
178
179
179
180
181
182
183
183
184
187
## p. xiv (#16) #############################################
xiy
CONTENTS
Outram joins Havelock
Lucknow relieved
John Lawrence in the Panjab
Siege of Delhi
Proposed cession of Peshawur
Nicholson's march
The storm of Delhi
Sir Colin Campbell's march to Lucknow
Tantia Topi .
The recovery of Lucknow
Canning's proclamation
Kunwar Singh
Position in Bombay
Mutiny in Central India
Sir Hugh Rose's campaign
Reduction of the Rohilkhand
The Mutiny not organised
Dalhousie unjustly blamed
PAGE
189
190
190
192
193
194
195
196
198
199
200
200
200
201
202
203
204
205
ADMINISTRATIVE DEVELOPMENT, 1858–1918
CHAPTER XI
THE HOME GOVERNMENT, 1858-1918
.
.
By Sir H. VERNEY LOVETT, K. C. S. I.
The East India Company's petition
Parliamentary bills
The Act of 1858
The debates .
The Council of india
Thc Amendment Act of 1869
Lord Salisbury as secretary of state
General po icy of the India Office
Attitude of parliament
Morley and the Council of India
Lord Crewe's proposed reforms
The changes
of
1911
The Mesopotamia Commission
Montagu's visit to India
The functions of parliament
The functions of the crown
206
207
208
210
212
214
214
215
.
216
.
217
218
219
220
222
222
225
CHAPTER XII
THE INDIAN GOVERNMENTS, 1858–1918
By Sir H. VERNEY LOVETT, K. C. S. I.
>
The governor-general
Canning's reforms
The Councils Act of 1861
The portfolio system
226
226
228
229
## p. xv (#17) ##############################################
CONTENTS
XV
Subsequent changes in the governor-general's council
Powers of the governor-general
The legislative council of 1853
Inclusion of Indian members
Other changes in the legislature
The home government's control of legislation
Thc Morley-Minto reforms
The provincial governments
Relations between the central and provincial governments
PAGE
230
231
233
234
235
237
238
238
240
CHAPTER XIII
DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION IN BENGAL, 1858-1918
By Sir H. VERNEY LOVETT, K. C. S. I.
Changes in the size of the province
Position of the magistrate-and-collector
Growth of Calcutta
Honorary magistrates
Courts of law
Neglect of Eastern Bengal
Communications in the province
Tenancy tegislation
The bhadralok
Trade and industry
Political agitation and crime
The Bengal District Administration Committee
245
245
246
246
247
247
248
249
251
251
252
253
CHAPTER XIV
DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION IN BOMBAY, 1858-1918
:
By the late S. M. EDWARDES, C. S. I. , C. V. O.
Subordinate states in Kathiawar, etc.
Relations with border states
The survey settlement
Land-revenue in Sind
The presidency government
Judicial organisation
Revenue administration
Port trusts
Public works
Forests.
Education
Agriculture
Miscellaneous departments
255
256
256
257
257
259
261
263
263
264
264
265
266
.
## p. xvi (#18) #############################################
xvi
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XV
DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION IN MADRAS, 1858–1918
By A. BUTTERWORTH, C. S. I.
PAGE
Madras during the Mutiny
267
Tidal wave at Masulipatam
267
The Guntur famine
267
Moplah rebellions
268
Troubles in the Circars
268
The Shanar riots.
269
Political agitation and crime
270
Judicial organisation
270
Revenue settlement
271
Agriculture
272
Forests
272
Local self-government
-
273
Communications in the province
274
Provincial finance
275
CHAPTER XVI
DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION IN THE UNITED
PROVINCES, CENTRAL PROVINCES, AND
THE PANJAB, 1858–1918
By Sir PATRICK FAGAN, K. C. I. E.
Crime and police :
276
Judicial organisation
277
Scheduled districts
278
Land-revenue administration
278
Tenant-right
281
Record of rights
282
Irrigation
283
Famines
285
Forests
Excise
287
Agricultural development
289
Co-operative credit
290
I ocal self-government
291
The district officer
292
286
CHAPTER XVII
THE DEVELOPMENT OF FAMINE POLICY
By Sir H. VERNEY LOVETT, K. C. S. I.
294
The rainfall .
Means of irrigation
Early famines in India
The Orissa ſamine
The Bihar famine .
