See Zeev Sternhell, Maurice Barre`s et le
nationalisme
franc?
Cult of the Nation in France
The exception to this is the oft-reprinted Quiquer, not so much a dictionary or grammar as a bilingual conversation manual apparently designed for mer- chants operating in Breton-speaking areas. The clerical audience of the others is mentioned explicitly in the various titles, prefaces, and preambles. Given the lack of primary education in Breton, it is doubtful that native Breton- speakers could have used these dictionaries to learn French, and indeed two lacked Breton-French sections entirely (Cillart de Ke? rampoul and Gre? goire de Rostrenen). On Maunoir's views, see Le sacre? colle`ge, 16. On Maunoir as the "father of modern Breton," see Yannick Pelletier, ed. , Histoire ge? ne? rale de la Bretagne et des Bretons, 2 vols. (Paris, 1990), II, 508. As for the southern dictionaries, Pellas and Sauvages de la Croix were both priests. Achard was not, but still listed "priests charged with the instruction of the people" first among his potential clients (Dictionnaire de la Provence, xiii). Several more southern priests compiled large manuscript dictionaries of the local dialect that never reached a publisher.
See, for instance, Cillart de Ke? rampoul, 184, 189. Gre? goire de Rostrenen has a similar definition on 508. French definitions are here given along with the Breton.
Castan, "Les languedociens du 18e sie`cle," 74n; Bernard, "La re? volution franc? aise et la langue bretonne," 294; Merle, L'e? criture du provenc? al, 345.
La douctrino crestiano meso en rimos (Toulouse, 1641), 5-6. A copy of this rare publication can be found in the B. M. T. Re? serve Dxviii 371.
Notes to Pages 189-190
119.
120.
121. 122.
Notes to Pages 191-193 287
? 123. Further examples of such sessions can be found, for the Club of Aix, in Merle, 295, and for Strasbourg in de Certeau et al. , 280. See also, in general, Brunot, IX, pt. 1, 62-3.
124. See Sepinwall, "Regenerating France," 51-58.
125. See Bell, "Nation-Building and Cultural Particularism," and Ford, Strasbourg
in Transition.
126. Sepinwall, 35-50. quote from 36.
127. Oberlin, Essai sur le patois lorrain. The friendship is described in Sepinwall,
60-68.
128. Quoted in Sepinwall, 61. In French, the brothers were Je? re? mie-Jacques and
Jean-Fre? de? ric.
129. M. Grucker, "Le pasteur Oberlin," Me? moires de l'Acade? mie de Stanislas, 5th
ser. , 4-6 (1888), xxxi-lvi, quote from lxii, quoted in Sepinwall, 66; in general on Oberlin, see Sepinwall, 62-66; Camille Leenhardt, La vie de Jean-Fre? de? ric Oberlin, 1740-1826 (Paris, 1911); Edmond Parisot, Un e? ducateur moderne au XVIIIe` sie`cle: Jean-Fre? de? ric Oberlin (1740-1826) (Paris, 1907); John W. Kurtz, John Frederic Oberlin (Boulder, CO, 1976). On both the Oberlins, I am also indebted here to David Troyansky's "Alsatian Knowledge and European Cul- ture: Je? re? mie-Jacques Oberlin, Language, and the Protestant Gymnase in Rev- olutionary Strasbourg," Francia 27/2 (2000), 119-138. Notes to Pages 191-193
130. Kurtz, 230-31, 276-77.
131. I am indebted to Alyssa Sepinwall for pointing me towards this conclusion.
132. See L. E. Schmidt, Untersuchungen zur Entstehung und Struktur der neuhoch-
deutschen Schriftssprachen (Cologne, 1966).
133. Jeremias-Jakob Oberlin to Gre? goire in BN NAF 2798, fol. 95, Antoine
Gautier-Sauzin in Arch. Nat. F17 1309, reprinted in de Certeau et al. , 259-63.
134. See Victor E. Durkacz, The Decline of the Celtic Languages: A Study of Linguis- tic and Cultural Conflict in Scotland, Wales and Ireland from the Reformation
to the Twentieth Century (Edinburgh, 1983), 2.
135. Quoted in ibid. , 3-5. Similar legislation for Scotland dates from 1616.
136. For a summary of the existing literature, see Geoffrey Parker, "Success and
Failure during the First Century of the Reformation," Past and Present, 136
(1992), 61-2.
137. Brunot, II, 21.
138. Brun, Recherches historiques, 426.
139. Queen Jeanne d'Albret had a Calvinist catechism and the psalms translated
into Be? arnais, and recruited Be? arnais preachers. Though short-lived, her ef- forts so strengthened Be? arnais that the kingdom, fully integrated into France in 1620, resisted French more fiercely than any other Occitan region (the Es- tates used a bastard Be? arnais for their deliberations right down to 1789). See Andre? Armengaud and Robert Lafont, eds. , Histoire de l'Occitanie (Paris, 1979), 483-86; Franc? ois Pic, "A propos de l'emploi de l'occitan par la
288
Notes to Pages 193-202
? 140.
