The aim of the
programme
is that each vil-
lage should have a plan of all-round development.
lage should have a plan of all-round development.
Cambridge History of India - v4 - Indian Empire
It was on 18
January, 1948 that Mahatma Gandhi gave up his fast when the
money was paid to Pakistan and the mosques were evacuated by
the Hindus in Delhi. Mahatmaji's action was not liked by some
fanatics among the Hindus and 12 days after (30 January), the
Mahatma was murdered while he was going to his prayer meeting.
The action of the Hindus and Sikhs in turning out the Muslims
from the Punjab and Delhi has been criticised but it must not be
forgotten that the circumstances were such that no human-being
could have acted differently. It is appropriate to quote in this
connection the following passage from V. P. Menon: “The uprooted
millions (from West Punjab) were in a terrible mental state. They
had been driven from their homes under conditions of indescribable
horrors and misery. Not many had the time to plan their evacua-
tion; most had to move out at the shortest possible notice. They
had been subjected to terrible indignities. They had witnessed
their near and dear ones hacked to pieces before their eyes and
their houses ransacked, looted and set on fire by their own neigh-
bours. They had no choice but to seek safety in flight, filled with
wrath at what they had seen, and full of anguish for numberless
missing kinsmen who were still stranded in Pakistan and for their
womenfolk who had been abducted. . . . . . The holocaust in West-
## p. 975 (#1019) ###########################################
LORD MOUNTBATTEN
975
ern Pakistan had its repercussions in East Punjab. The streams
of fleeing refugees with their tales of woe and suffering made a
profound impression on the people. In vain were appeals made
to them to remember that retaliation was no remedy. The spirit
of revenge was abroad, working up communal bitterness to a fren-
zied pitch, till all restraint was thrown to the winds. . . . . . To under-
stand the attitude of this ‘over-blamed people, one must appreciate
the fact that the Sikhs had been driven out of their homes, contrary
to all their hopes and expectations; that they had been deprived
of their lands and property, their shrines and holy places; that
their losses in men and property had been comparatively greater
than those of any other community affected by the communal up-
heaval; that nearly 40 per cent of the entire Sikh community had
been reduced to penury and had become refugees with the neces-
sity of having to start life afresh. ”
The problem of the rehabilitation of the refugees was a very
difficult one but the same was tackled sympathetically and efficient-
ly. Lands left by the Muslims in India were allotted to the refugees
from West Pakistan. They were granted loans to start their lives
afresh. A machinery was set up to evaluate the properties left by
the refugees in Pakistan and the Government gave the claim-holders
either cash or immovable property in India. Rehabilitation grants
were given to others. The existing cities were expanded and
Model Towns were attached to the old towns. Satellite towns such
as Faridabad were set up to rehabilitate the refugees. The refugees
also showed remarkable courage and facilitated the task of the
Government by self-help.
Lord Mountbatten did a lot of useful work in connection with
the Indian States even before the partition of India. He called
on 25 July, 1947 a conference to discuss the question of the acces-
sion of the Indian States to either India or Pakistan because after
the passing of the Indian Independence Act, British Paramountcy
was going to end and there were to be no treaties between the
Indian States and the Dominions of India and Pakistan. The Con-
ference was attended by more than a hundred princes and the
representatives of the States. Lord Mountbatten tried to impress
upon them the urgency of the matter and the necessity of the States
joining one Dominion or the other before 15 August, 1947. The
efforts of Lord Mountbatten and V. P. Menon were successful and
the result was that most of the states acceded to one Dominion or
the other before 15 August. V. P. Menon facilitated the task of
Lord Mountbatten by drafting an Instrument of Accession which
was acceptable to most of the States as it required them to hand
over to the Central Government only a few subjects. Stand-still
## p. 976 (#1020) ###########################################
976
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
Agreements were to be entered into with those states which were
not able to join one Dominion or the other. It can be said without
exaggeration that the personality of Lord Mountbatten helped to
save the situation which otherwise would have arisen on account
of the ambitions of certain rulers to become independent. Whether
by persuasion or by pressure, most of the Indian rulers were made
to join the Dominion of India. This was the greatest service done
by Lord Mountbatten to India which we must never forget. Even
before 15 August, Lord Mountbatten tried to persuade the Maha-
raja of Jammu & Kashmir to join one Dominion or the other but
his efforts failed. In the case of Hyderabad, Lord Mountbatten
made very serious efforts to persuade the Nizam to accede to India
on very favourable terms. Those efforts he continued up to June,
1948 when he actually left India. He was of the view that the
Nizam had lost a golden opportunity to come to terms with India
and he was doomed.
Lord Mountbatten was so popular in India that a public meet-
ing was held at Delhi to bid him farewell. The sitting of Lord
Mountbatten and Lady Mountbatten along with all the Indian
leaders created a scene which even the Gods could envy. There
was an atmosphere of warmth everywhere. When he actually left,
there was the general feeling that the man who was leaving the
country was their own man. One must not forget to mention
Lady Mountbatten who competed with her husband through her
goodness and nobility. She loved the people of this country and
they loved her in turn. She continued to visit India from time to
time even after June, 1948 and when the sad news of her death
came in 1960, there was genuine sorrow in many hearts in this
country.
RAJAGOPALACHARIAR (1948-50)
Lord Mountbatten was succeeded by Shri C. Rajagopalachariar
who was the Governor-General of India from June, 1948 to January,
1950. He was born in 1879 and started his legal practice after
passing from the Law College, Madras. He gave up a splendid
career at the Bar to fight for the freedom of this country when he
came under the influence of Mahatma Gandhi in 1919. When
Mahatmaji was in prison, Rajagopalachariar edited Young India
with great success. In 1921 and 1922, he became the General Secre-
tary of the Indian National Congress and later on a member of the
All-India Congress Committee. He had his differences with the Con-
gress more than once and in spite of that he was appointed the first
Governor-General of Free India. When the Congress Ministries
## p. 977 (#1021) ###########################################
PRESS LAWS ENQUIRY COMMITTEE
977
were formed in 1937, he was the Chief Minister of Madras. Prime
Minister Jawaharlal Nehru tried to get him elected as the Presi-
dent of India but he failed as the people wanted Dr. Rajendra
Prasad. In 1959, he founded the Swatantra Party in opposition
to the Congress. Although he is about 90, he takes active interest
in the politics of the country. He is a man of great strength of
character.
It was during his regime as the Governor-General of India that
police action was taken against the Nizam of Hyderabad. Kasim
Razvi and his followers were defeated and Hyderabad became a
part of the Indian Union. During this period, the Constituent
Assembly passed the new Constitution of India which came into
force on 26 January, 1950. The relations between India and
Pakistan were unsatisfactory and there was a lot of tension on
account of the problem of Kashmir and evacuee property.
In 1948 was created the Press Trust of India Limited. This
organisation took over the supply of news to and from India. This
was done on the basis of an agreement with the Reuters. The
agreement enabled the Indian press to get complete control over
its internal news supply. The Press Trust of India is a non-profit
making concern and its membership is open to all newspapers of
India. It has now become independent of the Reuters.
The Government of India set up a Press Laws Enquiry Com-
mittee under the Chairmanship of Shri Ganganath Jha. The Com-
mittee was required to examine all the existing press laws of India
and make its recommendations regarding the direction in which
those should be modified. The Central Legislature nominated
some members to the Committee. Three editors were also recom-
mended by the Indian Newspapers Editors' Conference. The Com-
mittee recommended that an explanation should be added to Sec-
tion 153-A of the Indian Penal Code to the effect that it did not
amount to an offence under that Section to advocate a change in
the social and economic order provided that advocacy did not in-
volve violence. The Committee recommended the repeal of the
Foreign Relations Act, 1932, the Indian States (Protection) Act,
1934 and the Indian Press (Emergency Powers) Act, 1931. How-
ever, it was suggested that certain provisions of the Indian Press
(Emergency Powers) Act, 1931 which did not find a place in the
ordinary law of the country, should be incorporated into that law
at suitable places. Section 124-A of the Indian Penal Code should
be amended in such a way as to apply only to those acts which
either incite disorder or are intended or tend to incite disorder.
Section 144 of the Code of Criminal Procedure should not apply to
the press and separate provision should be made for dealing with
## p. 978 (#1022) ###########################################
978
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
the press in urgent cases of apprehended danger. Necessary provi-
sion should be made in the law to empower courts to order the clos-
ing down of a press for a special period in case of repeated viola-
tion of law.