295
296
298
300
## p. xvii (#19) ############################################
CONTENTS
xvii
.
The famine of 1876-8
The Strachey Commission
The Famine Code
Methods of relief .
The famine of 1896–7
The famine of 1900
The MacDonnell Commission
The famine of 1907-8.
The growth of resistance to famine conditions
The scarcity of 1918
PAGE
300
301
304
305
306
307
309
309
310
311
314
315
315
316
316
316
CHAPTER XVIII
THE FINANCES OF INDIA, 1858–1918
By H. R. C. HAILEY, C. I. E.
Reorganisation after the Mutiny .
The revenues
Land revenues
Opium
alt
Customs
Miscellaneous
Income-tax.
Public works and irrigation finance
Financial decentralisation
Currency and the fall in silver
The course of finance, 1873-93
Currency reform
The gold exchange standard
General course of finance, after 1893
Revenues, 1913-14
Public debt
Development of the currency system
War finance.
.
.
317
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
325
. 327
327
328
330
336
336
CHAPTER XIX
THE GROWTH OF EDUCATIONAL POLICY, 1858-1918
By SIR H. VERNEY LOVETT, K. C. S. I.
Position after the Mutiny
335
The Departments of Public Instruction
The universities
The schools
General position in 1865-6
339
Progress of western influences
341
Obstacles to the spread of rural education
338
342
The Aligarh College
344
Female education
345
Chiefs' colleges
345
The Hunter Commission
The ed tional services
New universities
346
348
348
## p. xviii (#20) ###########################################
xviii
CONTENTS
Curzon's reforms
The Universities Act of 1904
The rise of political agitation
Problems of the future .
PAGE
349
351
352
355
358
360
362
CHAPTER XX
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SERVICES, 1858-1918
By Sir H. VERNEY LOVETT, K. C. S. I.
The Indian Civil Service
Recruitment
357
Indian competition
359
The Statutory Civil Service .
The uncovenanted civil service
361
The police service
The public works department
The finance department
362
363
The forest service
Miscellaneous services
364
364
The Indian Medical Service
365
Regulations regarding admission to the Indian Civil Service
365
The Public Services Commission of 1886
The question of simultaneous examinations
368
Exchange compensation allowances
Police reform
371
372
Reorganisation of the public works department
373
Curzon's other reforms
374
Employment of military officers in civil offices
375
Decline in popularity of the services
375
Public Services Commission of 1912
366
376
CHAPTER XXI
LAW REFORM
By the late Sir FRANCIS DU PRÉ OLDFIELD, LL. M. , Professor of
Jurisprudence in the University of Manchester, formerly a
Puisne Judge of the High Court of Madras.
Confusion of the law
379
The Indian High Courts Act of 1861
380
Later development of the courts
380
The need of codification
381
The Indian law commissions
384
The Civil Procedure and Criminal Procedure Codes
385
Later codes
Revision of the codes
385
Sources of the codes
The use of concrete examples
Hindu law
The Hindu joint family
390
Hindu testamentary powers
393
Other modifications of Hindu law
394
386
387
388
389
## p. xix (#21) #############################################
CONTENTS
xix
CHAPTER XXII
THE INDIAN ARMY, 1858–1918
By SIR WOLSELEY HAIG, K. C. I. E. , C. S. I. , C. M. G. , C. B. E. , M. A.
.
Transference of the Company's armies
The White Mutiny
Reconstitution of the sepoy forces
The local and general lists
Military establishments
Civil employment of military officers
Reduction of the Madras sepoy regiments
Disappearance of the presidency armies
The reorganisation of 1907
The Imperial Service Troops
Indianisation
The reorganisation of 1922 :
PAGE
395
395
396
396
397
397
398
399
400
400
.
401
401
FOREIGN POLICY, 1858–1918
CHAPTER XXIII
CENTRAL ASIA
.
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
409
410
411
411
.
By H. H. DODWELL, M. A.
London control of foreign policy .
Dost Muhammad
The Afghan war of succession
The policy of masterly inactivity
Russian expansion
The purposes of Russia
Diplomatic discussions .
Mayo and Sher 'Ali
Northbrook and Argyll
Seistan Boundary Commission
Non-recognition of the Afghan heir
Sher 'Ali and Kaufmann
Salisbury's policy :
The occupation of Quetta
The proposed Afghan mission
The European situation
Stolietoff's mission
Chamberlain's mission
Attitude of the home government
The Second Afghan War
Cavagnari's murder at Kabul
The reoccupation of Kabul .
