Besides, Bacon
led two lives, and in his views on worldly matters we have only
half the man: the side of him engaged in a struggle for advance-
ment.
led two lives, and in his views on worldly matters we have only
half the man: the side of him engaged in a struggle for advance-
ment.
Cambridge History of English Literature - 1908 - v04
Thus, we learn that a tinker'g* .
conversation is un-
reprovable for hee is ever mending'; and that a French cook,
with his attractive dishes made out of slender materials, 'is the
1 The King's Majesties Declaration to his subjects concerning Lawful Sports to be
used, 1618; rptd Social England Illustrated, intro. by A. Lang, 1903.
? Vide 'A Courtier,' 'An Ignorant Glory-hunter,' 'A Timist,' 'An Intruder into
favour. '
3 Vide 'A country gentleman,' 'An elder brother,' 'A meere common lawyer,'
"A meere scholar,' 'A meere fellow of an house. '
• By J. Cocke, added to the 6th impression.
6
6
22-2
## p. 340 (#362) ############################################
340 London and Popular Literature
last relic of popery, that makes men fast against their conscience. "
A humorous connection is also traced between a man's occupation
and his habit of thought. 'An Ingrosser of corn' hates tobacco
(a supposed substitute for food), and a sexton cannot endure to be
told that 'we ought to live by the quick not the dead. ' Thus, we
see that the humour of earlier and simpler generations still survived
in conversational literature. These periphrases, double meanings
and obliquities of expression sometimes resemble the scholarly
puns of the Italian Latinists; but we must also remember that, in a
more ingenuous form, they were the essence of the Tudor books of
riddles? Overbury's chapters on 'A very Woman' and 'Her next
part’ read like a continuation of the medieval controversy on women
which the author of The Schole-howse of Women had revived? .
The character of 'An ordinary Widdow' is one of the most studied
in the book, yet the witticisms are but brilliant variations on a
standing joke which appears in A C. Mery Talys, The Boke of
Mayd Emlyn, and The Wife of Bath's Prologue.
Besides involved and artificial pleasantry, the Overbury collec-
tion is already touched with an air of supercilious mockery which,
later, was to become the characteristic of court life. A different
line of development is traceable in another miscellany published
by a young lawyer, John Stephens, in 1615, together with prose
and verse essays entitled Satyrical essayes, characters and others,
and followed, in the same year, by a second series? . In these
two collections, after conventional sets of commendatory por-
traits, and a number of legal characters adorned with the usual
style of conceit, we find a few sketches inspired by a wider and
more independent curiosity in life. To begin with, some of the
definitions show a less affected interest in men and women. For
instance, Overbury had enlarged on 'An Apparatour' as 'A chicke
of the egge abuse, hatcht by the warmth of authority. ' Stephens
explains an informer as 'A protected cheater or a knave in
authority'; and there is insight as well as wit in his characterisation
of a churl as “the superfluity of solemne behaviour. But the
chief importance of Stephens's work lies in the fact that, now and
then, he discovers the individual beneath the type. His picture of
'A Ranke Observer' is not a typical detractor, but a man who
mockingly cultivates the faults he notes in his friends till they
become second nature in himself. 'A Gossip' and 'An Old Woman'
are not invectives, but sketches, full of personal observation as
1 Ante, vol. III, chap. v, p. 95.
3 Ibid. pp. 89-91; bibl. 485—487.
Vide bibl.
## p. 341 (#363) ############################################
>
Stephens and Earle
341
vivacious as Rowlands's Tis Merrie when Gossips meete. His
character of a page takes us behind the scenes, and shows to what
depravity lads were exposed at court. In 'two sketches, he
borders on the short story. One depicts 'A Begging Schollar,'
who, while at college, was nicknamed the 'Sharke,' and, being
expelled, wanders about the country consorting with vagrants,
preaching if an opportunity occurs. When admitted to a few nights'
hospitality, he steals the silver spoons. The other character is
'A Sicke Machiavell Pollititian,' that is to say, the insincere man
who, after posing all his life, is now face to face with the reality
of death.
But it was not in London that the character sketch reached its
fullest development. A number of manuscript portraits had been
in circulation for some years at Oxford, when Edward Blount printed
them in 1628 under the title Microcosmographie. It was after-
wards known that the collection was chiefly the work of John
Earle. These productions are composed with a more chastened
humour and in a more scholarly style than those of Hall, Overbury
or Stephens. Conceits, of course, are not wanting, and many of
the characters consist of jests and paradoxes invented out of
such familiar figures as a trumpeter, a sergeant, a carrier, or a
cook. Others, again, describe institutions, such as Wye Saltonstall
was afterwards to portray? And others have a satirical or con-
troversial purpose, coloured by the university point of view ? .
But Microcosmographie contains something beyond wit, style and
ephemeral satire. The other Theophrastians were exposing the
absurdities which rival classes always discover in each other, or,
at best, were analysing some type which creates interest because
conspicuous. But Earle, under the guise of character sketches,
enquires into the moral significance of the day's unrecorded words
and actions. He was one of the first writers who showed how
essential a part of the ordinary man's life is made up of trivial
and familiar things, and, consequently, how carefully these trifles
should be studied. Hence, he explains characters which seem so
colourless that they generally pass unnoticed. We have searching
1 Picturae loquentes or ictures drawn forth in characters (1630) (2nd ed. enlarged,
1635), contains, among other sketches, The World,' 'A Country Fair,' 'A country
ale-house,' 'A horse-race,' 'A Gentleman's house in the country. ' Earle has 'A
taverne,''A bowle alley,'. Paul's Walke,' . A prison. '
2 Earle's ‘A Downe-right Schollar' and 'A good old man'are answers to Overbury's
A meere Scholar' and · An olde man. ' Earle treats questions of university interest
in ‘A raw young preacher,' and his essay on 'A Scepticke in Religion' deals with the
difficulties of a student who hesitates between conflicting creeds.
6
&
## p. 342 (#364) ############################################
342 London and Popular Literature
a
>
analyses of such common-places as a child, a weak man, a mere
formal man, a plain country fellow, a modest man, a poor man and
a coward. Earle shows how a lack of vigilance in the veriest routine
of life ends in self-deception, error or discontent, and he constantly
draws a comparison between the judgment of wise men and that
passed by the common herd. His technique, roughly, is the same
as that of his predecessors, but his initial definitions are sometimes
more felicitous, and his conclusions sometimes break off with a
studied heedlessness more contemptuous than any invectivel
Hall, Overbury, Stephens and Earle completed the nationalisa-
tion of the Theophrastian character sketch. They were followed
by a host of imitators, of whom John Cleveland, Samuel Butler
and William Law were the greatest; and, from the time of the
Civil War, this type of literature became a recognised weapon
in party strife. Their work is important because it gave direction
and method to the study of character, and introduced a crisp,
concentrated style of description. They cannot be regarded as
having materially influenced the novel, because the Theophrastian
character sketch remained objective, but they supplemented, and,
in some measure, supplanted the drama, which is always hampered
in an age of class satire or political warfare. The beginning of a
more subjective treatment is marked by the publication of The
Wandering Jew (1649). This work is largely a reproduction of
The Man in the Moone, with the important difference that the
characters, besides being described, plead for themselves and thus
enlist our sympathies
The character sketch was mostly an attempt to ventilate the
newly roused interest in morals and manners. But, as we have
seen, its association with conversational preciousness often lowered
it to a mere triumph of paradox. Moreover, it did not fully meet
the needs of the age. As men became conscious of the growing
complexity of London life, they also grew conscious of a running
commentary on similar problems to be found in classical literature.
The humanists of court circles discovered lessons of statecraft and
diplomacy in Machiavelli and Tacitus, examples of daring and
fortitude in Plutarch, and hints for wit and courtesy in Castiglione,
Cicero and Suetonius. Such reading started new trains of thought
1 West's edition of Earle's Microcosmography, 1897, intro. p. xxviii
See bibl.
3 Cf. Raleigh's comparison between Overbury's Country Knight and Sir Roger de
Coverley, History oj' the English Novel, 1891, chap. v.
## p. 343 (#365) ############################################
Origins of the Essay
343
on topics too fleeting and miscellaneous to be classified in a
methodical discourse. But, unsystematised reflection was not
the creation of the Jacobean age. Caxton's prefaces have the
qualifications of essays in criticism. While the form and style
of the medieval Exempla were serving as models for Tudor
jest-books, the apologue tended to expand into a discussion?
The writings of Andrew Boorde and William Bullein are full of
digressions on the occasional interests of daily life, and Nashe's
tracts were practically a patchwork of miscellaneous notes and
observations. The character sketch was far too restricted and
too polemical to gratify this aptitude for desultory comment; but
men of a more contemplative and less satiric frame of mind? began
to jot down their reflections and thoughts, after the manner of
eligious meditations. This habit of thinking on paper rapidly
assumed importance among the intellectual coteries of London;
manuscripts were passed from hand to hand, and the more finished
and methodical commonplace books even found their way into
prints, following the example of Montaigne (1580), from whom they
took the name of 'essay. The new genre entered timidly on its
career, the very title being an apology for its informality and in-
completeness4. The first essayist who anonymously put forth
Remedies against Discontentment drawen into severall discourses
from the writinges of auncient philosophers, in 1596, explains, in
an introductory address, that they were 'onely framed for mine
owne private use; and that is the reason I tooke no great paine,
to set them foorth anye better'; and then, after speaking of the
great moralists of the past, he excuses his own work by adding
From these faire flowers, which their labours have afforded mee, I
have as I passed by, gathered this small heape, and as my time and
leasure served me, distilled them and kept them as precious. ' In
the following year, Bacon produced his slim pamphlet of Essayes.