In 1948, the Government of India appointed a University Com-
mission under the Chairmanship of Sir S. Radhakrishnan. The
terms of reference of the Commission were to consider and make
recommendations on the aims and objects of University education
and research in India, the changes considered necessary and desir-
able in the constitution, control, functions and jurisdiction of uni-
versities in India and their relations with the Government of India
and the Provincial Governments, the finances of the universities,
the courses of study in the universities and their duration, the stand-
ards of admission to university courses of study with special refer-
ence to the desirability of an independent university entrance exa-
mination and the avoidance of unfair demonstrations which militate
against the fundamental rights, the medium of instruction in the
universities, the provision for advanced study in Indian culture,
history, literature, languages, philosophy and finance, the mainten-
ance of the highest standards of teaching and examinations in the
universities and the colleges under their control, the organisation
of advanced research in all branches of knowledge in the universi-
ties and institutions of higher research in a well-coordinated fashion
avoiding waste of efforts and resources, religious instruction in the
universities, the qualifications, conditions of service, salaries, privi-
leges and functions of teachers and the encouragement of original
research by teachers, the discipline of students, hostels and the
organisation of tutorial work and any other matter which was
germane and essential to a complete and comprehensive enquiry
into all aspects of university education and advanced research in
India.
After touring the whole of the country, interviewing people and
receiving and considering memoranda from various quarters, the
Commission made its recommendations in 1949. It recommended
the establishment of rural universities with Shantiniketan and
Jamia Millia as their model. It criticised the allocation of small
funds for education. It stressed the necessity of increasing consi-
derably the grant of scholarships and stipends so that the poor
students may not suffer. No college was to be allowed to admit
more than 1,000 students. Where the mother tongue was the same
as the federal language, the federal language was to be the medium
of instruction. If the mother tongue and the federal language
were identical, the students were required to take up any other
Indian, classical or modern language. There was to be no hasty
## p. 979 (#1023) ###########################################
DR. RAJENDRA PRASAD
979
replacement of English as a medium of instruction for high acade-
mic standards. Co-education could be adopted in the secondary
stage and in the college stage. A lot of emphasis was laid on im-
proving the standards of the teaching profession. There were to
be four classes of teachers, viz. , Professors, readers, lecturers and
instructors. The promotion from one category to another was
to be solely on the basis of merit.
DR. RAJENDRA PRASAD (1950-62)
The Constitution of Free India came into force on 26 January,
1950. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected the first President of
India. In 1957, he was re-elected President and he occupied that
office with rare distinction. He was a brilliant scholar. His nobi-
lity, devotion to duty and sincerity were unequalled. He was suc-
ceeded by Dr. S. Radhakrishnan as President in 1962. He was a
remarkable personality in many ways. He was a great Sanskrit
Scholar and he was very near Prime Minister Nehru. Before be-
coming President, he had been the Indian Ambassador in the Soviet
Union and the Vice-President of India. When he retired in 1967,
Dr. Zakir Husain was elected the President. He had hardly com-
pleted two years when he died in May, 1969. Pandit Jawaharlal
Nehru was the Prime Minister of India from 1947 to 1964. He
was succeeded by Lal Bahadur Shastri as Prime Minister and the lat.
ter continued to occupy that position up to January, 1966. After his
death at Tashkent, Mrs. Indira Gandhi became the Prime Minister
of India and she is holding that position up to now.
Indian Leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Patel and Dr.
Rajendra Prasad deserve credit for the manner in which they dealt
with the situation which faced them when India became free.
Before leaving India, British bureaucracy had deliberately made the
administrative machinery unworkable and it was a big problem to
make it work smoothly for the good of the country. Sardar Patel
who was in charge of Home portfolio, played an important part in
this connection. The creation of the Indian Administrative Service
facilitated the task. The old officials also adjusted themselves to
the new environments.
The problem of law and order was a formidable one. As a mat-
ter of fact, it completely broke down at one stage. Disturbances
were of such a serious nature and on such a large scale that law
and order completely broke down and for some time help had to be
taken from the army to restore normal conditions. The difficul-
ties of the Government to maintain law and order in the country
can be appreciated only if we keep in mind the fact that there were
## p. 980 (#1024) ###########################################
980
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
lakhs of refugees in the country who had come to India from Pakis-
tan after losing not only the lives of their kiths and kins but also
after losing all they had in the form of property and were demand-
ing revenge against all those who were responsible for their fate.
Although the problems of the refugees was a very big one, the
same was satisfactorily solved within a few years. The rich got
properties in lieu of the properties left by them in Pakistan and the
poor got help from the Government in many ways to rehabilitate
themselves. A minister of Cabinet rank was put in charge of the
Ministry of Rehabilitation and he was assisted by the Custodian
General of India, Deputy Custodian General of India, Custodians
of Evacuee Property, Claims Officers and a host of other officials
such as Chief Settlement Commissioner, etc.
FIVE YEAR PLANS
Under the dynamic personality of Prime Minister Jawaharlal
Nehru, the Planning Commission was set up in 1950. The First
Five Year Plan was launched in 1951 and it placed special empha-
sis on agricultural production in order to free India irom depen-
dence on overseas supplies. The First Five Year Plan was a great
Production increased by 25% during the five years period.
It was during this period that the great power and irrigation pro-
jects of the Damodar Valley scheme and the Hirakud Dam were
undertaken. Along with these, three new steel plants were started,
sponsored respectively by Great Britain, the United States and the
Soviet Union. The Durgapur Steel Plant was put up with the
assistance of a consortium of British firms. The Bhilai Steel Plant
in Madhya Pradesh was set up with the technical and financial co-
operation of the Soviet Government. The Plant was to produce
Steel ingots and finished products like rails, railway sleepers bars
etc. The Rourkela Plant was set up in collaboration with the
German firms in 1955 and completed in 1961. The Sindri Fertil-
izers and Chemicals in Bihar was started in 1947, with help from
the United States and Great Britain and completed in 1950 That
factory was the biggest of its kind in the East, producing over
300,000 tons of ammonium sulphate annually. The Chittaranjan
Locomotive Factory had already been set up and it made India
self-sufficient in the matter of steam locomotives. The Bhakra-
Nangal Project utilized the waters of the Sutlej in the Punjab for
irrigation facilities and generating power. The American Govern-
ment gave a lot of help in this matter.
success.
The Second Five Year Plan was launched in 1956. In this the
emphasis was on large scale industrialisation. The aim was to in-
## p. 981 (#1025) ###########################################
FIVE YEAR PLANS
981
crease the national income by 25%. The expenditure on the
Second Five Year Plan was double of that of the first Five Year
Plan. Some four thousand millions of pounds were spent in the
public Sector and about two thousand million pounds in the Private
Sector. As all this money was not available in the country, money
had to be borrowed from foreign countries, particularly from the
United States. The Plan was completed with some trimmings and
shortfalls. The Third Five Year Plan was launched in 1962. It
called for an outlay of about eight thousand million pounds out of
which nearly five thousand millions were spent in the Public Sector.
A lot of money for this plan had to be borrowed from foreign coun-
tries. The Government also resorted to deficit financing to find
money for the completion of the Plan. A lot of time has been spent
in the preparation of the Fourth Five Year Plan. There are some
who demand that the next Five Year Plan must be in accordance
with the resources available in the country itself and we must not
depend upon foreign help for the implementation for the next Five
Year Plan. The other view is that we must do what we have been
doing in the past regardless of the resources available in the coun-
try itself. It is contended that all developing countries have to
follow such a policy.
In this connection, it must be mentioned that India has not got
the maximum for the money invested in agriculture and industry.
While India owes more than Rs. Five thousand crores to foreign
countries, the progress made is not adequate. A good bit of money
has been wasted in the Public Sector on account of corruption and
inefficiency. Instead of earning dividends, the Public Sector Under-
takings are showing losses to the tune of crores of rupees every year.
Production in various fields has not kept pace with the growth of
population in the country. Prices have been continuously rising
and with the exception of the rich, the condition of the man in the
street is becoming intolerable. Freedom has not brought what the
common man hoped and prayed for. Hartals and agitations have
become the order of the day.
AGRARIAN LEGISLATION
Under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, an attempt was made
to improve the lot of the peasants. In most of the States, legisla-
tion was passed which abolished Zamindari and gave land to the
tiller. The result was that millions of persons who had been mere-
ly tenants, became the owners of the lands cultivated by them. This
certainly improved their lot. A ceiling was also fixed by the Gov-
ernment beyond which no landlord was allowed to possess land
## p. 982 (#1026) ###########################################
982
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
and the surplus land was distributed among those who were land-
less. There was a lot of opposition to these reforms and even the
Constitution had to be amended to carry out these reforms.
The State Trading Corporation of India was set up in 1955 pri-
marily to handle trade with the iron curtain countries. This com-
pany was given monopoly of trade in cement. The cost of import-
ed cement was higher than that of the cement produced in India
and hence a few years later, the import of cement was discontinued
and the State Trading Corporation continued to hold the internal
trade.
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
The Government of India has spent a lot of money on the com-
munity development programme. This programme was launched
on 2 October, 1952.
The aim of the programme is that each vil-
lage should have a plan of all-round development. There should
be an increase in the agricultural production. Village crafts should
be recognised. Not only health education should be given to the
people but they should be provided with minimum health services.