Abd-ur-rahman
Liberal policy
Ripon's settlement
Policy of the Second Afghan War
Russia and Mr Gladstone
412
412
414
415
416
417
417
.
418
.
419
419
420
420
421
421
422
422
.
## p. xx (#22) ##############################################
XX
CONTENTS
PAGE
423
424
The Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission
The Panjdeh incident
Delimitation of the northern Afghan frontier
Tibet
The Russian railways
Habib-ullah.
The Anglo-Russian Entente
The Third Afghan War
426
426
428
428
429
430
CHAPTER XXIV
THE CONQUEST OF UPPER BURMA
By G. E. HARVEY, I. C. S.
432
433
433
434
435
435
436
437
438
King Mindon
British agents in Burma
Yunnan trade
Withdrawal of the residency
Thibaw's accession
The massacre of the kinsmen
The attempts of rivals.
The Franco-Burmese treaty.
The Third Burmese War
The annexation of Upper Burma
The effects of the annexation
The government of Lower Burma
District administration
Recruitment among the Burmese
Judicial administration
Public works department
Education
Dacoity
Immigration
Crime
Employment of the Burmese
439
440
441
442
442
443
444
444
445
446
446
447
CHAPTER XXV
THE NORTH-WEST FRONTIER, 1843-1918
By C. C. Davies, Ph. D.
448
The Sind frontier .
Jacob's policy
The Panjab frontier
Early Panjab policy and organisation
Dera Ghazi Khan, the meeting-place of the two systems
Reforms, 1872-8
Relations with Kalat
Sandeman and Baluchistan
Possible lines of defence
The Indus line
449
449
450
452
453
454
'455
456
457
.
## p. xxi (#23) #############################################
CONTENTS
xxi
The administrative and Durand lines .
Quetta
Kandahar
Difficulties of tribal control
The forward policy
Influence of the amir
The Durand agreement
Chitral
Tribal risings of 1897
Curzon's policy
The North-West Frontier Province
Tribal customs and the jirga system
Land tenures
The arms traffic
The frontier during the late
PAGE
458
458
459
460
461
461
462
463
465
466
467
470
472
473
war
.
.
475
CHAPTER XXVI
INDIA AND THE WAR
By L. F. RUSHBROOK WILLIAMS, M. A. , Foreign Minister
to H. H. the Maharaja of Patiala.
476
477
478
The functions of the Indian army
Attitude of the princes and the people
Failure to take advantage of the initial enthusiasm
Services overseas
Consequent difficulties of administration
Indian recruitment
Provision of officers and medical personnel
Munitions and supplies
Financial help
Revolutionary attempts
The crisis of 1918
Attitude of the educated classes
The declaration of 1917
The effects of the war
479
480
481
482
483
483
485
485
486
488
488
.
.
CHAPTER XXVII
THE RELATIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT OF
INDIA WITH THE INDIAN STATES, 1858-1918
By H. H. DODWELL, M. A.
Position in 1858.
Peculiarities of the Indian treaties
Their constructive interpretation .
Their confirmation in 1858 .
Attitude of the early viceroys
The proclamation and the sanads of adoption
The position of the crown
489
490
491
492
493
493
494
.
## p. xxii (#24) ############################################
xxii
CONTENTS
Kashmir
Successions in the Indian states
Their military forces
Examples of internal interference: Alwar, Jabwa, Tank and Kalat
The case of Malhar Rao Gaekwar
The rendition of Mysore
Common economic interests
Obsolescence of the treaties
Curzon's policy
Attitude of the princes .
The Imperial Service Troops
The Chamber of Princes
Minto's change of policy
PAGE
495
496
497
498
499
50r
503
503
504
506
507
507
509
.
.
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT, 1858–1919
CHAPTER XXVIII
LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT
By J. H. LINDSAY, M. A.
.
The ancient village self-government
Village organisation
The village headman
The village police
Famine relief
Rural boards
The Bengal ferry committees
Local committees elsewhere .