Religious Meditations. Places of perswasion and disswasion, in
which, among ‘Meditationes sacrae' and 'The Coulers of good and
evill,' we have a number of maxims and directions jotted down
under ten headings, possibly suggested by lord Burghley's Precepts
1 Vide the concluding commentary attached to some of the anecdotes in Mery Tales
and Quicke Answers.
? Cf. the Theophrastians' merciless caricature of the gallant with Cornwallis's
essay on 'Fantasticnesse. '
3 See bibl.
• Essay from low Latin exagium a trial or testing, Italian saggio, Spanish ensayo,
French essai.
## p. 344 (#366) ############################################
344 London and Popular Literature
or Directions for the well ordering and carriage of a man's life'.
Bacon's essays have a narrow but practical scope. They virtually
recognise the courtier's career as a profession, and show how
health, wealth and even learning, must be directed to the develop-
ment of the special qualities necessary for success. Nay, more, his
reflections shed light on the management of men, and penetrate
the cross purposes and conflicting judgments which make up the
atmosphere of the court. This side of human nature was already
familiar to statesmen, but it had never before been discussed in
maxims and rules which, if terse to obscurity, nevertheless reveal
the basis of egoism underlying a maze of intrigues and shifting
reputations.
But the scope and range of the essay had not yet been dis-
covered. Bacon's first series must have appealed to men as a manual
of diplomacy, a kind of Complete Courtier; and, for this reason, Sir
William Cornwallis's work has an importance which its literary
merit would not have justified. He produced in 1600 and 1601
two sets of essays, with some of the diffuseness, but none of
the charm, of Montaigne. He, too, discussed problems of high
life, especially the means by which men rise to prominence or
favour; and, in many places, he gives the same advice as his more
illustrious predecessor. But he has introduced a personal touch
(also a feature of Montaigne) which was afterwards to become
a characteristic of the essay. His reflections are sometimes pre-
faced by curious confidences and self-revelations which give them
the air of a diary. Again, his outlook is wider. The study of
Plutarch's Lives had given him an admiration for manliness, wis-
dom and heroism, and he examines modern character and enter-
prise from this point of view; thus showing how to use the past as
a commentary on the present. And, above all, he formulates the
new ideal? of gentlemanly culture: the man of no special science
but of liberal interests, who can turn all kinds of books, even
nursery rimes and street ballads, to his profit", talk of horses and
See bibl. The Precepts were not printed at this time, but Bacon may well have
seen them in MS.
This conception did not originate with Cornwallis, but is found underlying Lyly's
Euphues and Ascham's definition of evpuns in the Scholemaster, 1570. Vide Elis. Crit.
Essays, vol. 1, p. 1. Perhaps Cornwallis took the idea straight from Montaigne Or à
cet apprentissage (=à bien juger et à bien parler) tout ce qui se presente à nos yeulx sert
de livre suffisant ; la malice d'un page, la sottise d'un valet, un propos de table ce sont
autant de nouvelles matières. ' Institution des Enfants.
3. Of Discourse,' Pt. I.
• Of the Observation and Use of things,' Pt. I.
6
## p. 345 (#367) ############################################
Cornwallis and Robert Johnson 345
>
hawks to those who understand nothing deeper, and use all know-
ledge 'to looke upon man? '
This conception of the honnête homme, formulated thirty years
before Faret's L'Art de plaire à la cour (1630), is the centre of
Robert Johnson's reflections, published as Essaies or Rather Im-
perfect Offers, in 1601. Education is, for him, merely the training
for action; affability3, the art of concealing offence; wisdom*, the
secret of successful statesmanship. His work is more direct and
educative than that of Cornwallis. Frequently, he gives rules for
self-training in special excellence, notably in the essay on ex-
perience", with its examination of the historical lessons to be
learnt from Tacitus. But he never loses sight of the humanist's
ideal of culture. He argues that learning is no inconvenience to
the soldier, but renders him more virtuous; and, while Ascham,
Greene, Nashe and Hall? were anathematising foreign travel,
Johnson advocates it in an essay from which Bacon was not
ashamed to borrow.
The essay was rapidly becoming, instead of an established form
of literature, a collection of notes and maxims. David Tuvill
used it wherein to display amazing familiarity with anecdotes
of Greek and Roman worthies in two garrulously discursive and
unpractical volumes. Before long, the practice of detached com-
position became the object of parody—the surest sign of recogni-
tion—in such productions as The Penniless Parliament of
Threadbare Poets (1608). It blended with the collections of
characters. In the fourth edition of Overbury's works (1614),
a number of witty and humorous essays on countries, manners
and customs were added in the form of Newes. ' John Stephens,
in 1615, coupled his Characters with some verse essays more or
less in the manner of Persius, and some serious prose reflections
full of quaint illustrations of thought, in which he discusses the
claims and responsibilities of high-birth, the need of paternal
kindness, the sin of 'disinheritance' and the lessons of sympathy
and kindness to be learnt from others' sorrow. Geffray Mynshul
'
employed both fashionable types, though both inadequately, to
expose the rapacity of jailors in Essayes and Characters of a
Prison and Prisoners (1618); Nicholas Breton endeavoured to
1
2 E88. III.
3 Ess. X.
+ Ess. IIV.
1 Of knowledge,' Pt. 11.
5 Ess, v.
6
6 Ess. VIII, 'Of Art Military. '
? Quo vadis ? A Just Censure of Travell, 1617.
8 Essaies politicke and morall, by D. T. Gent, 1608; Essayes morall and theologicall,
1609.
. Ante, p. 340.
## p. 346 (#368) ############################################
346
London and Popular Literature
-
fuse the two types into one in Characters upon Essays (1615).
He chose the topics already discussed by the essayists—wisdom,
knowledge, resolution, truth, death, fear-and, in each case, wove
a few commonplace ideas into an embroidery of antithesis and
metaphor. Each essay begins with a conceited definition, which
is elaborated by every artifice of paraphrase, and then relinquished
with an affectation of courtly indifference. Thus, the essay, which
had originated as a record of informal meditation, would probably
have degenerated, for several decades at least, into a mere literary
toy, unless Bacon had shown its true scope and capacity.
Bacon's virtue consists in his style and sagacity, which is all
the more penetrating because confined to a certain range of ideas.
In the edition of 1597, he had refrained from the ornaments of
diction to be found in his earlier works, apparently because the
essays were intended only as private notes for the perusal of a
few friends. But, by 1612, the popularity of the genre and his own
reputation as the inventor induced him to revise the first series
and add twenty-eight new essays in a smoother, less jejune style.
By 1625, his final edition was complete. This collection contains
fifty-eight essays, written with a perfect mastery of language in
a spirit of superb confidence ?
The true importance of his style is to be found in its preg-
nancy. In an age of complicated and superficial verbiage, he
turns the licence of imaginative and allusive expression into
an instrument of accurate and chastened thought. Character
writers had introduced their portraits with a pointed or fanciful
definition. Bacon does the same, but so as to express an abstract
idea in the commonest objects of sight and experience. Thus,
Men in great place are thrice servants,' 'Fortune is like the
market,'Virtue is like a rich stone, best plain set,' 'Praise is the
reflection of virtue,' 'He that hath wife and children hath given
hostages to fortune. ' These appeals for confirmation to everyday
facts run all through his essays. Selfish statesmen are compared
to ants in an orchard; men are bettered by believing in a God,
as a dog when he owns a master. Again, though he never con-
descends to convince, his oracular utterances are the fruit of
minute calculation ; and this scientific process appears in the
almost judicial balancing of pros and contras, as in the essay, 'Of
1 'I have read of many essays and a kind of charactering of them, by such, as when
I looked into the form and nature of their writing, I have been of the conceit that they
were but imitators of your breaking the ice to their inventions. ' Nicholas Breton,
dedication to Bacon in Characters upon Essays.
2 Vide S. H. Reynolds, intro. to Essays or Counsels of Francis.
6
a
## p. 347 (#369) ############################################
Bacon
347
Usury,' or in the methodical and detailed directions which he gives,
as in the essay Of Travel. ' His logical habit of mind has trans-
'
formed even the materials of pedantry. The numerous quota-
tions and illustrations drawn from the Bible, the classics and
Machiavelli, seem necessary to his argument, and his unacknow-
ledged appropriations from Montaigne strike one as mere coinci-
dences of thought. All forms of knowledge are subjected to the
elucidation of his views on life. The primum mobile of astronomy
illustrates “the motions of the greatest persons in a government,'
and the legend of Briareus is interpreted as an emblem of the
people's power
These excellencies were largely due to the fact that Bacon
regarded the popularity of the Essays as ephemeral and was
not posing for posterity? He wrote down simply the things which
interested himself. This spontaneity carried its own limitations.
Many of the essays are made up of extracts, compiled from his
other works, and woven together into a new whole. He frequently
misquotes or misrepresents his quoted authors; and, sometimes, he
does not adhere closely to the title of his essays.
Besides, Bacon
led two lives, and in his views on worldly matters we have only
half the man: the side of him engaged in a struggle for advance-
ment. Hence, he regards life as a stage, and his meditations
almost always recur to the role which men play in the eyes of the
world. Adversity is discussed as a means of evoking the practice
of virtue ; friendship is viewed as a condition in which a man's
judgment may become clearer and his happiness more complete.
Even love and marriage are considered chiefly as an impediment
to the serious pursuits of life. But the greater number of his
‘Dispersed Meditations' deal with the immediate problem of
success : how far secrecy in dissembling will substitute an inborn
gift of discretion; whether boldness will counteract a reputation
for failure; in what way a knowledge of men rather than of books
can be turned to account in the intrigues of court life. These
speculations lead him into higher circles of government and
1 For list of plagiarisms vide F. A. F. Dieckow, John Florio's Englische Uebersetzung
der Essais Montaignes und Lord Bacon's, Ben Jonson's und Robert Burton's Verhältniss
zu Montaigne. It might be noticed, also, that the essay on death is largely coloured by
Lucretius, bk. III, and Erasmus, Colloquia Familiaria (Funus), while that on youth
and age is borrowed from Aristotle (Rhetoric, bk. II).