Provisions should be made for educational facilities for children and
adults. Recreational facilities should be provided. Housing and
family living conditions should be improved. The community deve-
lopment programme has not been able to achieve much. It has
failed to "evoke popular initiative. ” The view of Dr. D. R. Gadgil
who at present is the Vice-President of the Planning Commission,
is that the community development programme has not borne the
desired results because “characteristically, it originated with a
foreign expert and was sponsored and worked through top-level
bureaucrats. "
SOCIAL LEGISLATION
The necessity of social legislation was felt at the very beginning.
Prime Minister Nehru was in favour of passing the Hindu Code
Bill which was a comprehensive measure intended to reform various
aspects of Hindu Law. However, there was a lot of opposition
and consequently the Government decided to resort to piecemeal
legislation. In 1955 was passed the Hindu Marriage Act and in
1956 were passed the Hindu Succession Act, the Hindu Minority
and Guardianship Act and the Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance
Act. The new legislation has put women on an equal footing with
men in the matter of succession to and holding of property. The
## p. 983 (#1027) ###########################################
FOREIGN SETTLEMENTS IN INDIA
983
Hindu Marriage Act gives monogamy a legal basis and provides for
divorce with alimony and maintenance.
FOREIGN SETTLEMENTS
When Great Britain gave India independence in August, 1947,
there were many foreign settlements in the country but one by one
all of them have been liquidated. The French settlement of Chan-
darnagar was transferred to India on 2 May, 1950. The transfer
was ratified and became legal two years later and Chandarnagar
was included in West Bengal after a Bill was passed by the Indian
Parliament in 1954. In the same year, the other French settle-
ments of Pondicherry, Karikal, Mahe and Yanam were transferred
to India by the French. The transfer was formally completed on
18 August, 1962 when instruments of ratification were exchanged
between India and France.
In 1954, volunteers from India occupied the villages of Dadra
and Nagar Havelli which formed part of the Portuguese posses-
sions in India. Dadra and Nagar Havelli became a part of the
Indian Union on 11 August, 1961.
Attempts had been made from time to time to bring about the
inclusion of Goa into the Union of India but the Portuguese Gov-
ernment was not prepared
do so.
The Indian volunteers who
were captured by the Portuguese Government while entering Goa
were imprisoned for years and subjected to inhuman treatment.
In the middle of November 1961, a series of minor incidents flared
up at the borders of the Portuguese enclaves in India following
reports of Portuguese attacks on Indian merchant shipping and
fishermen. For some time, the Portuguese warships were patrol-
ling the Indian coast. The Government of India protested against
these "acts of unprovoked aggression and wanton killing" but the
Portuguese Government made counter charges against India. Mili-
tary preparations took place on both sides and a clash was imminent.
The memory of the Portuguese firing upon the unarmed Indian
Satyagrahis in 1955 was still fresh in the minds of the Indians. The
situation was worsened by irresponsible pronouncements from Radio
Goa. There were also the Portuguese atrocities in Angola in which
the Indians suffered very much. There was a unanimous demand
all over the country that the Portuguese rule must end in India.
It was under these circumstances that the Government of India
asked the Government of Portugal to leave Goa. The reply of
Salazaar was: “If the question of Goa is understood as a transfer
to the Indian Union of the sovereignty of Portuguese territories, it
is certain that the question will not be solved by peaceful means. ”
## p. 984 (#1028) ###########################################
984
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
It was under these circumstances that in the early hours of the
morning of 18 December, 1961, the 17th Division of the Indian
Army, with air and naval support, launched a three-pronged attack
on Goa. Within 26 hours, the Portuguese resistance collapsed. On
19 December, 1961, Daman and Diu also surrendered. Casualties
on both sides were very few. However, a lot of damage was done
to property by the Portuguese deliberately. The conduct of the
Indian army was an ideal one. No harm was done to the civilian
population of Goa and other Portuguese enclaves. Civil and mili-
tary prisoners taken by the Indian army were released uncondi-
tionally as India did not regard herself at war with Portugal.
The action of the Indian Government was welcomed enthusiasti-
cally all over the country. However, the Western Powers were very
bitter on this point. They pointed out that Prime Minister Nehru
had one moral standard for himself and another for others.
FOREIGN RELATIONS
A few days after taking over as Vice-President of the Executive
Council of the Viceroy of India, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru made
his first official announcement on 7 September, 1946 on the foreign
policy of India over the All-India Radio. In the course of his
address he observed: “We shall take full part in international con-
ferences as a free nation with our own policy and not merely as a
satellite of another nation. We hope to develop close and direct
contacts with other nations and to co-operate with them in the
furtherance of world peace and freedom. ” “We propose, as far as
possible, to keep away from the power politics of groups, aligned
against one another, which have led in the past to world war and
which may again lead to disasters on an even vaster scale. We
believe that peace and freedom are indivisible and the denial of
freedom anywhere must endanger freedom elsewhere and lead to
conflict and war. We are particularly interested in the emancipa-
tion of colonial and dependent countries and peoples, and in the
recognition in theory and practice of equal opportunities for all
races. We repudiate utterly the Nazi doctrine of racialism, where-
soever and in whatever form it may be practised. We seek no
domination over others and we claim no privileged position over
other peoples. But we do claim equal and honourable treatment
for our people wherever they may go and we cannot accept any
discrimination against them.
"The world, in spite of its rivalries and hatreds and inner con-
flicts, moves inevitably towards closer co-operation and building
up of a world commonwealth. It is for this One World that free
## p. 985 (#1029) ###########################################
INDIA'S FOREIGN POLICY
985
>
India will work, a world in which there is the free co-operation of
free peoples, and no class or group exploits one another. ”
Again, "We hope that an independent India will have friendly
and co-operative relations with England and the countries of the
British Commonwealth. . . . . . We send our greetings to the people
of the United States of America to whom destiny has given a major
role in international affairs. We trust that this tremendous respon-
sibility will be utilized for the furtherance of peace and human
freedom everywhere.
"To that other great nation of the modern world, the Soviet
Union, which also carried a vast responsibility for shaping world
events, we send greetings. They are our neighbours in Asia and
inevitably we shall have to undertake many common tasks and have
much to do with each other.
“We are of Asia and the peoples of Asia are nearer and closer
to us than others. India is so situated that she is the pivot of
Western, Southern and South-East Asia. In the past her culture
flowed to all these countries, and they came to her in many ways.
Those contacts are being renewed and the future is bound to see a
closer union between India and South-East Asia on the one side,
and Afghanistan, Iran, and the Arab world on the other. To the
furtherance of that close association of free countries we must devote
ourselves. India has followed with anxious interest the struggle of
the Indonesians for freedom and to them we send our good wishes.
China, that mighty country with a mighty past, our neighbour, has
been our friend through the ages and that friendship will endure and
grow. We earnestly hope that her present troubles will end soon
and a united and democratic China will emerge playing a great
part in the furtherance of world peace and progress.
Although this enunciation of India's foreign policy was made
before India became free, these very principles were followed by
Jawaharlal Nehru so long as he was India's Prime Minister and
Foreign Minister up to 1964. Even after his death, there has been
no significant departure from those principles under Lal Bahadur
Shastri and Mrs. Indira Gandhi.
There are certain salient features of the foreign policy of India.
It is based on the principle of non-alignment. When India became
free, the world was divided into two camps, the Anglo-American
bloc and the Soviet bloc. Soon after the Second World War was
over, there started rivalry between the Soviet Union on the one
hand and the United States on the other. This was given the
name of cold war. Jawaharlal Nehru was right in coming to the
conclusion that it was not desirable to join one bloc or the other.
India had just become free and she had too many problems to
## p. 986 (#1030) ###########################################
986
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
tackle. Hence, it was in India's interest to remain aloof. Prime
Minister Nehru defended his policy of non-alignment by referring
to the policy followed by the United States towards Europe after
her independence. To quote him, “About 150 years ago, the West-
ern World was breaking up on account of all kinds of imperial and
revolutionary wars. Having achieved independence by breaking
off from the British Empire, the United States was naturally
affected by these upheavals; nevertheless it avoided being involved
in the chaotic situation of Europe—although doubtless it had its
particular sympathies—because that was natural thing for a nation
in that state of affairs to do. Now this analogy, although it may
not be a particularly good one in the circumstances of to-day, has
a bearing and I wish to point out that for a country that has newly
attained freedom and independence, this is the natural policy to
pursue. "
Prime Minister Nehru was very emphatic about his policy of
non-alignment. While following that policy, he did not care if any
country got annoyed with India. The view of Nehru was that
India was not going to sell herself for any price to any country.
To quote Nehru, “In any event, speaking for India, whatever hap-
pens, I am not prepared merely to say ditto to any country in the
wide world. I think it is degrading for a country as it is for an
individual just to be an automation, just to be a puppet and to repeat
what others say. ” “I do not think that anything could be more
injurious to us from any point of view—certainly from an idealistic
and high moral point of view but equally so from the point of view
cf opportunism and national interest in the narrowest sense of the
word—than for us to give up those policies that we have pursued,
namely, of standing up for certain ideals in regard to oppressed
nations, and trying to align ourselves with this great Power or that
and becoming its camp follower in the hope that some crumbs
might fall from their tables. ” “I realise—I frankly admit--that
—
there are always certain risks involved, not risks on paper but risks
in the same sense that certain obligations might be felt which might
affect our policy without our knowing it. Those risks are there.