Mayo's reforms
Ripon's reforms
The Bengal Local Self-Government Act
Comparative failure of the rural boards
The presidency towns
Justices of the peace
The question of conservancy
Changes, 1863-7
Reform in Bombay
Reform in Calcutta
Reform in Madras
Early committees in the district towns
The Municipal Act of 1850
Later provincial legislation
Ripon's reforms in the municipalities
Octroi duties
Non-official chairmen
511
512
513
514
515
516
516
517
517
518
520
521
523
523
524
.
.
525
.
526
527
528
.
529
530
531
534
535
537
## p. xxiii (#25) ###########################################
CONTENTS
xxiii
CHAPTER XXIX
THE NATIONAL CONGRESS AND EARLY
POLITICAL LITERATURE
By SIR RICHARD BURN, C. S. I.
Social reforms
Surendranath Banerjee
The Ilbert Bill
The Arya Samaj and Theosophy
The National Congress
The Muslim attitude
Dufferin's policy
The Act of 1892
The principle of election
.
PAGE
538
538
539
539
540
541
541
543
545
548
CHAPTER XXX
THE RISE OF AN EXTREMIST PARTY
By Sir H. VERNEY LOVETT, K. C. S. I.
The influence of the press
Reactionary Hinduism.
B. G. Tilak .
The murders at Poona
The partition agitation in Bengal
The appearance of terrorism
Unrest in the Panjab
The India House conspiracy
Attitude of the moderates
Restrictions on the press
The split of the congress
The prosecution of Tilak
Outrages in Bengal
Gokhale accepts the reforms
Hindu character of the extremist movement
549
549
550
551
552
553
553
554
554
555
555
556
557
559
CHAPTER XXXI
THE REFORMS OF 1909
By SIR RICHARD BURN, C. S. I.
Lord Minto's appointment
Congress proposals
Discussions with Morley
Repressive measures
Minto's proposals
Morley's criticisms
The King's message of 1908
The Muslims demand separate representation
Discussions in parliament
Indian members of council
Method of election
Budget procedure
560
560
561
562
563
565
565
566
567
569
570
572
.
ม
## p. xxiv (#26) ############################################
xxiv
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XXXII
POLITICAL MOVEMÉNTS, 1909–1917.
PAGE
574
575
575
576
By Sir RICHARD BURN, C. S. I.
Further restrictions on the press
Political crime
The Delhi Durbar
The change of capital and revocation of the partition of Bengal
Muslim dissatisfaction
Attempt on Lord Hardinge and the spread of revolutionary crime
Working of the new councils
Proposed executive councils in the United Provinces
Indians in South Africa
Revolutionary attempts during the war
The Khilafat agitation
The Home Rule League
Criticism of the Press Act
The Rowlatt Committee and consequent legislation
576
578
579
579
581
582
583
584
584
585
CHAPTER XXXIII
THE REFORMS OF 1919
By SIR RICHARD BURN, C. S. I.
Sir S. P. Sinha's views
Lord Chelmsford's questions
The Declaration of 1917
The Commonwealth of India scheme
Mr Curtis's activities
Montagu's visit to India
The Montagu-Chelmsford Report
The heads of provinces scheme
The Southborough Committee
The Act of 1919
Dyarchy and finance
Changes in the Government of India
The Council of State
The size of the new councils
Con. nunal representation
Position of the secretary of state
The high Commissioner for India
Rules under the act
Importance of the reforms
.
587
587
589
589
591
592
592
594
595
595
596
598
599
599
600
601
602
602
603
## p. xxv (#27) #############################################
CONTENTS
XXV
CHAPTER XXXIV
CONSTITUTIONAL CHANGES FROM 1919 TO 1969
BY VIDYA DHAR MAHAJAN, M. A. (HONS. ), LL. B. , Ph. D.
to 1935
Government of India Act, 1919
Dyarchy in the Provinces
Estimate of the Reforms of 1919
Constitutional Development from 1919
Muddiman Committee Report
The Simon Commission
The Nehru Report
Jinnah's Fourteen Points (1929)
Simon Commission Report (1920)
Round Table Conferences (1930-31)
Communal Award (1932)
Poona Pact (1932)
The White Paper Proposals (1933)
Government of India Act, 1935
Nature of Provincial Autonomy
Defects in the Act of 1935
Estimate of the Act of 1935
The August Offer (1940)
The Cripps Proposals (1942)
Rajagopalachariar Formula (1941)
Desai-Liaquat Formula (1945)
The Wavell Plan (1945)
Labour Party in Office
The Cabinet Mission (1946)
The Calcutta Killing (August, 1946)
Attlee's Statement of February, 1947
June 3 Plan (1947)
The Indian Independence Act, 1917
Demand for Constituent Assembly
Work of Constituent Assembly of India
The Constitution of India (1950)
Amendments of the Constitution
PAGES
604
608
615
616
618
620
621
627
630
632
634
637
640
641
649
656
661
663
665
670
673
674
677
679
683
684
686
688
689
696
698
701
CHAPTER XXXV
THE NATIONALIST MOVEMENT IN INDIA
BY VIDYA DHAR MAHAJAN, M. A. (Hons. ), LL. B. , Ph. D.