2 Vide quotations from Bacon's letters in English Men of Letters' Bacon, by
R. W. Church, 1892, chap. IX.
$ Vide S. H. Reynolds, ibid.
* J. Boudoin, in translating the Essays in 1640, entitled them L'Artisan de la
Fortune.
## p. 348 (#370) ############################################
348 London and Popular Literature
diplomacy, where, to penetrate the problems of statecraft, he
dispels the illusions of greatness. He fathoms the 'inscrutable
hearts of kings' and pictures their pitiable isolation and toilsome
existence. His book is destined for the commons of the realm ; so
the advice which he professes to give their rulers is really an
exposure (perhaps not intentional) of the machinery of government.
We have glimpses of the monarch seated at the council-board, pre-
paring his public utterances or choosing his favourites. The same
interest leads him to raise questions of public policy. In the essay
'On Superstition,' he marshals the chief accusations against the
Roman Catholic church; and, in treating of the greatness of
kingdoms, he does not ignore the bitter quarrel between the
peasantry and the gentry, Through every discussion, whether on
death and religion, or on gardens and masques, there runs that
sub-conscious ideal of versatile liberal culture out of which the
essay sprang.
Bacon proved the possibilities of this type of literature
as a repository of miscellaneous and desultory meditations. His
influence is seen in such men as Owen Felltham, who, endowed
with an interest in moral problems, and a certain mastery over
reflective prose, published essays from time to time. These, appar-
ently, were intended as exercises for confirming and strengthening
the writer in his own opinions, and show only occasional efforts at
an imitation of Bacon's gnomic style. And yet, Feltham's respect-
able, though commonplace, moralisations established the essay's
right to embrace even sacred topics ; especially are the virtuous
deeds of the ancients selected with no little intuition to illustrate
Christian ideals. Meanwhile, this art of extemporising modern
ideas out of antiquity had reached its highest pitch in the
desultory notes and reflections which Ben Jonson was making
out of his vast reading. In 1641, these were published posthu-
mously as Timber or Discoveries made upon men and matter.
Practically, all the ideas contained in this miscellany, from aphor-
istic jottings to continuous discourses, have their origin in some
other book. The influence of Velleius Paterculus, Euripides, Aulus
Gellius, Quintilian and Seneca are particularly noticeable? But
Timber is not a mere work of paraphrase and transcription.
Sometimes, several borrowed sentences are fused into one; some-
times, thoughts from different treatises are brought together or
sentences of the same treatise are arranged in a different order.
1 Vide bibl. for authorities who have investigated sources of the Discoveries, and
also cf. Wits Commonwealth
## p. 349 (#371) ############################################
Ben Jonson. Tobacco-pamphlets 349
The passages on Shakespeare and Bacon were taken from what
Seneca wrote of Haterius and Cassius Severus ; in another place,
Jonson condenses several pages of the Advancement of Learning
into one short essay. A sense of manly integrity, and a keen eye
to practical virtue and intelligence, guided this selection of the
world's wisdom, and the style has an almost colloquial simplicity
and directness far in advance of Bacon.
We have seen how social literature, under the influence of
classicism, grew into Juvenalian satire, character writing and
essays, without losing sight of contemporary interests. But city
life was too varied to find expression within the limits of any
literary canon, and Londoners continued to welcome any type of
tract which reflected their many-sided interests. No sooner had
the fashion of tobacco-smoking become prominent, than it divided
pamphleteers into two camps. Its supporters either founded their
adhesion on its alleged medical properties), or indulged their
literary gift in burlesque encomia Among others, an anony-
mous author, imitating Ovid, composed The Metamorphosis of
Tobacco, in heroic couplets of pleasing and harmonious rhythm.
He sings of the elements gathering in council to create a herb
of almost Promethean virtue, which Jupiter, fearing for his
sovereignty, banishes to an unknown land. But the graces dis-
cover the plant and remain so constant to its charms that mortals,
who would win their favour, must follow their example. On the
other hand, the growing insistence on good manners inspired
scathing criticisms on smoking as it was then practised. 'Tobac-
conists' were freely ridiculed by dramatists, character writers and
puritans. King James issued in 1604 A Counterblaste to Tobacco,
in which a sound if pedantic refutation of its alleged virtues is
followed by quaint but vigorous descriptions of the smoker's dis-
gusting habits. Among the many subsequent writers? who used
this theme as a whetstone for their wits, the most noteworthy is,
undoubtedly, Richard Brathwaite. Following the method of The
Metamorphosis, he works up the contention that smokers waste
their time into an allegorical romance, in which tobacco is traced
back to its origin as a son of Pluto, god of the nether world.
This phantasy is entitled, The Smoking Age, or, the Man in the
Mist (1617).
These ephemeral pamphlets are worth quoting, in order to
1 H. Buttes, Dyets Dry Dinner, 1599; E. Gardiner, Triall of Tobacco, 1610.
2 Vide bibl.
## p. 350 (#372) ############################################
350 London and Popular Literature
illustrate how varied, as well as elaborate, popular literature was
becoming. Even rogue-books began to multiply the artifices of
narration. E. S. produced, in 1597, the Discoverie of the Knights
of the Poste. These gentry were professional bailees, utilising the
name of some respectable citizen to stand surety for any criminal
who would make it worth their while. As the average law-breaker
was almost certain to be committed for another offence before the
year was out, this form of livelihood could be made safe by ordinary
precautions. Thus, the booklet is of very moderate interest. But
the style is significant. The Discoverie is a connected story re-
counting a journey undertaken by the author on foot from London
to Plymouth. He falls in with two fellow-travellers, and the trio
beguile the tedium of the way with anecdotes and personal remi-
niscences of the knights of the post. The narrative has all the
bye-play of a realistic novelette. Each of the author's companions
has his own individuality. Goodcoll is almost destitute, but trusts
to his witty tongue for escaping the dilemmas of impecuniosity.
Freeman has store of gold, and is so fond of good fellowship that
he not only claims the right to finance the party, but deviates from
his own course in order to enjoy their society. We visit the inns
at which they lodged, are told of what they drank at night, how
they slept and how they breakfasted. Freeman requests both
Goodcoll and the author to disburse small sums, since his own
wealth is in gold coin which he cannot realise till they come to
Exeter. But, when that city is reached, Freeman finds that his
store has vanished, and offers an explanation, which, apparently,
satisfies the two travellers, but leaves the reader dubious.
Authors who had been through prison now began to clothe
their experiences in varied forms. Luke Hutton's The Blacke
Dogge of Newgate (c. 1600) recounts the customs of that institu-
tion in a versified description of a vision, followed by a prose
dialogue which tells of the amateur thieves to be found amongst the
attendants of the prison. The Compter's Commonwealth (1617),
by William Fennor, introduces the humours and tricks of the jest-
books into the usual exposures of roguery. Geffray Mynshul, who
had left the debtor's prison with a lively recollection of its jangling
keys, fawning yet tyrannical warders, and embittered or reckless
inmates, actually endeavoured to give his friends an idea of these
miseries by describing them in essays and character sketches. But
1 Supposed by G. C. Moore Smith to be Edward Sharpham; N. & Q. no. 257,
11 July 1908.
2 For a fuller list see bibl.
## p. 351 (#373) ############################################
Dekker
351
the most important pamphleteer of Jacobean London is, undoubt-
edly, Thomas Dekker.
Apart from his dramatic work', Dekker stands alone in this
period. He is remarkable not as a satirist but as the first great
literary artist of London street life. He discovered how to describe
the city populace as a whole in its pursuits and agitations ; but, as
literature had not yet evolved a special mediumfor this por-
traiture, his gift finds expression only in a number of erratic
and ephemeral tracts. For instance, like other free lances, he
seized the obvious opportunity of producing a celebration of
Elizabeth's death and James's accession. He entitled this tract
The Wonderfull Yeare (1603). But the writer's thoughts are
soon drawn from perfunctory adulation to the more suggestive
theme of the plague which raged that year in London. We have
a picture of Death encamped like an army in the sin-polluted
suburbs. Its tents are winding-sheets, its field-marshal the plague,
its officers burning fevers, boils, blains and carbuncles; the rank
and file consist of mourners, “merrie sextons,' hungry coffin-sellers
and ‘nasty grave-makers'; the two catchpoles are fear and
trembling. The invaders storm London, massacring men, women
and children, breaking open coffers, rifling houses and ransacking
streets. There are passages of almost unparalleled horror de-
scribing the rotten coffins filling the streets with stench, or the
muck-pits full of putrid corpses, among which the worms writhe
in swarms. There is originality in this conception of death,
but much more in Dekker's description of the narrow London
streets at night time, filled with the groans or raving of sick men,
with glimpses of figures stealing out to fetch the sexton or sweating
under the load of a corpse which they must hide before 'the fatall
hand writing of death should seale up their doores. ' Then, we watch
the stampede into the country, and note the touches of meanness
and heroism which a commotion always brings to the surface. The
tract ends with the humorous side of the plague, discovered in
some witty though rather grim anecdotes, one recounting how the
death of a Londoner at a country inn threw the whole village into
>
1 He had already written eight plays single-banded and seven in collaboration,
besides historical works in conjunction with Drayton.
2 As we have seen, character writers sometimes described scenes and institutions.
But, before Donald Lapton's London and Country Carbonadoed (1632), none, apparently,
are touched with the fascination of London streets.