All I can say is that we should be wide awake to avoid our commit-
ting mistakes because of those risks. . . . . . If any country imagines
that we are going to change our policies and sell ourselves for a
mess of pottage from any other country, she, I submit, is complete-
ly mistaken. I am quite sure in my mind that if at any time help
from abroad depends upon the slightest variation of our policy, we
shall give up that help; the whole of it and prefer starvation and
everything to it. So it is in this way that we accept help and I
think the world knows it well enough. "
## p. 987 (#1031) ###########################################
INDIA'S FOREIGN POLICY
987
a
It is true that a policy of non-alignment was in the interest of
India so long as there was going on rivalry of a violent type between
the United States and the Soviet Union but there is no sense in
continuing the old policy of non-alignment in a changed world.
The relations between the Soviet Union and the United States have
improved. There exists bitter hostility between Communist China
and the Soviet Union. Peking says that both the Soviet Union and
the United States are at one in their hostility towards China. After
1962, Communist China has also become enemy number 1 of India.
Under the circumstances, it is ridiculous to assert that India should
not join either the Soviet bloc or the American bloc. As a matter
of fact, India has to get military help from both the blocs to pre-
pare herself for a war with Communist China on one hand and
Pakistan on the other. After the disastrous defeat at the hands of
China in 1962, Nehru himself would have said good-bye to non-
alignment and it makes no sense if the successors continue to harp
on the old tune. It is in the interest of India to align herself with
all those countries who can help her to fight against Red China
and get back the territories which were snatched away from her
forcibly in 1962.
Another feature of India's foreign policy has been her opposition v
to imperialism and colonialism. The reason is obvious. India
herself was a victim of imperialism and colonialism and no wonder
when she became free, she had her sympathies for all those who
were suffering from imperialism and colonialism. To quote Nehru,
“Asia till recently was largely a prey to imperial domination and
colonialism; a great part of it is free today, part of it still remains
unfree and it is an astonishing thing that any country should still
venture to hold and to set forth this doctrine of colonialism whether
it is under direct rule or whether it is indirectly maintained in some
form or another. After all that has happened, there is going to be
no mere objection to that, but active objection, an active struggle -
against any and every form of colonialism in any part of the world.
That is the first thing to remember. We in Asia who have our-
selves suffered all these evils of colonialism and of imperial domina-
tion, have committed ourselves inevitably to the freedom of every
other colonial country. There are neighbouring countries of ours
in Asia with whom we are intimately allied. We look to them with
sympathy; we look at their struggle with sympathy. Any power
great or small, which in that way prevents the attainment of the
freedom of these peoples does an ill turn to world peace. Great
countries like India who have passed out of that colonial stage do
not conceive it possible that other countries should remain under
the yoke of colonial rule. ”
## p. 988 (#1032) ###########################################
988
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
1 It was in pursuance of this policy that India took up the cause of
Indonesia against Holland. After the ending of the Second World
War, the Dutch Government tried to re-establish her stranglehold
over Indonesia. The Government of India did not approve of it.
A meeting of the Foreign Ministers was called in New Delhi and
an appeal was made to the Security Council. The result was that
✓ ultimately the independence of Indonesia was recognised. The
part played by India in the independence of Indonesia was recog-
nised by Dr. Ali Sastroamidjojo, the Prime Minister of Indonesia,
in these words: “The assistance which India has given so fully and
whole-heartedly to my people will be written in letters of shining
gold in the pages of history of free Indonesia. ”
Libya owes her independence almost entirely to Indian initiative.
2
India has throughout resisted the policy of the Union of South
Africa to incorporate the territories of South-West Africa into the
Union. The Government of India played an important part in
bringing to an end the war in Indo-China. India has also advocat-
ed the cause of the independence of Tunisia and Algeria. She has
condemned the Baghdad Pact (and its successor the Cento), the
Seato and the Anzus Pact. She believes that these military pacts
are a potential source of war.
India is opposed to racial discrimination. In the words of
Nehru: “We repudiate utterly the Nazi doctrine of racialism where-
soever and in whatever form it may be practised. We seek no
domination over others and we claim no privileged position over
other peoples. But we do claim equal and honourable treatment
of our people wherever they may go and we cannot accept any
discrimination against them. ” This explains the reason why India
has condemned in strongest possible terms the policy of apartheid
followed by the Union of South Africa. We have supported moral-
ly the fight of the coloured people in South Africa against White
supremacy. India has been instrumental in getting passed resolu-
tions by the United Nations against the policy of discrimination
followed by the Government of South Africa. In 1954, India
abolished the office of the Indian High Commissioner in the Union
of South Africa. It was under pressure from India and other Com-
monwealth countries that South Africa was forced to leave the
Commonwealth of Nations.
Nehru put special emphasis on Asia in his foreign policy. It was
on his initiative that the Asian Relations Conference was held in
Delhi in March, 1947. On that occasion, Nehru observed: "In
this crisis in the world history, Asia will necessarily play a vital role.
The countries of Asia can no longer be used as pawns by others;
they are bound to have their own politics in world affairs. Europe
## p. 989 (#1033) ###########################################
INDIA'S FOREIGN POLICY
989
upon us.
and America have contributed very greatly to human progress and
for that we must yield them praise and honour and learn from
them the many lessons they have to teach. But the West has also
driven us into wars and conflicts without number and even now,
the day after a terrible war, there is alk of further wars in the
atomic age that is
In this atomic age, Asia will have to
function effectively in the maintenance of peace. Indeed, there can
be no peace unless Asia plays her part. There is today conflict in
many countries and all of us in Asia are full of our own troubles.
Nonetheless, the whole spirit and outlook of Asia are peaceful, and
the emergence of Asia in the world affairs will be a powerful influ-
ence for world peace. '
Another Asian Conference was held in New Delhi in April, 1955.
It was attended by about 200 delegates from various countries of
Asia. However, the most important was the Bandung Conference
in April, 1955 where the representatives of both Asia and Africa
met to vindicate their united stand against aggression and colonial-
ism. The Government of India played the most important part in
making that Conference a success. On that occasion, Prime Min-
ister Nehru observed: “Apart from the problems of new countries
in Asia and Africa--and these problems are important—there is
the basic problem of Asia and Africa, if I may use the words, pull-
ing their weight regarding their own problems in world affairs. It
is important that the Asian-African Conference should help to put
Asia and Africa in proper perspective in the world because old
perspectives no longer apply. It is not our purpose to form blocs
and the like. We meet for mutual co-operation among ourselves
as well as with others. "
It is true that as a result of the foreign policy adopted by Nehru,
the name and prestige of India rose high not only in Asia but also
in the world. However, all that was a temporary phase. Nothing
was done to add to the military strength of India and a foreign
policy which is not backed by the might of a nation is never success-
ful. Neither Nehru nor the other leaders of India taught the people
of India a lesson of sacrifice for the country. No patriotism was
created in the country which could make people forget their selfish
interests and live only for their country. After 1947, the people of
India learnt to be lethargic. Instead of working hard and very
hard, they learnt to work less and less. When such is the atmos-
phere in the country, there is nothing to make a country strong and
great. If the population of the country rises and production falls,
there is no surplus with which bigger armies can be maintained and
equipped with the most uptodate arms. Hard work alone can
produce wealth and materials with which alone a nation can boast
## p. 990 (#1034) ###########################################
990
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
of its strength and as all this was lacking in the country and the
people were taking false pride in their hollow prestige, there was
a disaster in store for them and that came in 1962 when wave after
wave of Chinese troops attacked the Northern borders of India and
gave her a crushing defeat. India was made to realise that she should
stop thinking in terms of her leadership in Asia. China not only
defeated India but also snatched away her territory. In future,
India was to think more of her own security than of leadership of
Asia or the world.
GREAT BRITAIN
As regards the relations of India with other countries, she had
on the whole friendly relations with Great Britain in spite of the
fact that she was under the yoke of the British Government for
more than 100 years. After independence, trade between the two
countries has increased. According to her own capacity and
limited resources after 1945, Great Britain has given a lot of eco-
nomic help to India. When India was attacked by Communist
China in October, 1962 and there was every danger of Assam fal-
ling into the hands of the Chinese, Great Britain came to her
help. Her help was spontaneous and prompt. She sent not only
arms but also other things which were badly required for the Indian
army. During the Indo-Pakistan war in 1965, the attitude of
Prime Minister Wilson appeared to be partial but even then Great
Britain tried her best to stop hostilities between the Commonwealth
countries.
THE UNITED STATES
India's relations with the United States have sometimes been
cordial and sometimes strained. The people of India were very
grateful to President Roosevelt and many other Americans who
had carried on propaganda in the United States in favour of India's
independence. Even after her independence, the United States has
given a lot of economic aid to the people of India.