Causes of the Rise of Nationalism in India
Political Organisations Before 1885
Foundation of the Indian National Congress
Annual Sessions of the Congress
Rise of Extremism
Home Rule Movement
Terrorist and Revolutionary Movements
712
722
727
731
736
745
746
1
## p. xxvi (#28) ############################################
xxvi
CONTENTS
India and World War I
Non-cooperation Movement
The Swarajist Party
Quit India Movement
Why England Gave India Independence?
PAGES
763
770
775
778
783
CHAPTER XXXVI
PAKISTAN
BY VIDYA DHAR MAHAJAN, M. A. (HONS. ), LL. B. , Ph. D.
r
Work of Sir Syed Ahmed Khar.
Principal Beck and the Muslims
Partition of Bengal
Lord Minto and the Muslims
Foundation of the Muslim League
The Lucknow Pact
The Khilafat Movement
The Nehru Report and the Muslims
Sir Mohammed Iqbal and Pakistan
The Cominunal Award and the Muslims
Rahmat Ali and Pakistan
Formation of Congress Ministries and Muslim League
League Propaganda against Congress Ministries
The Second World War and the Muslim League
Tentative Proposals of Jinnah (1940)
Pakistan Resolution (1940)
The August Offer and Muslim League
The Cripps Mission and the Muslims (1912)
Muslim League and Quit India Movement
Propaganda for Pakistan
Rajaji's Formula
Gandhi-Jinnah Talks (1914)
Liaquat-Desai Pact (1945)
The Simla Conference and Mr. Jinnah
Parliamentary Delegation to India
The Cabinet Mission
Formation of Interim Government
Muslim League joins Interim Govemment
Mountbatten and Partition of India
3 June Plan
Partition of India
Pakistan since 1947
Constitution of Pakistan (1956)
General Ayub takes over
Constitution of 1962
Reforms under lyub Khan
Pakistan Democratic Movement
General Yaliva Khan Takes over
Foreign Policy of Pakistan
788
790
792
793
795
798
799
807
809
811
812
814
817
822
825
828
835
836
837
838
815
816
817
818
852
852
856
860
863
867
870
875
879
882
886
892
894
896
897
## p. xxvii (#29) ###########################################
CONTENTS
xxvii
CHAPTER XXXVII
THE INDIAN STATES SINCE 1919
BY VIDYA DHAR MAHAJAN, M. A. (HONS. ), LL. B. , Ph. D.
Chamber of Princes
The Butler Committee Report
Government of India Act, 1935 and Indian States
Cripps and Indian States
Cabinet Mission and Indian States
Attitude of Indian States towards Free India
Indian States after June 3 Plari
State of Junagadh
State of Hyderabad
State of Jammu & Kashmir
Integration and Democratisation of States
The States Reorganisation Commission
The States Reorganisation Act, 1956
The Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966
Border Disputes between Maharashtra and Mysore
The Mahajan Report
PAGES
901
903
907
909
910
912
914
916
921
927
934
937
940
942
944
945
CHAPTER XXXVIII
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
BY VIDYA DHAR MAHAJAN, M. A. (HONS. ), LL. B. Ph. D.