3 Cf. Richard Johnson, Anglorum Lachrymae ; H. Chettle, Englande's Mourning
Garment; J. Hall, The King's Prophecie or Weeping Joy; Thomas Bing, Sorrowes Joy;
8. Rowlands, God save the King.
## p. 352 (#374) ############################################
352 London and Popular Literature
6
the most grotesque disorder, until a tinker consented, for a large
sum, to bury the corpse.
One of Dekker's next productions? was an attempt-very com-
mon in this age--at appealing to the people by a denunciation of
sin. He adopted one of their popular allegories and, at the same
time, gratified their love of pageantry, in The Seven Deadly Sinnes
of London (1606), representing the triumphal entry of these into
the capital, each drawn in a symbolic chariot and each welcomed
by its special adherents. But all moral or theological sentiment is
overshadowed by the fascination of city life. The sins are no
longer those of the Roman Catholic church, but such as would
strike an observer of street scenes. We have 'Politick bank-
ruptisme,' the practice of merchants who pass through the court
to avoid paying their debts; 'Lying,' which begets the minor
cruelties and backslidings of life, notably oaths, which are 'crutches
upon which lyes go'; 'Candle light,' by which London streets
are illuminated like a theatre, so that merchants and 'prentices
alike are tempted to dissipation and thieving;. Sloth’; 'Apish-
nesse' or dandyism ; 'Shaving,' or the exaction of undue profits,
and ‘Cruelty, which is rampant in extortionate prisons, among
exorbitant creditors, merchants who take trade from their own
'prentices, relatives who abandon their own kith and kin in
plague-time, and fathers who force their daughters to uncongenial
marriages. While there is nothing profound or new in this view
of London life, the booklet abounds in good humour and felicitous
conceits. Above all, we have graphic views of the city, both in
the hurry and rush of midday traffic, and glimmering with its
taverns and gloaming alleys in the night-time.
The Seven Deadly Sinnes was a brilliant development of the
theme revived by Nashe and the author of Tom Tel-Troths Message
and his pens Complaint (1600). In the same year, Dekker
borrowed another idea from Pierce Penilesse. Nashe, in his
second edition, had promised to describe the return of the knight
of the post from hell. The hint was taken by 'an intimate and near
companion,' who produced an eminently insipid pamphlet in 1606.
Dekker followed this, in the same year, with Newes from Hell,
brought by the Divells Carrier. Again we see the skilful adapta-
tion of an ancient form of thought. Visions of heaven, purgatory
1 See bibl. for a list of Dekker's works, with notes.
2 Ante, p. 321.
3 The Return of the Knight of the Post from Hell with the Divels answere to the
Supplication of Pierce Penilesse, with some relation of the last Treasons, printed by
Jubp Windet, 1606.
## p. 353 (#375) ############################################
>
Newes from Hell
353
and hell had originated in paganism, had flourished all through
the Middle Ages in a Christian form and still retained their popu-
larity. Caxton had printed an English version of Deguileville's
Pilgrimage of the Soul and Machlinia had revived the Monk of
Evesham. The Kalendrier des Bergers, which contained a de-
scription of the punishments of the seven sins as revealed to
Lazarus, was frequently translated during the sixteenth century.
Ford, the dramatist, in one of his plays, introduces a friar who
gives a gruesome account of the tortures of hell, and The
Dead Man's Song treats the same subject in a broadside. 'St
Patrick's Purgatory' was famous all through the sixteenth
century, thanks to the disseminating influence of printing;
and Calderon, in the seventeenth, made it the subject of one
of his dramas. Burlesque versions of visions had existed since
Old English times, and continued through popular literature from
the Norman fabliaux to Rabelais. After the reformation, these
legends, like the sins, lost their theological significance, but the
people were still medieval at heart, and literary free-lances were
only too glad to avail themselves of the spell which visions still
exercised over the popular imagination. Before 1590%, some name-
less writer represented the famous Tarlton giving his impressions
of purgatory, and, in this form, conveyed social satire as well as a
collection of good stories. Tom Tell-Trothe's New-yeares Gift
(1593) contains Robin Goodfellow's account of a visit to hell,
and reproduces an oration against jealousy which he heard in those
regions. In Dekker's Nerces from Hell, we have a booklet full of
brilliant descriptions. The messenger starts for the nether world
through France and Venice, stopping only in London, where dis-
sipated youths call wildly to him through tavern windows, and he
hears one spendthrift, in a fit of inebriated veracity, curse the
wealthy merchant, his father, who left him money to waste. In
hell, he finds the sessions in progress and dead souls being tried
by a jury of their own sing. Before leaving, he catches sight
of several familiar types of London street life; notably a hollow-
eyed, wizened, old usurer, who offers to accept ‘any base drudgery'
if he can create an opportunity for making money. The tract also
illustrates the intellectual exuberance of the age, which, even in
burlesque, assimilated the imagery and sentiment of different ages
i Vide T. Wright, St Patrick's Purgatory, an essay on the legends of Purgatory,
Hell and Paradise current during the Middle Ages, 1844.
2 Pantagruel, Bk. 11, chap. 30.
3 See bibl. under Jest-books and Miscellaneous Tracts on London,
E. L. IV. CH. XVI.
23
## p. 354 (#376) ############################################
354 London and Popular Literature
and civilisations. Lucian, in Menippus, had pictured a visit to
the nether world, which Dekker had certainly read in John
Rastell's translation and travestied in his own fashion! . But the
place of torment-hideous, inaccessible, pestilential with 'rotten
vapors,' crawling toads and sulphurous stench-is still medieval,
and the caricature of the devil reflects the ribaldry of the fifteenth
century. In the following year, Dekker added a view of Elysium
and the description of a thunderstorm, caused by the conjurations
performed to summon up the knight of the post. On the strength
of these additions, the pamphlet was issued as a new publication
entitled A Knight's Conjuring.
It is not surprising that a pamphleteer with Dekker's curiosity
about life and his gift of realistic description should publish some
tracts on roguery, and, in 1608, he produced The Belman of
London, using the same material as his predecessors. In some
respects, the pamphlet is disappointing; it lacks the type of
anecdote which is attractive in Greene's work, and the character
drawing which enlivens the Knights of the Post. But the
setting has all Dekker's charm. The title suggests a picture of
city life; but the scene opens in the country, where the author,
after wandering among the serene pleasures of nature, finds him-
self in a disreputable farm-house, concealed in a gallery, watching
a ragged gang of diseased and misshapen vagabonds devour like
savages a steaming feast and initiate new members to their
fraternity. The squalor and wretchedness of these outcasts being
thus heightened by contrast, Dekker proceeds to tell us, as Harman
had done, of their orders, classes and practices. But the account
must be made attractive: so it is given by a ‘nymble-tongd beldam,
who seemed to have command of the place,' under the influence of
a pot of ale. We then accompany the author back to London and,
entering the city at midnight, at last encounter the bellman, whose
bell and voice are heard echoing along the shadowy silent streets.
This picturesque figure introduces an account of card-sharping,
shop-lifting and pocket-picking. The exposure is straightforward
and commonplace, but the style is embroidered with quaint and
elaborate conceits. The pamphlet enjoyed immediate recognition
and, according to Dekker, was plagiarised by The Belman's Brother.
Probably to anticipate further imitation, Dekker produced in the
same year a sequel : Lanthorne and Candle-light or the Bell-
Mans second Nights-walke, in which, after a number of picturesque
episodes, the devil decides to make a visit to London. We
i See bibl. for visions in classical literature, including Lucian,
## p. 355 (#377) ############################################
6
:
a
Rogue-pamphlets. Grobianism
355
accompany him on his rounds and see how 'Gul-gropers' cozen
young heirs out of their acres by usury, cards and dice; how
'Fawlconers' extract gratuities from country knights in return for
a counterfeit dedication in a pamphlet ; how ‘Ranckriders,' posing
as gentlemen, take up residence at an inn and, when a fictitious
summons arrives from a nobleman, borrow one of the landlord's
horses and do not return: how a 'Jacke in a boxe' borrows silver
on a money-box full of gold, for which is afterwards cleverly sub-
stituted one of similar exterior but very different contents. But
these are no longer mysterious deceptions which only a specialist
can detect. Exposures of villany were becoming more and more
exposures of human nature; they appeal to a curiosity about life
rather than to the instinct of self-defence. The best passage in the
book reves not an elaborate fraud which only technical know-
ledge could unmask, but the picture of an ostler slinking half
clothed at dead of night into the stable to steal a horse's provender.
It has already been shown how young men of wealth or birth
were attracted to London by the hope of advancing their fortunes
or of gaining experience. This class formed a new order in society,
without traditions, recognised status or code of manners. No
aggregate of human beings, with the possible exception of rogues
and vagabonds, seems to have attracted so much attention. Sir
Humphrey Gilbert? had suggested the organisation of a gentleman's
university, devoted to the cultivation of refined manners and
courtly accomplishments; the essayists had given much attention
to the pursuits of monied youth ; Peacham wrote a whole
book? on the subject; and, by 1633, Milton had constructed a
complete scheme of education, which should combine the soldier's,
courtier's and scholar's training all in one. But, at present, the
playhouses, drinking taverns and ordinaries of London were filled
with inexperienced boys, who had been taught something of their
duty to their king and country, but no other rules of deportment
in these novel situations than resenting an insult and holding
their own with their equals. New conventionalities had not yet
been evolved to meet new conditions, and public opinion was
content to condemn them as gulls, roaring boys, coxcombs, wood-
cocks, cockneys and popinjays. Social pamphleteers had satirised
them again and again ; and Dekker, while engaged on a translation
of Dedekind's Grobianus, conceived the idea of turning the
German's old-fashioned 8 satire on the boorishness suggestive of an
? See bibl.