January, 1948 that Mahatma Gandhi gave up his fast when the
money was paid to Pakistan and the mosques were evacuated by
the Hindus in Delhi. Mahatmaji's action was not liked by some
fanatics among the Hindus and 12 days after (30 January), the
Mahatma was murdered while he was going to his prayer meeting.
The action of the Hindus and Sikhs in turning out the Muslims
from the Punjab and Delhi has been criticised but it must not be
forgotten that the circumstances were such that no human-being
could have acted differently. It is appropriate to quote in this
connection the following passage from V. P. Menon: “The uprooted
millions (from West Punjab) were in a terrible mental state. They
had been driven from their homes under conditions of indescribable
horrors and misery. Not many had the time to plan their evacua-
tion; most had to move out at the shortest possible notice. They
had been subjected to terrible indignities. They had witnessed
their near and dear ones hacked to pieces before their eyes and
their houses ransacked, looted and set on fire by their own neigh-
bours. They had no choice but to seek safety in flight, filled with
wrath at what they had seen, and full of anguish for numberless
missing kinsmen who were still stranded in Pakistan and for their
womenfolk who had been abducted. . . . . . The holocaust in West-
## p. 975 (#1019) ###########################################
LORD MOUNTBATTEN
975
ern Pakistan had its repercussions in East Punjab. The streams
of fleeing refugees with their tales of woe and suffering made a
profound impression on the people. In vain were appeals made
to them to remember that retaliation was no remedy. The spirit
of revenge was abroad, working up communal bitterness to a fren-
zied pitch, till all restraint was thrown to the winds. . . . . . To under-
stand the attitude of this ‘over-blamed people, one must appreciate
the fact that the Sikhs had been driven out of their homes, contrary
to all their hopes and expectations; that they had been deprived
of their lands and property, their shrines and holy places; that
their losses in men and property had been comparatively greater
than those of any other community affected by the communal up-
heaval; that nearly 40 per cent of the entire Sikh community had
been reduced to penury and had become refugees with the neces-
sity of having to start life afresh. ”
The problem of the rehabilitation of the refugees was a very
difficult one but the same was tackled sympathetically and efficient-
ly. Lands left by the Muslims in India were allotted to the refugees
from West Pakistan. They were granted loans to start their lives
afresh. A machinery was set up to evaluate the properties left by
the refugees in Pakistan and the Government gave the claim-holders
either cash or immovable property in India. Rehabilitation grants
were given to others. The existing cities were expanded and
Model Towns were attached to the old towns. Satellite towns such
as Faridabad were set up to rehabilitate the refugees. The refugees
also showed remarkable courage and facilitated the task of the
Government by self-help.
Lord Mountbatten did a lot of useful work in connection with
the Indian States even before the partition of India. He called
on 25 July, 1947 a conference to discuss the question of the acces-
sion of the Indian States to either India or Pakistan because after
the passing of the Indian Independence Act, British Paramountcy
was going to end and there were to be no treaties between the
Indian States and the Dominions of India and Pakistan. The Con-
ference was attended by more than a hundred princes and the
representatives of the States. Lord Mountbatten tried to impress
upon them the urgency of the matter and the necessity of the States
joining one Dominion or the other before 15 August, 1947. The
efforts of Lord Mountbatten and V. P. Menon were successful and
the result was that most of the states acceded to one Dominion or
the other before 15 August. V. P. Menon facilitated the task of
Lord Mountbatten by drafting an Instrument of Accession which
was acceptable to most of the States as it required them to hand
over to the Central Government only a few subjects. Stand-still
## p. 976 (#1020) ###########################################
976
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
Agreements were to be entered into with those states which were
not able to join one Dominion or the other. It can be said without
exaggeration that the personality of Lord Mountbatten helped to
save the situation which otherwise would have arisen on account
of the ambitions of certain rulers to become independent. Whether
by persuasion or by pressure, most of the Indian rulers were made
to join the Dominion of India. This was the greatest service done
by Lord Mountbatten to India which we must never forget. Even
before 15 August, Lord Mountbatten tried to persuade the Maha-
raja of Jammu & Kashmir to join one Dominion or the other but
his efforts failed. In the case of Hyderabad, Lord Mountbatten
made very serious efforts to persuade the Nizam to accede to India
on very favourable terms. Those efforts he continued up to June,
1948 when he actually left India. He was of the view that the
Nizam had lost a golden opportunity to come to terms with India
and he was doomed.
Lord Mountbatten was so popular in India that a public meet-
ing was held at Delhi to bid him farewell. The sitting of Lord
Mountbatten and Lady Mountbatten along with all the Indian
leaders created a scene which even the Gods could envy. There
was an atmosphere of warmth everywhere. When he actually left,
there was the general feeling that the man who was leaving the
country was their own man. One must not forget to mention
Lady Mountbatten who competed with her husband through her
goodness and nobility. She loved the people of this country and
they loved her in turn. She continued to visit India from time to
time even after June, 1948 and when the sad news of her death
came in 1960, there was genuine sorrow in many hearts in this
country.
RAJAGOPALACHARIAR (1948-50)
Lord Mountbatten was succeeded by Shri C. Rajagopalachariar
who was the Governor-General of India from June, 1948 to January,
1950. He was born in 1879 and started his legal practice after
passing from the Law College, Madras. He gave up a splendid
career at the Bar to fight for the freedom of this country when he
came under the influence of Mahatma Gandhi in 1919. When
Mahatmaji was in prison, Rajagopalachariar edited Young India
with great success. In 1921 and 1922, he became the General Secre-
tary of the Indian National Congress and later on a member of the
All-India Congress Committee. He had his differences with the Con-
gress more than once and in spite of that he was appointed the first
Governor-General of Free India. When the Congress Ministries
## p. 977 (#1021) ###########################################
PRESS LAWS ENQUIRY COMMITTEE
977
were formed in 1937, he was the Chief Minister of Madras. Prime
Minister Jawaharlal Nehru tried to get him elected as the Presi-
dent of India but he failed as the people wanted Dr. Rajendra
Prasad. In 1959, he founded the Swatantra Party in opposition
to the Congress. Although he is about 90, he takes active interest
in the politics of the country. He is a man of great strength of
character.
It was during his regime as the Governor-General of India that
police action was taken against the Nizam of Hyderabad. Kasim
Razvi and his followers were defeated and Hyderabad became a
part of the Indian Union. During this period, the Constituent
Assembly passed the new Constitution of India which came into
force on 26 January, 1950. The relations between India and
Pakistan were unsatisfactory and there was a lot of tension on
account of the problem of Kashmir and evacuee property.
In 1948 was created the Press Trust of India Limited. This
organisation took over the supply of news to and from India. This
was done on the basis of an agreement with the Reuters. The
agreement enabled the Indian press to get complete control over
its internal news supply. The Press Trust of India is a non-profit
making concern and its membership is open to all newspapers of
India. It has now become independent of the Reuters.
The Government of India set up a Press Laws Enquiry Com-
mittee under the Chairmanship of Shri Ganganath Jha. The Com-
mittee was required to examine all the existing press laws of India
and make its recommendations regarding the direction in which
those should be modified. The Central Legislature nominated
some members to the Committee. Three editors were also recom-
mended by the Indian Newspapers Editors' Conference. The Com-
mittee recommended that an explanation should be added to Sec-
tion 153-A of the Indian Penal Code to the effect that it did not
amount to an offence under that Section to advocate a change in
the social and economic order provided that advocacy did not in-
volve violence. The Committee recommended the repeal of the
Foreign Relations Act, 1932, the Indian States (Protection) Act,
1934 and the Indian Press (Emergency Powers) Act, 1931. How-
ever, it was suggested that certain provisions of the Indian Press
(Emergency Powers) Act, 1931 which did not find a place in the
ordinary law of the country, should be incorporated into that law
at suitable places. Section 124-A of the Indian Penal Code should
be amended in such a way as to apply only to those acts which
either incite disorder or are intended or tend to incite disorder.
Section 144 of the Code of Criminal Procedure should not apply to
the press and separate provision should be made for dealing with
## p. 978 (#1022) ###########################################
978
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
the press in urgent cases of apprehended danger. Necessary provi-
sion should be made in the law to empower courts to order the clos-
ing down of a press for a special period in case of repeated viola-
tion of law.