Inauguration of Montagu-Chelmsford Reformas
The Sikh Gurdwaras Act
The Meston Settlement
The Les Commission
Hindu-Muslim Riots
The Sarda Act
Trade Union Movement
The Indian Press (Emergency Powers) Act, 1931
The ll'orld War II
The Bengal Famine
INI. Trial
Mountbatten and Partition of India
Press Lirws Enquiry Committee
Radhakrislınan University Commission
Five Year Plans
Agrarian Legislation
Foreign Settlements in India
Nehru's Foreign Policy
India and the United States
India and the Soviet Union
India and Communist China
India and Pakistan
India Today
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(TIROXOLOGICAL TABLE
INDEX
946
949
949
950
953
954
955
958
961
962
969
972
977
978
980
981
983
984
990
994
998
1008
1018
1019
1063
1071
## p. xxviii (#30) ##########################################
## p. 1 (#31) ###############################################
CHAPTER I
IMPERIAL LEGISLATION AND THE SUPERIOR
GOVERNMENTS, 1818-1857
The imperial legislation relating to India in the first half of the
nineteenth century is above all remarkable for the consistency of its
course and the steady development of the policy which it was designed
to promote. From the great India act of 1784 down to the statute
which at last in 1858 abolished the administrative functions of the
East India Company, there was a gradual, persistent evolution, in-
spired by a common group of ideas, directed to a common object, and
founded on principles in origin free alike from heady enthusiasm and
obstinate fear of reformation. The principles were derived from Burke,
but greatly modified by Whig traditions. Burke, of course, though
long a follower of the party, had never been a real Whig. He lacked
the background—the orderly conduct of a great estate—which was
essential to the formation of the true Whig character. His zeal and
sympathy were not balanced by the practical experience of directing
men and managing great affairs. He was a poor judge of character,
unable to detect the shallowness of Francis, and a poor judge of events,
unable to gauge the nature of Indian developments. Neither his
mistaken enthusiasm, nor Fox's party spirit, nor Sheridan's venal
rhetoric, was in fact capable of forming a system on which the nation's
Indian affairs might well and wisely be controlled. That was left to
men who, no longer of the party, had carried with them' much more
of its spirit than remained behind. The ideas and purposes of the
legislation carried through by Pitt and Dundas and Buckinghamshire
have already been described. 1 But it will be convenient here to begin
with the ideas of 1813, for these appear and reappear not only in
legislative principles but also in the actual administration of the period,
so that they form the most appropriate introduction to the present
volume.
H)
The most notable expression given to the ideas current in 1813 was
assuredly the great speech delivered by Lord Grenville, to which
cven forty ycars later men turned back for inspiration and guidance.
Like his successors, he was struck by the strangeness of the task. “On
prcccdents we can here have no reliance. The situation is new; the
subject on which we are to legislate knows no example. Our former
measures would be deceitful guides. ” Nor had the time come for any
final regulation of this most perplexing matter. Three points, he
i Vide v, 313 599. , supra.
• Hansard, xxv, 710 599.
CHIVI
1
## p. 2 (#32) ###############################################
2
LEGISLATION AND SUPERIOR GOVERNMENTS
said, required special attention. The first was the need of declaring
the sovereignty of the British crown in India, as
the only solid basis on which we can either discharge our duties or maintain our
rights. . . . The British crown is de facto sovereign in India. How it became so it is
needless to enquire. This sovereignty cannot now be renounced without still greater
evils, both to that country and to this, than even the acquisition of power has ever
yet produced. It must be maintained. . . That sovereignty which we hesitate to
assert, necessity compels us to exercise.
But it should be exercised first to provide for the welfare of the Indian
population, next, but ranking far below the first, to promote the
interests of Great Britain. In Grenville's eyes there was no conflict
between the two. “Pursued with sincerity and on the principles of
a just and liberal policy, there exists between them a close connection,
a necessary and mutual dependence. ” Oppression must be prevented,
light and knowledge must be diffused. The government must be
separated “from all intermixture with mercantile interests". But it
would be fatal to the constitution of Great Britain if the Company's
patronage were ever vested in the crown or exercised by any political
party. Perhaps, he suggested, writers might be chosen “by free com-
petition and public examination from our great schools and univer-
sities".
The act then passed was far less comprehensive than the speaker
desired. The Company was again entrusted for a further period of
twenty years with the administration of the Indian territories. Its
trade was continued. But it lost the monopoly of the Indian trade;
British-born subjects were to be admitted under less arbitrary re-
strictions; the sovereignty of the British crown was asserted; and
provision was made for the development of an educational policy.
Then with an easier conscience the legislature abandoned for twenty
years the difficult and unfamiliar study of Indian problems. One might
suppose that the words of Grenville had been forgotten. But it was
not so. The general ideas which he expressed continued to dominate
the minds of legislators not only in 1833, but in 1853 as well. The
sovereignty of the crown was not only asserted but was reinforced.