1 Queene Elizabethes Achademy.
3 Grobianus was printed 1549. See bibl.
23—2
## p. 356 (#378) ############################################
356 London and Popular Literature
Eulenspiegel into a pasquil on the modern English type.
reprovable for hee is ever mending'; and that a French cook,
with his attractive dishes made out of slender materials, 'is the
1 The King's Majesties Declaration to his subjects concerning Lawful Sports to be
used, 1618; rptd Social England Illustrated, intro. by A. Lang, 1903.
? Vide 'A Courtier,' 'An Ignorant Glory-hunter,' 'A Timist,' 'An Intruder into
favour. '
3 Vide 'A country gentleman,' 'An elder brother,' 'A meere common lawyer,'
"A meere scholar,' 'A meere fellow of an house. '
• By J. Cocke, added to the 6th impression.
6
6
22-2
## p. 340 (#362) ############################################
340 London and Popular Literature
last relic of popery, that makes men fast against their conscience. "
A humorous connection is also traced between a man's occupation
and his habit of thought. 'An Ingrosser of corn' hates tobacco
(a supposed substitute for food), and a sexton cannot endure to be
told that 'we ought to live by the quick not the dead. ' Thus, we
see that the humour of earlier and simpler generations still survived
in conversational literature. These periphrases, double meanings
and obliquities of expression sometimes resemble the scholarly
puns of the Italian Latinists; but we must also remember that, in a
more ingenuous form, they were the essence of the Tudor books of
riddles? Overbury's chapters on 'A very Woman' and 'Her next
part’ read like a continuation of the medieval controversy on women
which the author of The Schole-howse of Women had revived? .
The character of 'An ordinary Widdow' is one of the most studied
in the book, yet the witticisms are but brilliant variations on a
standing joke which appears in A C. Mery Talys, The Boke of
Mayd Emlyn, and The Wife of Bath's Prologue.
Besides involved and artificial pleasantry, the Overbury collec-
tion is already touched with an air of supercilious mockery which,
later, was to become the characteristic of court life. A different
line of development is traceable in another miscellany published
by a young lawyer, John Stephens, in 1615, together with prose
and verse essays entitled Satyrical essayes, characters and others,
and followed, in the same year, by a second series? . In these
two collections, after conventional sets of commendatory por-
traits, and a number of legal characters adorned with the usual
style of conceit, we find a few sketches inspired by a wider and
more independent curiosity in life. To begin with, some of the
definitions show a less affected interest in men and women. For
instance, Overbury had enlarged on 'An Apparatour' as 'A chicke
of the egge abuse, hatcht by the warmth of authority. ' Stephens
explains an informer as 'A protected cheater or a knave in
authority'; and there is insight as well as wit in his characterisation
of a churl as “the superfluity of solemne behaviour. But the
chief importance of Stephens's work lies in the fact that, now and
then, he discovers the individual beneath the type. His picture of
'A Ranke Observer' is not a typical detractor, but a man who
mockingly cultivates the faults he notes in his friends till they
become second nature in himself. 'A Gossip' and 'An Old Woman'
are not invectives, but sketches, full of personal observation as
1 Ante, vol. III, chap. v, p. 95.
3 Ibid. pp. 89-91; bibl. 485—487.
Vide bibl.
## p. 341 (#363) ############################################
>
Stephens and Earle
341
vivacious as Rowlands's Tis Merrie when Gossips meete. His
character of a page takes us behind the scenes, and shows to what
depravity lads were exposed at court. In 'two sketches, he
borders on the short story. One depicts 'A Begging Schollar,'
who, while at college, was nicknamed the 'Sharke,' and, being
expelled, wanders about the country consorting with vagrants,
preaching if an opportunity occurs. When admitted to a few nights'
hospitality, he steals the silver spoons. The other character is
'A Sicke Machiavell Pollititian,' that is to say, the insincere man
who, after posing all his life, is now face to face with the reality
of death.
But it was not in London that the character sketch reached its
fullest development. A number of manuscript portraits had been
in circulation for some years at Oxford, when Edward Blount printed
them in 1628 under the title Microcosmographie. It was after-
wards known that the collection was chiefly the work of John
Earle. These productions are composed with a more chastened
humour and in a more scholarly style than those of Hall, Overbury
or Stephens. Conceits, of course, are not wanting, and many of
the characters consist of jests and paradoxes invented out of
such familiar figures as a trumpeter, a sergeant, a carrier, or a
cook. Others, again, describe institutions, such as Wye Saltonstall
was afterwards to portray? And others have a satirical or con-
troversial purpose, coloured by the university point of view ? .
But Microcosmographie contains something beyond wit, style and
ephemeral satire. The other Theophrastians were exposing the
absurdities which rival classes always discover in each other, or,
at best, were analysing some type which creates interest because
conspicuous. But Earle, under the guise of character sketches,
enquires into the moral significance of the day's unrecorded words
and actions. He was one of the first writers who showed how
essential a part of the ordinary man's life is made up of trivial
and familiar things, and, consequently, how carefully these trifles
should be studied. Hence, he explains characters which seem so
colourless that they generally pass unnoticed. We have searching
1 Picturae loquentes or ictures drawn forth in characters (1630) (2nd ed. enlarged,
1635), contains, among other sketches, The World,' 'A Country Fair,' 'A country
ale-house,' 'A horse-race,' 'A Gentleman's house in the country. ' Earle has 'A
taverne,''A bowle alley,'. Paul's Walke,' . A prison. '
2 Earle's ‘A Downe-right Schollar' and 'A good old man'are answers to Overbury's
A meere Scholar' and · An olde man. ' Earle treats questions of university interest
in ‘A raw young preacher,' and his essay on 'A Scepticke in Religion' deals with the
difficulties of a student who hesitates between conflicting creeds.
6
&
## p. 342 (#364) ############################################
342 London and Popular Literature
a
>
analyses of such common-places as a child, a weak man, a mere
formal man, a plain country fellow, a modest man, a poor man and
a coward. Earle shows how a lack of vigilance in the veriest routine
of life ends in self-deception, error or discontent, and he constantly
draws a comparison between the judgment of wise men and that
passed by the common herd. His technique, roughly, is the same
as that of his predecessors, but his initial definitions are sometimes
more felicitous, and his conclusions sometimes break off with a
studied heedlessness more contemptuous than any invectivel
Hall, Overbury, Stephens and Earle completed the nationalisa-
tion of the Theophrastian character sketch. They were followed
by a host of imitators, of whom John Cleveland, Samuel Butler
and William Law were the greatest; and, from the time of the
Civil War, this type of literature became a recognised weapon
in party strife. Their work is important because it gave direction
and method to the study of character, and introduced a crisp,
concentrated style of description. They cannot be regarded as
having materially influenced the novel, because the Theophrastian
character sketch remained objective, but they supplemented, and,
in some measure, supplanted the drama, which is always hampered
in an age of class satire or political warfare. The beginning of a
more subjective treatment is marked by the publication of The
Wandering Jew (1649). This work is largely a reproduction of
The Man in the Moone, with the important difference that the
characters, besides being described, plead for themselves and thus
enlist our sympathies
The character sketch was mostly an attempt to ventilate the
newly roused interest in morals and manners. But, as we have
seen, its association with conversational preciousness often lowered
it to a mere triumph of paradox. Moreover, it did not fully meet
the needs of the age. As men became conscious of the growing
complexity of London life, they also grew conscious of a running
commentary on similar problems to be found in classical literature.
The humanists of court circles discovered lessons of statecraft and
diplomacy in Machiavelli and Tacitus, examples of daring and
fortitude in Plutarch, and hints for wit and courtesy in Castiglione,
Cicero and Suetonius. Such reading started new trains of thought
1 West's edition of Earle's Microcosmography, 1897, intro. p. xxviii
See bibl.
3 Cf. Raleigh's comparison between Overbury's Country Knight and Sir Roger de
Coverley, History oj' the English Novel, 1891, chap. v.
## p. 343 (#365) ############################################
Origins of the Essay
343
on topics too fleeting and miscellaneous to be classified in a
methodical discourse. But, unsystematised reflection was not
the creation of the Jacobean age. Caxton's prefaces have the
qualifications of essays in criticism. While the form and style
of the medieval Exempla were serving as models for Tudor
jest-books, the apologue tended to expand into a discussion?
The writings of Andrew Boorde and William Bullein are full of
digressions on the occasional interests of daily life, and Nashe's
tracts were practically a patchwork of miscellaneous notes and
observations. The character sketch was far too restricted and
too polemical to gratify this aptitude for desultory comment; but
men of a more contemplative and less satiric frame of mind? began
to jot down their reflections and thoughts, after the manner of
eligious meditations. This habit of thinking on paper rapidly
assumed importance among the intellectual coteries of London;
manuscripts were passed from hand to hand, and the more finished
and methodical commonplace books even found their way into
prints, following the example of Montaigne (1580), from whom they
took the name of 'essay. The new genre entered timidly on its
career, the very title being an apology for its informality and in-
completeness4. The first essayist who anonymously put forth
Remedies against Discontentment drawen into severall discourses
from the writinges of auncient philosophers, in 1596, explains, in
an introductory address, that they were 'onely framed for mine
owne private use; and that is the reason I tooke no great paine,
to set them foorth anye better'; and then, after speaking of the
great moralists of the past, he excuses his own work by adding
From these faire flowers, which their labours have afforded mee, I
have as I passed by, gathered this small heape, and as my time and
leasure served me, distilled them and kept them as precious. ' In
the following year, Bacon produced his slim pamphlet of Essayes.
Religious Meditations. Places of perswasion and disswasion, in
which, among ‘Meditationes sacrae' and 'The Coulers of good and
evill,' we have a number of maxims and directions jotted down
under ten headings, possibly suggested by lord Burghley's Precepts
1 Vide the concluding commentary attached to some of the anecdotes in Mery Tales
and Quicke Answers.