In 1948, the Government of India appointed a University Com-
mission under the Chairmanship of Sir S. Radhakrishnan. The
terms of reference of the Commission were to consider and make
recommendations on the aims and objects of University education
and research in India, the changes considered necessary and desir-
able in the constitution, control, functions and jurisdiction of uni-
versities in India and their relations with the Government of India
and the Provincial Governments, the finances of the universities,
the courses of study in the universities and their duration, the stand-
ards of admission to university courses of study with special refer-
ence to the desirability of an independent university entrance exa-
mination and the avoidance of unfair demonstrations which militate
against the fundamental rights, the medium of instruction in the
universities, the provision for advanced study in Indian culture,
history, literature, languages, philosophy and finance, the mainten-
ance of the highest standards of teaching and examinations in the
universities and the colleges under their control, the organisation
of advanced research in all branches of knowledge in the universi-
ties and institutions of higher research in a well-coordinated fashion
avoiding waste of efforts and resources, religious instruction in the
universities, the qualifications, conditions of service, salaries, privi-
leges and functions of teachers and the encouragement of original
research by teachers, the discipline of students, hostels and the
organisation of tutorial work and any other matter which was
germane and essential to a complete and comprehensive enquiry
into all aspects of university education and advanced research in
India.
After touring the whole of the country, interviewing people and
receiving and considering memoranda from various quarters, the
Commission made its recommendations in 1949. It recommended
the establishment of rural universities with Shantiniketan and
Jamia Millia as their model. It criticised the allocation of small
funds for education. It stressed the necessity of increasing consi-
derably the grant of scholarships and stipends so that the poor
students may not suffer. No college was to be allowed to admit
more than 1,000 students. Where the mother tongue was the same
as the federal language, the federal language was to be the medium
of instruction. If the mother tongue and the federal language
were identical, the students were required to take up any other
Indian, classical or modern language. There was to be no hasty
## p. 979 (#1023) ###########################################
DR. RAJENDRA PRASAD
979
replacement of English as a medium of instruction for high acade-
mic standards. Co-education could be adopted in the secondary
stage and in the college stage. A lot of emphasis was laid on im-
proving the standards of the teaching profession. There were to
be four classes of teachers, viz. , Professors, readers, lecturers and
instructors. The promotion from one category to another was
to be solely on the basis of merit.
DR. RAJENDRA PRASAD (1950-62)
The Constitution of Free India came into force on 26 January,
1950. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected the first President of
India. In 1957, he was re-elected President and he occupied that
office with rare distinction. He was a brilliant scholar. His nobi-
lity, devotion to duty and sincerity were unequalled. He was suc-
ceeded by Dr. S. Radhakrishnan as President in 1962. He was a
remarkable personality in many ways. He was a great Sanskrit
Scholar and he was very near Prime Minister Nehru. Before be-
coming President, he had been the Indian Ambassador in the Soviet
Union and the Vice-President of India. When he retired in 1967,
Dr. Zakir Husain was elected the President. He had hardly com-
pleted two years when he died in May, 1969. Pandit Jawaharlal
Nehru was the Prime Minister of India from 1947 to 1964. He
was succeeded by Lal Bahadur Shastri as Prime Minister and the lat.
ter continued to occupy that position up to January, 1966. After his
death at Tashkent, Mrs. Indira Gandhi became the Prime Minister
of India and she is holding that position up to now.
Indian Leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Patel and Dr.
Rajendra Prasad deserve credit for the manner in which they dealt
with the situation which faced them when India became free.
Before leaving India, British bureaucracy had deliberately made the
administrative machinery unworkable and it was a big problem to
make it work smoothly for the good of the country. Sardar Patel
who was in charge of Home portfolio, played an important part in
this connection. The creation of the Indian Administrative Service
facilitated the task. The old officials also adjusted themselves to
the new environments.
The problem of law and order was a formidable one. As a mat-
ter of fact, it completely broke down at one stage. Disturbances
were of such a serious nature and on such a large scale that law
and order completely broke down and for some time help had to be
taken from the army to restore normal conditions. The difficul-
ties of the Government to maintain law and order in the country
can be appreciated only if we keep in mind the fact that there were
## p. 980 (#1024) ###########################################
980
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
lakhs of refugees in the country who had come to India from Pakis-
tan after losing not only the lives of their kiths and kins but also
after losing all they had in the form of property and were demand-
ing revenge against all those who were responsible for their fate.
Although the problems of the refugees was a very big one, the
same was satisfactorily solved within a few years. The rich got
properties in lieu of the properties left by them in Pakistan and the
poor got help from the Government in many ways to rehabilitate
themselves. A minister of Cabinet rank was put in charge of the
Ministry of Rehabilitation and he was assisted by the Custodian
General of India, Deputy Custodian General of India, Custodians
of Evacuee Property, Claims Officers and a host of other officials
such as Chief Settlement Commissioner, etc.
FIVE YEAR PLANS
Under the dynamic personality of Prime Minister Jawaharlal
Nehru, the Planning Commission was set up in 1950. The First
Five Year Plan was launched in 1951 and it placed special empha-
sis on agricultural production in order to free India irom depen-
dence on overseas supplies. The First Five Year Plan was a great
Production increased by 25% during the five years period.
It was during this period that the great power and irrigation pro-
jects of the Damodar Valley scheme and the Hirakud Dam were
undertaken. Along with these, three new steel plants were started,
sponsored respectively by Great Britain, the United States and the
Soviet Union. The Durgapur Steel Plant was put up with the
assistance of a consortium of British firms. The Bhilai Steel Plant
in Madhya Pradesh was set up with the technical and financial co-
operation of the Soviet Government. The Plant was to produce
Steel ingots and finished products like rails, railway sleepers bars
etc. The Rourkela Plant was set up in collaboration with the
German firms in 1955 and completed in 1961. The Sindri Fertil-
izers and Chemicals in Bihar was started in 1947, with help from
the United States and Great Britain and completed in 1950 That
factory was the biggest of its kind in the East, producing over
300,000 tons of ammonium sulphate annually. The Chittaranjan
Locomotive Factory had already been set up and it made India
self-sufficient in the matter of steam locomotives. The Bhakra-
Nangal Project utilized the waters of the Sutlej in the Punjab for
irrigation facilities and generating power. The American Govern-
ment gave a lot of help in this matter.
success.
The Second Five Year Plan was launched in 1956. In this the
emphasis was on large scale industrialisation. The aim was to in-
## p. 981 (#1025) ###########################################
FIVE YEAR PLANS
981
crease the national income by 25%. The expenditure on the
Second Five Year Plan was double of that of the first Five Year
Plan. Some four thousand millions of pounds were spent in the
public Sector and about two thousand million pounds in the Private
Sector. As all this money was not available in the country, money
had to be borrowed from foreign countries, particularly from the
United States. The Plan was completed with some trimmings and
shortfalls. The Third Five Year Plan was launched in 1962. It
called for an outlay of about eight thousand million pounds out of
which nearly five thousand millions were spent in the Public Sector.
A lot of money for this plan had to be borrowed from foreign coun-
tries. The Government also resorted to deficit financing to find
money for the completion of the Plan. A lot of time has been spent
in the preparation of the Fourth Five Year Plan. There are some
who demand that the next Five Year Plan must be in accordance
with the resources available in the country itself and we must not
depend upon foreign help for the implementation for the next Five
Year Plan. The other view is that we must do what we have been
doing in the past regardless of the resources available in the coun-
try itself. It is contended that all developing countries have to
follow such a policy.
In this connection, it must be mentioned that India has not got
the maximum for the money invested in agriculture and industry.
While India owes more than Rs. Five thousand crores to foreign
countries, the progress made is not adequate. A good bit of money
has been wasted in the Public Sector on account of corruption and
inefficiency. Instead of earning dividends, the Public Sector Under-
takings are showing losses to the tune of crores of rupees every year.
Production in various fields has not kept pace with the growth of
population in the country. Prices have been continuously rising
and with the exception of the rich, the condition of the man in the
street is becoming intolerable. Freedom has not brought what the
common man hoped and prayed for. Hartals and agitations have
become the order of the day.
AGRARIAN LEGISLATION
Under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, an attempt was made
to improve the lot of the peasants. In most of the States, legisla-
tion was passed which abolished Zamindari and gave land to the
tiller. The result was that millions of persons who had been mere-
ly tenants, became the owners of the lands cultivated by them. This
certainly improved their lot. A ceiling was also fixed by the Gov-
ernment beyond which no landlord was allowed to possess land
## p. 982 (#1026) ###########################################
982
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
and the surplus land was distributed among those who were land-
less. There was a lot of opposition to these reforms and even the
Constitution had to be amended to carry out these reforms.
The State Trading Corporation of India was set up in 1955 pri-
marily to handle trade with the iron curtain countries. This com-
pany was given monopoly of trade in cement. The cost of import-
ed cement was higher than that of the cement produced in India
and hence a few years later, the import of cement was discontinued
and the State Trading Corporation continued to hold the internal
trade.
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
The Government of India has spent a lot of money on the com-
munity development programme. This programme was launched
on 2 October, 1952.
The aim of the programme is that each vil-
lage should have a plan of all-round development. There should
be an increase in the agricultural production. Village crafts should
be recognised. Not only health education should be given to the
people but they should be provided with minimum health services.