The Company was maintained in its functions, but its structure was
transformed, and its mercantile interests eliminated. Great efforts
were made to improve the administration in India; and at last the
method of selecting the administrative service first advocated by
Gre ville was adopted.
But this consistency of effort exhibited also the defects of its qualities.
Admirable as were the ideas of Grenville in their time and place, they
were liable to exhaustion by the development of affairs. The time was
to come when they would be inadequate guides, when they would
need to be replaced by a new set of ideas, when the changes intro-
duced by this consistent policy would require recognition. But un-
luckily the act of 1853 exhibits no inclination to set off on a new
## p. 3 (#33) ###############################################
THE REFORMS OF 1833
3
departure. Its changes were few, stereotyped, imperfect. The motive
powers of the ideas underlying it were in fact exhausted, and no new
ideas were as yet powerful enough to take their place.
Neither of the acts of 1833 and 1853 was in any way intended to
be definitive. The need of caution was still deeply felt. As Macaulay
said in the debates on the bill of 1833, “We are trying. . . to give a
good government to a people to whom we cannot give a free govern-
ment”. Even James Mill, that zealot of representative institutions,
had declared them to be utterly out of the question. Therefoie
we have to engraft on despotism the natural fruits of liberty. In these circumstances,
Sir, it behoves us to be cautious even to the verge of timidity. . . . We are walking
in darkness—we do not distinctly see whither we are going. It is the wisdom of
a man so situated to feel his way, and not to plant his foot till he is well assured that
the ground before him is firm. 1
Twenty years later he was still the advocate of reform with caution.
“Such a bill”, he declared, “ought to make alterations, and yet it
ought not to be final. The bill. . . ought to be a large yet cautious step
in the path of progress. ”. He seems not to have noticed that the steps
were becoming shorter, or that the rate of progress was slowing down.
The ideas underlying the bill of 1833 were most clearly expressed
in the speech of Charles Grant, afterwards Lord Glenelg, and at
that time president of the Board of Control. The first point which
he emphasised was the need of abolishing the Company's trading
activities and reducing it to a purely administrative body. The union
of the characters of sovereign and trader, he observed, was “calcu-
lated to give a false impression of the character of the government”. 3
In the second place he put the need of improvement in the govern-
mental machinery in India. The presidency of Fort William was
overgrown and should be divided into two. Perhaps the governor-
general should not be required to supervise the whole conduct of
affairs and at the same time to administer a particular government;
certainly he ought to be invested with higher powers of control over
the subordinate presidencies. In the third place the laws should be
amended, the legislatures improved, the anomalous and conflicting
judicatures reformed. Slavery should be abolished, and Europeans
admitted freely into the country.
To a large extent these projects were carried into law. “This
political monster of two natures-subject in one hemisphere, sovereign
in another”, was made much less anomalous by being required with
all convenient speed after 12 April, 1834, to close down its commercial
business, and to pension or otherwise provide for its commercial
servants, under the superintendence of the Board of Control. Its
capital became a charge on the territorial revenues and provision was
· Hansard, 3rd Ser. XIX, 512-13.
2 Idem, CXXVIII, 741.
: Idem, XVIII, 705.
• Idem, XVIII, 727 599.
5 Macaulay, idem, XIX, 509.
3 & 4 Will. IV, c. 85, ss. 4, 6.
6
1-2
## p. 4 (#34) ###############################################
4
LEGISLATION AND SUPERIOR GOVERNMENTS
!
1
1
1
made for its repayment in forty years, or earlier should the govern-
ment of the Indian territories be taken away from it. 1 This was in
fact making leisurely provision for the time when the Company might
at last be abolished. But at the moment abolition was regarded as
premature, for the old jealousy of the executive was still strong.
Macaulay expressed the general attitude with customary point and
vigour. Authority ought not to be vested in the crown alone, for in
such matters parliament could not provide the necessary criticism and
control.
That this house is, or is ever likely to be, an efficient check on abuses practised in
India, I altogether deny. . . . What we want is a body independent of the govern-
ment, and no more than independent—not a tool of the Treasury, not a tool of the
opposition. . . . The Company. . . is such a body. ?
The problems connected with the Indian governments were less
easy of solution. The original bill declared that “the whole civil and
military government of all the said territories and revenues in India
shall be.