? Cf. the Theophrastians' merciless caricature of the gallant with Cornwallis's
essay on 'Fantasticnesse. '
3 See bibl.
• Essay from low Latin exagium a trial or testing, Italian saggio, Spanish ensayo,
French essai.
## p. 344 (#366) ############################################
344 London and Popular Literature
or Directions for the well ordering and carriage of a man's life'.
Bacon's essays have a narrow but practical scope. They virtually
recognise the courtier's career as a profession, and show how
health, wealth and even learning, must be directed to the develop-
ment of the special qualities necessary for success. Nay, more, his
reflections shed light on the management of men, and penetrate
the cross purposes and conflicting judgments which make up the
atmosphere of the court. This side of human nature was already
familiar to statesmen, but it had never before been discussed in
maxims and rules which, if terse to obscurity, nevertheless reveal
the basis of egoism underlying a maze of intrigues and shifting
reputations.
But the scope and range of the essay had not yet been dis-
covered. Bacon's first series must have appealed to men as a manual
of diplomacy, a kind of Complete Courtier; and, for this reason, Sir
William Cornwallis's work has an importance which its literary
merit would not have justified. He produced in 1600 and 1601
two sets of essays, with some of the diffuseness, but none of
the charm, of Montaigne. He, too, discussed problems of high
life, especially the means by which men rise to prominence or
favour; and, in many places, he gives the same advice as his more
illustrious predecessor. But he has introduced a personal touch
(also a feature of Montaigne) which was afterwards to become
a characteristic of the essay. His reflections are sometimes pre-
faced by curious confidences and self-revelations which give them
the air of a diary. Again, his outlook is wider. The study of
Plutarch's Lives had given him an admiration for manliness, wis-
dom and heroism, and he examines modern character and enter-
prise from this point of view; thus showing how to use the past as
a commentary on the present. And, above all, he formulates the
new ideal? of gentlemanly culture: the man of no special science
but of liberal interests, who can turn all kinds of books, even
nursery rimes and street ballads, to his profit", talk of horses and
See bibl. The Precepts were not printed at this time, but Bacon may well have
seen them in MS.
This conception did not originate with Cornwallis, but is found underlying Lyly's
Euphues and Ascham's definition of evpuns in the Scholemaster, 1570. Vide Elis. Crit.
Essays, vol. 1, p. 1. Perhaps Cornwallis took the idea straight from Montaigne Or à
cet apprentissage (=à bien juger et à bien parler) tout ce qui se presente à nos yeulx sert
de livre suffisant ; la malice d'un page, la sottise d'un valet, un propos de table ce sont
autant de nouvelles matières. ' Institution des Enfants.
3. Of Discourse,' Pt. I.
• Of the Observation and Use of things,' Pt. I.
6
## p. 345 (#367) ############################################
Cornwallis and Robert Johnson 345
>
hawks to those who understand nothing deeper, and use all know-
ledge 'to looke upon man? '
This conception of the honnête homme, formulated thirty years
before Faret's L'Art de plaire à la cour (1630), is the centre of
Robert Johnson's reflections, published as Essaies or Rather Im-
perfect Offers, in 1601. Education is, for him, merely the training
for action; affability3, the art of concealing offence; wisdom*, the
secret of successful statesmanship. His work is more direct and
educative than that of Cornwallis. Frequently, he gives rules for
self-training in special excellence, notably in the essay on ex-
perience", with its examination of the historical lessons to be
learnt from Tacitus. But he never loses sight of the humanist's
ideal of culture. He argues that learning is no inconvenience to
the soldier, but renders him more virtuous; and, while Ascham,
Greene, Nashe and Hall? were anathematising foreign travel,
Johnson advocates it in an essay from which Bacon was not
ashamed to borrow.
The essay was rapidly becoming, instead of an established form
of literature, a collection of notes and maxims. David Tuvill
used it wherein to display amazing familiarity with anecdotes
of Greek and Roman worthies in two garrulously discursive and
unpractical volumes. Before long, the practice of detached com-
position became the object of parody—the surest sign of recogni-
tion—in such productions as The Penniless Parliament of
Threadbare Poets (1608). It blended with the collections of
characters. In the fourth edition of Overbury's works (1614),
a number of witty and humorous essays on countries, manners
and customs were added in the form of Newes. ' John Stephens,
in 1615, coupled his Characters with some verse essays more or
less in the manner of Persius, and some serious prose reflections
full of quaint illustrations of thought, in which he discusses the
claims and responsibilities of high-birth, the need of paternal
kindness, the sin of 'disinheritance' and the lessons of sympathy
and kindness to be learnt from others' sorrow. Geffray Mynshul
'
employed both fashionable types, though both inadequately, to
expose the rapacity of jailors in Essayes and Characters of a
Prison and Prisoners (1618); Nicholas Breton endeavoured to
1
2 E88. III.
3 Ess. X.
+ Ess. IIV.
1 Of knowledge,' Pt. 11.
5 Ess, v.
6
6 Ess. VIII, 'Of Art Military. '
? Quo vadis ? A Just Censure of Travell, 1617.
8 Essaies politicke and morall, by D. T. Gent, 1608; Essayes morall and theologicall,
1609.
. Ante, p. 340.
## p. 346 (#368) ############################################
346
London and Popular Literature
-
fuse the two types into one in Characters upon Essays (1615).
He chose the topics already discussed by the essayists—wisdom,
knowledge, resolution, truth, death, fear-and, in each case, wove
a few commonplace ideas into an embroidery of antithesis and
metaphor. Each essay begins with a conceited definition, which
is elaborated by every artifice of paraphrase, and then relinquished
with an affectation of courtly indifference. Thus, the essay, which
had originated as a record of informal meditation, would probably
have degenerated, for several decades at least, into a mere literary
toy, unless Bacon had shown its true scope and capacity.
Bacon's virtue consists in his style and sagacity, which is all
the more penetrating because confined to a certain range of ideas.
In the edition of 1597, he had refrained from the ornaments of
diction to be found in his earlier works, apparently because the
essays were intended only as private notes for the perusal of a
few friends. But, by 1612, the popularity of the genre and his own
reputation as the inventor induced him to revise the first series
and add twenty-eight new essays in a smoother, less jejune style.
By 1625, his final edition was complete. This collection contains
fifty-eight essays, written with a perfect mastery of language in
a spirit of superb confidence ?
The true importance of his style is to be found in its preg-
nancy. In an age of complicated and superficial verbiage, he
turns the licence of imaginative and allusive expression into
an instrument of accurate and chastened thought. Character
writers had introduced their portraits with a pointed or fanciful
definition. Bacon does the same, but so as to express an abstract
idea in the commonest objects of sight and experience. Thus,
Men in great place are thrice servants,' 'Fortune is like the
market,'Virtue is like a rich stone, best plain set,' 'Praise is the
reflection of virtue,' 'He that hath wife and children hath given
hostages to fortune. ' These appeals for confirmation to everyday
facts run all through his essays. Selfish statesmen are compared
to ants in an orchard; men are bettered by believing in a God,
as a dog when he owns a master. Again, though he never con-
descends to convince, his oracular utterances are the fruit of
minute calculation ; and this scientific process appears in the
almost judicial balancing of pros and contras, as in the essay, 'Of
1 'I have read of many essays and a kind of charactering of them, by such, as when
I looked into the form and nature of their writing, I have been of the conceit that they
were but imitators of your breaking the ice to their inventions. ' Nicholas Breton,
dedication to Bacon in Characters upon Essays.
2 Vide S. H. Reynolds, intro. to Essays or Counsels of Francis.
6
a
## p. 347 (#369) ############################################
Bacon
347
Usury,' or in the methodical and detailed directions which he gives,
as in the essay Of Travel. ' His logical habit of mind has trans-
'
formed even the materials of pedantry. The numerous quota-
tions and illustrations drawn from the Bible, the classics and
Machiavelli, seem necessary to his argument, and his unacknow-
ledged appropriations from Montaigne strike one as mere coinci-
dences of thought. All forms of knowledge are subjected to the
elucidation of his views on life. The primum mobile of astronomy
illustrates “the motions of the greatest persons in a government,'
and the legend of Briareus is interpreted as an emblem of the
people's power
These excellencies were largely due to the fact that Bacon
regarded the popularity of the Essays as ephemeral and was
not posing for posterity? He wrote down simply the things which
interested himself. This spontaneity carried its own limitations.
Many of the essays are made up of extracts, compiled from his
other works, and woven together into a new whole. He frequently
misquotes or misrepresents his quoted authors; and, sometimes, he
does not adhere closely to the title of his essays.
Besides, Bacon
led two lives, and in his views on worldly matters we have only
half the man: the side of him engaged in a struggle for advance-
ment. Hence, he regards life as a stage, and his meditations
almost always recur to the role which men play in the eyes of the
world. Adversity is discussed as a means of evoking the practice
of virtue ; friendship is viewed as a condition in which a man's
judgment may become clearer and his happiness more complete.
Even love and marriage are considered chiefly as an impediment
to the serious pursuits of life. But the greater number of his
‘Dispersed Meditations' deal with the immediate problem of
success : how far secrecy in dissembling will substitute an inborn
gift of discretion; whether boldness will counteract a reputation
for failure; in what way a knowledge of men rather than of books
can be turned to account in the intrigues of court life. These
speculations lead him into higher circles of government and
1 For list of plagiarisms vide F. A. F. Dieckow, John Florio's Englische Uebersetzung
der Essais Montaignes und Lord Bacon's, Ben Jonson's und Robert Burton's Verhältniss
zu Montaigne. It might be noticed, also, that the essay on death is largely coloured by
Lucretius, bk. III, and Erasmus, Colloquia Familiaria (Funus), while that on youth
and age is borrowed from Aristotle (Rhetoric, bk. II).