Provisions should be made for educational facilities for children and
adults. Recreational facilities should be provided. Housing and
family living conditions should be improved. The community deve-
lopment programme has not been able to achieve much. It has
failed to "evoke popular initiative. ” The view of Dr. D. R. Gadgil
who at present is the Vice-President of the Planning Commission,
is that the community development programme has not borne the
desired results because “characteristically, it originated with a
foreign expert and was sponsored and worked through top-level
bureaucrats. "
SOCIAL LEGISLATION
The necessity of social legislation was felt at the very beginning.
Prime Minister Nehru was in favour of passing the Hindu Code
Bill which was a comprehensive measure intended to reform various
aspects of Hindu Law. However, there was a lot of opposition
and consequently the Government decided to resort to piecemeal
legislation. In 1955 was passed the Hindu Marriage Act and in
1956 were passed the Hindu Succession Act, the Hindu Minority
and Guardianship Act and the Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance
Act. The new legislation has put women on an equal footing with
men in the matter of succession to and holding of property. The
## p. 983 (#1027) ###########################################
FOREIGN SETTLEMENTS IN INDIA
983
Hindu Marriage Act gives monogamy a legal basis and provides for
divorce with alimony and maintenance.
FOREIGN SETTLEMENTS
When Great Britain gave India independence in August, 1947,
there were many foreign settlements in the country but one by one
all of them have been liquidated. The French settlement of Chan-
darnagar was transferred to India on 2 May, 1950. The transfer
was ratified and became legal two years later and Chandarnagar
was included in West Bengal after a Bill was passed by the Indian
Parliament in 1954. In the same year, the other French settle-
ments of Pondicherry, Karikal, Mahe and Yanam were transferred
to India by the French. The transfer was formally completed on
18 August, 1962 when instruments of ratification were exchanged
between India and France.
In 1954, volunteers from India occupied the villages of Dadra
and Nagar Havelli which formed part of the Portuguese posses-
sions in India. Dadra and Nagar Havelli became a part of the
Indian Union on 11 August, 1961.
Attempts had been made from time to time to bring about the
inclusion of Goa into the Union of India but the Portuguese Gov-
ernment was not prepared
do so.
The Indian volunteers who
were captured by the Portuguese Government while entering Goa
were imprisoned for years and subjected to inhuman treatment.
In the middle of November 1961, a series of minor incidents flared
up at the borders of the Portuguese enclaves in India following
reports of Portuguese attacks on Indian merchant shipping and
fishermen. For some time, the Portuguese warships were patrol-
ling the Indian coast. The Government of India protested against
these "acts of unprovoked aggression and wanton killing" but the
Portuguese Government made counter charges against India. Mili-
tary preparations took place on both sides and a clash was imminent.
The memory of the Portuguese firing upon the unarmed Indian
Satyagrahis in 1955 was still fresh in the minds of the Indians. The
situation was worsened by irresponsible pronouncements from Radio
Goa. There were also the Portuguese atrocities in Angola in which
the Indians suffered very much. There was a unanimous demand
all over the country that the Portuguese rule must end in India.
It was under these circumstances that the Government of India
asked the Government of Portugal to leave Goa. The reply of
Salazaar was: “If the question of Goa is understood as a transfer
to the Indian Union of the sovereignty of Portuguese territories, it
is certain that the question will not be solved by peaceful means. ”
## p. 984 (#1028) ###########################################
984
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
It was under these circumstances that in the early hours of the
morning of 18 December, 1961, the 17th Division of the Indian
Army, with air and naval support, launched a three-pronged attack
on Goa. Within 26 hours, the Portuguese resistance collapsed. On
19 December, 1961, Daman and Diu also surrendered. Casualties
on both sides were very few. However, a lot of damage was done
to property by the Portuguese deliberately. The conduct of the
Indian army was an ideal one. No harm was done to the civilian
population of Goa and other Portuguese enclaves. Civil and mili-
tary prisoners taken by the Indian army were released uncondi-
tionally as India did not regard herself at war with Portugal.
The action of the Indian Government was welcomed enthusiasti-
cally all over the country. However, the Western Powers were very
bitter on this point. They pointed out that Prime Minister Nehru
had one moral standard for himself and another for others.
FOREIGN RELATIONS
A few days after taking over as Vice-President of the Executive
Council of the Viceroy of India, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru made
his first official announcement on 7 September, 1946 on the foreign
policy of India over the All-India Radio. In the course of his
address he observed: “We shall take full part in international con-
ferences as a free nation with our own policy and not merely as a
satellite of another nation. We hope to develop close and direct
contacts with other nations and to co-operate with them in the
furtherance of world peace and freedom. ” “We propose, as far as
possible, to keep away from the power politics of groups, aligned
against one another, which have led in the past to world war and
which may again lead to disasters on an even vaster scale. We
believe that peace and freedom are indivisible and the denial of
freedom anywhere must endanger freedom elsewhere and lead to
conflict and war. We are particularly interested in the emancipa-
tion of colonial and dependent countries and peoples, and in the
recognition in theory and practice of equal opportunities for all
races. We repudiate utterly the Nazi doctrine of racialism, where-
soever and in whatever form it may be practised. We seek no
domination over others and we claim no privileged position over
other peoples. But we do claim equal and honourable treatment
for our people wherever they may go and we cannot accept any
discrimination against them.
"The world, in spite of its rivalries and hatreds and inner con-
flicts, moves inevitably towards closer co-operation and building
up of a world commonwealth. It is for this One World that free
## p. 985 (#1029) ###########################################
INDIA'S FOREIGN POLICY
985
>
India will work, a world in which there is the free co-operation of
free peoples, and no class or group exploits one another. ”
Again, "We hope that an independent India will have friendly
and co-operative relations with England and the countries of the
British Commonwealth. . . . . . We send our greetings to the people
of the United States of America to whom destiny has given a major
role in international affairs. We trust that this tremendous respon-
sibility will be utilized for the furtherance of peace and human
freedom everywhere.
"To that other great nation of the modern world, the Soviet
Union, which also carried a vast responsibility for shaping world
events, we send greetings. They are our neighbours in Asia and
inevitably we shall have to undertake many common tasks and have
much to do with each other.
“We are of Asia and the peoples of Asia are nearer and closer
to us than others. India is so situated that she is the pivot of
Western, Southern and South-East Asia. In the past her culture
flowed to all these countries, and they came to her in many ways.
Those contacts are being renewed and the future is bound to see a
closer union between India and South-East Asia on the one side,
and Afghanistan, Iran, and the Arab world on the other. To the
furtherance of that close association of free countries we must devote
ourselves. India has followed with anxious interest the struggle of
the Indonesians for freedom and to them we send our good wishes.
China, that mighty country with a mighty past, our neighbour, has
been our friend through the ages and that friendship will endure and
grow. We earnestly hope that her present troubles will end soon
and a united and democratic China will emerge playing a great
part in the furtherance of world peace and progress.
Although this enunciation of India's foreign policy was made
before India became free, these very principles were followed by
Jawaharlal Nehru so long as he was India's Prime Minister and
Foreign Minister up to 1964. Even after his death, there has been
no significant departure from those principles under Lal Bahadur
Shastri and Mrs. Indira Gandhi.
There are certain salient features of the foreign policy of India.
It is based on the principle of non-alignment. When India became
free, the world was divided into two camps, the Anglo-American
bloc and the Soviet bloc. Soon after the Second World War was
over, there started rivalry between the Soviet Union on the one
hand and the United States on the other. This was given the
name of cold war. Jawaharlal Nehru was right in coming to the
conclusion that it was not desirable to join one bloc or the other.
India had just become free and she had too many problems to
## p. 986 (#1030) ###########################################
986
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
tackle. Hence, it was in India's interest to remain aloof. Prime
Minister Nehru defended his policy of non-alignment by referring
to the policy followed by the United States towards Europe after
her independence. To quote him, “About 150 years ago, the West-
ern World was breaking up on account of all kinds of imperial and
revolutionary wars. Having achieved independence by breaking
off from the British Empire, the United States was naturally
affected by these upheavals; nevertheless it avoided being involved
in the chaotic situation of Europe—although doubtless it had its
particular sympathies—because that was natural thing for a nation
in that state of affairs to do. Now this analogy, although it may
not be a particularly good one in the circumstances of to-day, has
a bearing and I wish to point out that for a country that has newly
attained freedom and independence, this is the natural policy to
pursue. "
Prime Minister Nehru was very emphatic about his policy of
non-alignment. While following that policy, he did not care if any
country got annoyed with India. The view of Nehru was that
India was not going to sell herself for any price to any country.
To quote Nehru, “In any event, speaking for India, whatever hap-
pens, I am not prepared merely to say ditto to any country in the
wide world. I think it is degrading for a country as it is for an
individual just to be an automation, just to be a puppet and to repeat
what others say. ” “I do not think that anything could be more
injurious to us from any point of view—certainly from an idealistic
and high moral point of view but equally so from the point of view
cf opportunism and national interest in the narrowest sense of the
word—than for us to give up those policies that we have pursued,
namely, of standing up for certain ideals in regard to oppressed
nations, and trying to align ourselves with this great Power or that
and becoming its camp follower in the hope that some crumbs
might fall from their tables. ” “I realise—I frankly admit--that
—
there are always certain risks involved, not risks on paper but risks
in the same sense that certain obligations might be felt which might
affect our policy without our knowing it. Those risks are there.
All I can say is that we should be wide awake to avoid our commit-
ting mistakes because of those risks. . . . . . If any country imagines
that we are going to change our policies and sell ourselves for a
mess of pottage from any other country, she, I submit, is complete-
ly mistaken. I am quite sure in my mind that if at any time help
from abroad depends upon the slightest variation of our policy, we
shall give up that help; the whole of it and prefer starvation and
everything to it. So it is in this way that we accept help and I
think the world knows it well enough. "
## p. 987 (#1031) ###########################################
INDIA'S FOREIGN POLICY
987
a
It is true that a policy of non-alignment was in the interest of
India so long as there was going on rivalry of a violent type between
the United States and the Soviet Union but there is no sense in
continuing the old policy of non-alignment in a changed world.
The relations between the Soviet Union and the United States have
improved. There exists bitter hostility between Communist China
and the Soviet Union. Peking says that both the Soviet Union and
the United States are at one in their hostility towards China. After
1962, Communist China has also become enemy number 1 of India.
Under the circumstances, it is ridiculous to assert that India should
not join either the Soviet bloc or the American bloc. As a matter
of fact, India has to get military help from both the blocs to pre-
pare herself for a war with Communist China on one hand and
Pakistan on the other. After the disastrous defeat at the hands of
China in 1962, Nehru himself would have said good-bye to non-
alignment and it makes no sense if the successors continue to harp
on the old tune. It is in the interest of India to align herself with
all those countries who can help her to fight against Red China
and get back the territories which were snatched away from her
forcibly in 1962.
Another feature of India's foreign policy has been her opposition v
to imperialism and colonialism. The reason is obvious. India
herself was a victim of imperialism and colonialism and no wonder
when she became free, she had her sympathies for all those who
were suffering from imperialism and colonialism. To quote Nehru,
“Asia till recently was largely a prey to imperial domination and
colonialism; a great part of it is free today, part of it still remains
unfree and it is an astonishing thing that any country should still
venture to hold and to set forth this doctrine of colonialism whether
it is under direct rule or whether it is indirectly maintained in some
form or another. After all that has happened, there is going to be
no mere objection to that, but active objection, an active struggle -
against any and every form of colonialism in any part of the world.
That is the first thing to remember. We in Asia who have our-
selves suffered all these evils of colonialism and of imperial domina-
tion, have committed ourselves inevitably to the freedom of every
other colonial country. There are neighbouring countries of ours
in Asia with whom we are intimately allied. We look to them with
sympathy; we look at their struggle with sympathy. Any power
great or small, which in that way prevents the attainment of the
freedom of these peoples does an ill turn to world peace. Great
countries like India who have passed out of that colonial stage do
not conceive it possible that other countries should remain under
the yoke of colonial rule. ”
## p. 988 (#1032) ###########################################
988
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
1 It was in pursuance of this policy that India took up the cause of
Indonesia against Holland. After the ending of the Second World
War, the Dutch Government tried to re-establish her stranglehold
over Indonesia. The Government of India did not approve of it.
A meeting of the Foreign Ministers was called in New Delhi and
an appeal was made to the Security Council. The result was that
✓ ultimately the independence of Indonesia was recognised. The
part played by India in the independence of Indonesia was recog-
nised by Dr. Ali Sastroamidjojo, the Prime Minister of Indonesia,
in these words: “The assistance which India has given so fully and
whole-heartedly to my people will be written in letters of shining
gold in the pages of history of free Indonesia. ”
Libya owes her independence almost entirely to Indian initiative.
2
India has throughout resisted the policy of the Union of South
Africa to incorporate the territories of South-West Africa into the
Union. The Government of India played an important part in
bringing to an end the war in Indo-China. India has also advocat-
ed the cause of the independence of Tunisia and Algeria. She has
condemned the Baghdad Pact (and its successor the Cento), the
Seato and the Anzus Pact. She believes that these military pacts
are a potential source of war.
India is opposed to racial discrimination. In the words of
Nehru: “We repudiate utterly the Nazi doctrine of racialism where-
soever and in whatever form it may be practised. We seek no
domination over others and we claim no privileged position over
other peoples. But we do claim equal and honourable treatment
of our people wherever they may go and we cannot accept any
discrimination against them. ” This explains the reason why India
has condemned in strongest possible terms the policy of apartheid
followed by the Union of South Africa. We have supported moral-
ly the fight of the coloured people in South Africa against White
supremacy. India has been instrumental in getting passed resolu-
tions by the United Nations against the policy of discrimination
followed by the Government of South Africa. In 1954, India
abolished the office of the Indian High Commissioner in the Union
of South Africa. It was under pressure from India and other Com-
monwealth countries that South Africa was forced to leave the
Commonwealth of Nations.
Nehru put special emphasis on Asia in his foreign policy. It was
on his initiative that the Asian Relations Conference was held in
Delhi in March, 1947. On that occasion, Nehru observed: "In
this crisis in the world history, Asia will necessarily play a vital role.
The countries of Asia can no longer be used as pawns by others;
they are bound to have their own politics in world affairs. Europe
## p. 989 (#1033) ###########################################
INDIA'S FOREIGN POLICY
989
upon us.
and America have contributed very greatly to human progress and
for that we must yield them praise and honour and learn from
them the many lessons they have to teach. But the West has also
driven us into wars and conflicts without number and even now,
the day after a terrible war, there is alk of further wars in the
atomic age that is
In this atomic age, Asia will have to
function effectively in the maintenance of peace. Indeed, there can
be no peace unless Asia plays her part. There is today conflict in
many countries and all of us in Asia are full of our own troubles.
Nonetheless, the whole spirit and outlook of Asia are peaceful, and
the emergence of Asia in the world affairs will be a powerful influ-
ence for world peace. '
Another Asian Conference was held in New Delhi in April, 1955.
It was attended by about 200 delegates from various countries of
Asia. However, the most important was the Bandung Conference
in April, 1955 where the representatives of both Asia and Africa
met to vindicate their united stand against aggression and colonial-
ism. The Government of India played the most important part in
making that Conference a success. On that occasion, Prime Min-
ister Nehru observed: “Apart from the problems of new countries
in Asia and Africa--and these problems are important—there is
the basic problem of Asia and Africa, if I may use the words, pull-
ing their weight regarding their own problems in world affairs. It
is important that the Asian-African Conference should help to put
Asia and Africa in proper perspective in the world because old
perspectives no longer apply. It is not our purpose to form blocs
and the like. We meet for mutual co-operation among ourselves
as well as with others. "
It is true that as a result of the foreign policy adopted by Nehru,
the name and prestige of India rose high not only in Asia but also
in the world. However, all that was a temporary phase. Nothing
was done to add to the military strength of India and a foreign
policy which is not backed by the might of a nation is never success-
ful. Neither Nehru nor the other leaders of India taught the people
of India a lesson of sacrifice for the country. No patriotism was
created in the country which could make people forget their selfish
interests and live only for their country. After 1947, the people of
India learnt to be lethargic. Instead of working hard and very
hard, they learnt to work less and less. When such is the atmos-
phere in the country, there is nothing to make a country strong and
great. If the population of the country rises and production falls,
there is no surplus with which bigger armies can be maintained and
equipped with the most uptodate arms. Hard work alone can
produce wealth and materials with which alone a nation can boast
## p. 990 (#1034) ###########################################
990
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS SINCE 1919
of its strength and as all this was lacking in the country and the
people were taking false pride in their hollow prestige, there was
a disaster in store for them and that came in 1962 when wave after
wave of Chinese troops attacked the Northern borders of India and
gave her a crushing defeat. India was made to realise that she should
stop thinking in terms of her leadership in Asia. China not only
defeated India but also snatched away her territory. In future,
India was to think more of her own security than of leadership of
Asia or the world.
GREAT BRITAIN
As regards the relations of India with other countries, she had
on the whole friendly relations with Great Britain in spite of the
fact that she was under the yoke of the British Government for
more than 100 years. After independence, trade between the two
countries has increased. According to her own capacity and
limited resources after 1945, Great Britain has given a lot of eco-
nomic help to India. When India was attacked by Communist
China in October, 1962 and there was every danger of Assam fal-
ling into the hands of the Chinese, Great Britain came to her
help. Her help was spontaneous and prompt. She sent not only
arms but also other things which were badly required for the Indian
army. During the Indo-Pakistan war in 1965, the attitude of
Prime Minister Wilson appeared to be partial but even then Great
Britain tried her best to stop hostilities between the Commonwealth
countries.
THE UNITED STATES
India's relations with the United States have sometimes been
cordial and sometimes strained. The people of India were very
grateful to President Roosevelt and many other Americans who
had carried on propaganda in the United States in favour of India's
independence. Even after her independence, the United States has
given a lot of economic aid to the people of India.