2 Vide quotations from Bacon's letters in English Men of Letters' Bacon, by
R. W. Church, 1892, chap. IX.
$ Vide S. H. Reynolds, ibid.
* J. Boudoin, in translating the Essays in 1640, entitled them L'Artisan de la
Fortune.
## p. 348 (#370) ############################################
348 London and Popular Literature
diplomacy, where, to penetrate the problems of statecraft, he
dispels the illusions of greatness. He fathoms the 'inscrutable
hearts of kings' and pictures their pitiable isolation and toilsome
existence. His book is destined for the commons of the realm ; so
the advice which he professes to give their rulers is really an
exposure (perhaps not intentional) of the machinery of government.
We have glimpses of the monarch seated at the council-board, pre-
paring his public utterances or choosing his favourites. The same
interest leads him to raise questions of public policy. In the essay
'On Superstition,' he marshals the chief accusations against the
Roman Catholic church; and, in treating of the greatness of
kingdoms, he does not ignore the bitter quarrel between the
peasantry and the gentry, Through every discussion, whether on
death and religion, or on gardens and masques, there runs that
sub-conscious ideal of versatile liberal culture out of which the
essay sprang.
Bacon proved the possibilities of this type of literature
as a repository of miscellaneous and desultory meditations. His
influence is seen in such men as Owen Felltham, who, endowed
with an interest in moral problems, and a certain mastery over
reflective prose, published essays from time to time. These, appar-
ently, were intended as exercises for confirming and strengthening
the writer in his own opinions, and show only occasional efforts at
an imitation of Bacon's gnomic style. And yet, Feltham's respect-
able, though commonplace, moralisations established the essay's
right to embrace even sacred topics ; especially are the virtuous
deeds of the ancients selected with no little intuition to illustrate
Christian ideals. Meanwhile, this art of extemporising modern
ideas out of antiquity had reached its highest pitch in the
desultory notes and reflections which Ben Jonson was making
out of his vast reading. In 1641, these were published posthu-
mously as Timber or Discoveries made upon men and matter.
Practically, all the ideas contained in this miscellany, from aphor-
istic jottings to continuous discourses, have their origin in some
other book. The influence of Velleius Paterculus, Euripides, Aulus
Gellius, Quintilian and Seneca are particularly noticeable? But
Timber is not a mere work of paraphrase and transcription.
Sometimes, several borrowed sentences are fused into one; some-
times, thoughts from different treatises are brought together or
sentences of the same treatise are arranged in a different order.
1 Vide bibl. for authorities who have investigated sources of the Discoveries, and
also cf. Wits Commonwealth
## p. 349 (#371) ############################################
Ben Jonson. Tobacco-pamphlets 349
The passages on Shakespeare and Bacon were taken from what
Seneca wrote of Haterius and Cassius Severus ; in another place,
Jonson condenses several pages of the Advancement of Learning
into one short essay. A sense of manly integrity, and a keen eye
to practical virtue and intelligence, guided this selection of the
world's wisdom, and the style has an almost colloquial simplicity
and directness far in advance of Bacon.
We have seen how social literature, under the influence of
classicism, grew into Juvenalian satire, character writing and
essays, without losing sight of contemporary interests. But city
life was too varied to find expression within the limits of any
literary canon, and Londoners continued to welcome any type of
tract which reflected their many-sided interests. No sooner had
the fashion of tobacco-smoking become prominent, than it divided
pamphleteers into two camps. Its supporters either founded their
adhesion on its alleged medical properties), or indulged their
literary gift in burlesque encomia Among others, an anony-
mous author, imitating Ovid, composed The Metamorphosis of
Tobacco, in heroic couplets of pleasing and harmonious rhythm.
He sings of the elements gathering in council to create a herb
of almost Promethean virtue, which Jupiter, fearing for his
sovereignty, banishes to an unknown land. But the graces dis-
cover the plant and remain so constant to its charms that mortals,
who would win their favour, must follow their example. On the
other hand, the growing insistence on good manners inspired
scathing criticisms on smoking as it was then practised. 'Tobac-
conists' were freely ridiculed by dramatists, character writers and
puritans. King James issued in 1604 A Counterblaste to Tobacco,
in which a sound if pedantic refutation of its alleged virtues is
followed by quaint but vigorous descriptions of the smoker's dis-
gusting habits. Among the many subsequent writers? who used
this theme as a whetstone for their wits, the most noteworthy is,
undoubtedly, Richard Brathwaite. Following the method of The
Metamorphosis, he works up the contention that smokers waste
their time into an allegorical romance, in which tobacco is traced
back to its origin as a son of Pluto, god of the nether world.
This phantasy is entitled, The Smoking Age, or, the Man in the
Mist (1617).
These ephemeral pamphlets are worth quoting, in order to
1 H. Buttes, Dyets Dry Dinner, 1599; E. Gardiner, Triall of Tobacco, 1610.
2 Vide bibl.
## p. 350 (#372) ############################################
350 London and Popular Literature
illustrate how varied, as well as elaborate, popular literature was
becoming. Even rogue-books began to multiply the artifices of
narration. E. S. produced, in 1597, the Discoverie of the Knights
of the Poste. These gentry were professional bailees, utilising the
name of some respectable citizen to stand surety for any criminal
who would make it worth their while. As the average law-breaker
was almost certain to be committed for another offence before the
year was out, this form of livelihood could be made safe by ordinary
precautions. Thus, the booklet is of very moderate interest. But
the style is significant. The Discoverie is a connected story re-
counting a journey undertaken by the author on foot from London
to Plymouth. He falls in with two fellow-travellers, and the trio
beguile the tedium of the way with anecdotes and personal remi-
niscences of the knights of the post. The narrative has all the
bye-play of a realistic novelette. Each of the author's companions
has his own individuality. Goodcoll is almost destitute, but trusts
to his witty tongue for escaping the dilemmas of impecuniosity.
Freeman has store of gold, and is so fond of good fellowship that
he not only claims the right to finance the party, but deviates from
his own course in order to enjoy their society. We visit the inns
at which they lodged, are told of what they drank at night, how
they slept and how they breakfasted. Freeman requests both
Goodcoll and the author to disburse small sums, since his own
wealth is in gold coin which he cannot realise till they come to
Exeter. But, when that city is reached, Freeman finds that his
store has vanished, and offers an explanation, which, apparently,
satisfies the two travellers, but leaves the reader dubious.
Authors who had been through prison now began to clothe
their experiences in varied forms. Luke Hutton's The Blacke
Dogge of Newgate (c. 1600) recounts the customs of that institu-
tion in a versified description of a vision, followed by a prose
dialogue which tells of the amateur thieves to be found amongst the
attendants of the prison. The Compter's Commonwealth (1617),
by William Fennor, introduces the humours and tricks of the jest-
books into the usual exposures of roguery. Geffray Mynshul, who
had left the debtor's prison with a lively recollection of its jangling
keys, fawning yet tyrannical warders, and embittered or reckless
inmates, actually endeavoured to give his friends an idea of these
miseries by describing them in essays and character sketches. But
1 Supposed by G. C. Moore Smith to be Edward Sharpham; N. & Q. no. 257,
11 July 1908.
2 For a fuller list see bibl.
## p. 351 (#373) ############################################
Dekker
351
the most important pamphleteer of Jacobean London is, undoubt-
edly, Thomas Dekker.
Apart from his dramatic work', Dekker stands alone in this
period. He is remarkable not as a satirist but as the first great
literary artist of London street life. He discovered how to describe
the city populace as a whole in its pursuits and agitations ; but, as
literature had not yet evolved a special mediumfor this por-
traiture, his gift finds expression only in a number of erratic
and ephemeral tracts. For instance, like other free lances, he
seized the obvious opportunity of producing a celebration of
Elizabeth's death and James's accession. He entitled this tract
The Wonderfull Yeare (1603). But the writer's thoughts are
soon drawn from perfunctory adulation to the more suggestive
theme of the plague which raged that year in London. We have
a picture of Death encamped like an army in the sin-polluted
suburbs. Its tents are winding-sheets, its field-marshal the plague,
its officers burning fevers, boils, blains and carbuncles; the rank
and file consist of mourners, “merrie sextons,' hungry coffin-sellers
and ‘nasty grave-makers'; the two catchpoles are fear and
trembling. The invaders storm London, massacring men, women
and children, breaking open coffers, rifling houses and ransacking
streets. There are passages of almost unparalleled horror de-
scribing the rotten coffins filling the streets with stench, or the
muck-pits full of putrid corpses, among which the worms writhe
in swarms. There is originality in this conception of death,
but much more in Dekker's description of the narrow London
streets at night time, filled with the groans or raving of sick men,
with glimpses of figures stealing out to fetch the sexton or sweating
under the load of a corpse which they must hide before 'the fatall
hand writing of death should seale up their doores. ' Then, we watch
the stampede into the country, and note the touches of meanness
and heroism which a commotion always brings to the surface. The
tract ends with the humorous side of the plague, discovered in
some witty though rather grim anecdotes, one recounting how the
death of a Londoner at a country inn threw the whole village into
>
1 He had already written eight plays single-banded and seven in collaboration,
besides historical works in conjunction with Drayton.
2 As we have seen, character writers sometimes described scenes and institutions.
But, before Donald Lapton's London and Country Carbonadoed (1632), none, apparently,
are touched with the fascination of London streets.
3 Cf. Richard Johnson, Anglorum Lachrymae ; H. Chettle, Englande's Mourning
Garment; J. Hall, The King's Prophecie or Weeping Joy; Thomas Bing, Sorrowes Joy;
8. Rowlands, God save the King.
## p. 352 (#374) ############################################
352 London and Popular Literature
6
the most grotesque disorder, until a tinker consented, for a large
sum, to bury the corpse.
One of Dekker's next productions? was an attempt-very com-
mon in this age--at appealing to the people by a denunciation of
sin. He adopted one of their popular allegories and, at the same
time, gratified their love of pageantry, in The Seven Deadly Sinnes
of London (1606), representing the triumphal entry of these into
the capital, each drawn in a symbolic chariot and each welcomed
by its special adherents. But all moral or theological sentiment is
overshadowed by the fascination of city life. The sins are no
longer those of the Roman Catholic church, but such as would
strike an observer of street scenes. We have 'Politick bank-
ruptisme,' the practice of merchants who pass through the court
to avoid paying their debts; 'Lying,' which begets the minor
cruelties and backslidings of life, notably oaths, which are 'crutches
upon which lyes go'; 'Candle light,' by which London streets
are illuminated like a theatre, so that merchants and 'prentices
alike are tempted to dissipation and thieving;. Sloth’; 'Apish-
nesse' or dandyism ; 'Shaving,' or the exaction of undue profits,
and ‘Cruelty, which is rampant in extortionate prisons, among
exorbitant creditors, merchants who take trade from their own
'prentices, relatives who abandon their own kith and kin in
plague-time, and fathers who force their daughters to uncongenial
marriages. While there is nothing profound or new in this view
of London life, the booklet abounds in good humour and felicitous
conceits. Above all, we have graphic views of the city, both in
the hurry and rush of midday traffic, and glimmering with its
taverns and gloaming alleys in the night-time.
The Seven Deadly Sinnes was a brilliant development of the
theme revived by Nashe and the author of Tom Tel-Troths Message
and his pens Complaint (1600). In the same year, Dekker
borrowed another idea from Pierce Penilesse. Nashe, in his
second edition, had promised to describe the return of the knight
of the post from hell. The hint was taken by 'an intimate and near
companion,' who produced an eminently insipid pamphlet in 1606.
Dekker followed this, in the same year, with Newes from Hell,
brought by the Divells Carrier. Again we see the skilful adapta-
tion of an ancient form of thought. Visions of heaven, purgatory
1 See bibl. for a list of Dekker's works, with notes.
2 Ante, p. 321.
3 The Return of the Knight of the Post from Hell with the Divels answere to the
Supplication of Pierce Penilesse, with some relation of the last Treasons, printed by
Jubp Windet, 1606.
## p. 353 (#375) ############################################
>
Newes from Hell
353
and hell had originated in paganism, had flourished all through
the Middle Ages in a Christian form and still retained their popu-
larity. Caxton had printed an English version of Deguileville's
Pilgrimage of the Soul and Machlinia had revived the Monk of
Evesham. The Kalendrier des Bergers, which contained a de-
scription of the punishments of the seven sins as revealed to
Lazarus, was frequently translated during the sixteenth century.
Ford, the dramatist, in one of his plays, introduces a friar who
gives a gruesome account of the tortures of hell, and The
Dead Man's Song treats the same subject in a broadside. 'St
Patrick's Purgatory' was famous all through the sixteenth
century, thanks to the disseminating influence of printing;
and Calderon, in the seventeenth, made it the subject of one
of his dramas. Burlesque versions of visions had existed since
Old English times, and continued through popular literature from
the Norman fabliaux to Rabelais. After the reformation, these
legends, like the sins, lost their theological significance, but the
people were still medieval at heart, and literary free-lances were
only too glad to avail themselves of the spell which visions still
exercised over the popular imagination. Before 1590%, some name-
less writer represented the famous Tarlton giving his impressions
of purgatory, and, in this form, conveyed social satire as well as a
collection of good stories. Tom Tell-Trothe's New-yeares Gift
(1593) contains Robin Goodfellow's account of a visit to hell,
and reproduces an oration against jealousy which he heard in those
regions. In Dekker's Nerces from Hell, we have a booklet full of
brilliant descriptions. The messenger starts for the nether world
through France and Venice, stopping only in London, where dis-
sipated youths call wildly to him through tavern windows, and he
hears one spendthrift, in a fit of inebriated veracity, curse the
wealthy merchant, his father, who left him money to waste. In
hell, he finds the sessions in progress and dead souls being tried
by a jury of their own sing. Before leaving, he catches sight
of several familiar types of London street life; notably a hollow-
eyed, wizened, old usurer, who offers to accept ‘any base drudgery'
if he can create an opportunity for making money. The tract also
illustrates the intellectual exuberance of the age, which, even in
burlesque, assimilated the imagery and sentiment of different ages
i Vide T. Wright, St Patrick's Purgatory, an essay on the legends of Purgatory,
Hell and Paradise current during the Middle Ages, 1844.
2 Pantagruel, Bk. 11, chap. 30.
3 See bibl. under Jest-books and Miscellaneous Tracts on London,
E. L. IV. CH. XVI.
23
## p. 354 (#376) ############################################
354 London and Popular Literature
and civilisations. Lucian, in Menippus, had pictured a visit to
the nether world, which Dekker had certainly read in John
Rastell's translation and travestied in his own fashion! . But the
place of torment-hideous, inaccessible, pestilential with 'rotten
vapors,' crawling toads and sulphurous stench-is still medieval,
and the caricature of the devil reflects the ribaldry of the fifteenth
century. In the following year, Dekker added a view of Elysium
and the description of a thunderstorm, caused by the conjurations
performed to summon up the knight of the post. On the strength
of these additions, the pamphlet was issued as a new publication
entitled A Knight's Conjuring.
It is not surprising that a pamphleteer with Dekker's curiosity
about life and his gift of realistic description should publish some
tracts on roguery, and, in 1608, he produced The Belman of
London, using the same material as his predecessors. In some
respects, the pamphlet is disappointing; it lacks the type of
anecdote which is attractive in Greene's work, and the character
drawing which enlivens the Knights of the Post. But the
setting has all Dekker's charm. The title suggests a picture of
city life; but the scene opens in the country, where the author,
after wandering among the serene pleasures of nature, finds him-
self in a disreputable farm-house, concealed in a gallery, watching
a ragged gang of diseased and misshapen vagabonds devour like
savages a steaming feast and initiate new members to their
fraternity. The squalor and wretchedness of these outcasts being
thus heightened by contrast, Dekker proceeds to tell us, as Harman
had done, of their orders, classes and practices. But the account
must be made attractive: so it is given by a ‘nymble-tongd beldam,
who seemed to have command of the place,' under the influence of
a pot of ale. We then accompany the author back to London and,
entering the city at midnight, at last encounter the bellman, whose
bell and voice are heard echoing along the shadowy silent streets.
This picturesque figure introduces an account of card-sharping,
shop-lifting and pocket-picking. The exposure is straightforward
and commonplace, but the style is embroidered with quaint and
elaborate conceits. The pamphlet enjoyed immediate recognition
and, according to Dekker, was plagiarised by The Belman's Brother.
Probably to anticipate further imitation, Dekker produced in the
same year a sequel : Lanthorne and Candle-light or the Bell-
Mans second Nights-walke, in which, after a number of picturesque
episodes, the devil decides to make a visit to London. We
i See bibl. for visions in classical literature, including Lucian,
## p. 355 (#377) ############################################
6
:
a
Rogue-pamphlets. Grobianism
355
accompany him on his rounds and see how 'Gul-gropers' cozen
young heirs out of their acres by usury, cards and dice; how
'Fawlconers' extract gratuities from country knights in return for
a counterfeit dedication in a pamphlet ; how ‘Ranckriders,' posing
as gentlemen, take up residence at an inn and, when a fictitious
summons arrives from a nobleman, borrow one of the landlord's
horses and do not return: how a 'Jacke in a boxe' borrows silver
on a money-box full of gold, for which is afterwards cleverly sub-
stituted one of similar exterior but very different contents. But
these are no longer mysterious deceptions which only a specialist
can detect. Exposures of villany were becoming more and more
exposures of human nature; they appeal to a curiosity about life
rather than to the instinct of self-defence. The best passage in the
book reves not an elaborate fraud which only technical know-
ledge could unmask, but the picture of an ostler slinking half
clothed at dead of night into the stable to steal a horse's provender.
It has already been shown how young men of wealth or birth
were attracted to London by the hope of advancing their fortunes
or of gaining experience. This class formed a new order in society,
without traditions, recognised status or code of manners. No
aggregate of human beings, with the possible exception of rogues
and vagabonds, seems to have attracted so much attention. Sir
Humphrey Gilbert? had suggested the organisation of a gentleman's
university, devoted to the cultivation of refined manners and
courtly accomplishments; the essayists had given much attention
to the pursuits of monied youth ; Peacham wrote a whole
book? on the subject; and, by 1633, Milton had constructed a
complete scheme of education, which should combine the soldier's,
courtier's and scholar's training all in one. But, at present, the
playhouses, drinking taverns and ordinaries of London were filled
with inexperienced boys, who had been taught something of their
duty to their king and country, but no other rules of deportment
in these novel situations than resenting an insult and holding
their own with their equals. New conventionalities had not yet
been evolved to meet new conditions, and public opinion was
content to condemn them as gulls, roaring boys, coxcombs, wood-
cocks, cockneys and popinjays. Social pamphleteers had satirised
them again and again ; and Dekker, while engaged on a translation
of Dedekind's Grobianus, conceived the idea of turning the
German's old-fashioned 8 satire on the boorishness suggestive of an
? See bibl.
1 Queene Elizabethes Achademy.
3 Grobianus was printed 1549. See bibl.
23—2
## p. 356 (#378) ############################################
356 London and Popular Literature
Eulenspiegel into a pasquil on the modern English type.