141. 142. 143. 144.
145.
Notes to Pages 193-202
146. 147.
148.
1.
2. 3.
4.
5.
6.
re? forme: Le cate? chisme bilingue franc? ais-be? arnais de Jean-Raymond Merlin,"
Bulletin de l'Association d'e? tude sur l'humanisme, la re? forme et la renaissance (France du centre et du sud-est), VI/11 (1980), 38-45; Brun, L'introduction de la langue franc? aise, 28, 34.
After the fall of the Jacobins and the reestablishment of Catholicism, Gre? goire succeeded in getting a law passed to the effect that only the "sacra- mental formulae" would remain in Latin. On this debate, and Gre? goire's cru- cial role in it, see Brunot, IX, pt. I, 374-78, 396-97. At this date, of course, the French constitutional church was disavowed by the Vatican.
See above all Van Kley, Religious Origins (see Intro. , n. 65).
Brunot, V, 25-28.
For a summary of these issues, see Sepinwall, 75-79.
Maza, Private Lives and Public Affairs (see Ch. 2, n. 18), 85; cf. Marie-He? le`ne Huet, Rehearsing the Revolution: The Staging of Marat's Death, 1793-1797, trans. Robert Hurley (Berkeley, 1992), 49-58.
Carla Hesse, "La preuve par la lettre: Pratiques juridiques au tribunal re? volutionnaire de Paris (1793-1794)," Annales: Histoire, Sciences Sociales, LI/ 3 (1996), 629-42.
Gre? goire, in de Certeau et al, 303.
Chabot to Gre? goire, Sept. 4, 1790, in Gazier, 73; Fonvielhe to Gre? goire, un- dated, in BN NAF 2798, fol. 44v.
Quoted in Merle, 295.
Conclusion
See, for instance, Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism (see Intro. , n. 13), 44; Hugh Seton-Watson, Nation and States: An Enquiry into the Origins of Na- tions and the Politics of Nationalism (New York, 1977), 107.
Results from Library of Congress Catalogue at catalog. loc. gov.
On the army as a "school of Jacobinism" and, a fortiori, of republican Frenchness during Year II, see Jean-Paul Bertaud, La Re? volution arme? e: Les soldats-citoyens et la Re? volution franc? aise (Paris, 1979), 194-229.
On the republican heritage in nineteenth- and twentieth-century French na- tionalism, and a comparison with Germany, see Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge, Mass. , 1992).
See Thiesse, La cre? ation des identite? s nationales (see Intro. , n. 14), which now provides the best general guide to the phenomenon. Her work builds above all on Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds. , The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983). On France, see also the work of Poulot, Muse? e, nation, patrimoine (see Ch. 4, n. 10).
See de Certeau et al. (see Ch. 5, n. 66), esp. 160-69.
7. The crucial works here are Thiesse, Ils apprenaient la France (see Ch. 4, n. 35), and Chanet, L'e? cole re? publicaine et les petites patries (see Ch. 6, n. 42).
8.
See Zeev Sternhell, Maurice Barre`s et le nationalisme franc? ais (Paris, 1972); Herman Lebovics, True France: The Wars over Cultural Identity, 1900-1945 (Ithaca, 1992); and, for an example of Maurras's writings, Charles Maurras, Mai^tres et te? moins de ma vie d'esprit: Barre`s, Mistral, France, Verlaine, More? as (Paris, 1954).
9. Maurice Barre`s, Les de? racine? s (Paris, 1911).
10. Journal officiel de l'Etat franc? ais, Dec. 27, 1941, quoted in Michel Baris, Langue
d'oi? l contre langue d'oc de la prise de Montse? gur (1244) a` la loi Deixonne (1951)
(Lyon, 1978), 98; cf. Chanet, 203-41.
11. See Yardeni, La conscience nationale (see Intro. , n. 12); R. Bu? tler, Nationales
und universales Denken im Werke Etienne Pasquiers (Basel, 1948).
12. Jules Michelet, Jeanne d'Arc (Paris, 1879), and Histoire de la Re? volution
franc? aise, 2 vols. (Paris, 1852), I, 21-41.
13. Tallien quoted in Brubaker, 7. See also Jean-Pierre Gross, "La politique
militaire franc? aise de l'An II et l'e? veil du nationalisme," History of European
Ideas, XV/1 (1992), 347-53.
14. See Wahnich, L'impossible citoyen (see Intro. , n. 33), 127-31.
15. For an extended treatment of this aspect of French nationalism and its com-
parison with German citizenship practices, see Brubaker, Citizenship and Na-
tionhood.
16. On the situation of Alsace, see Bell, "Nation-Building and Cultural Particu- larism" (see Ch. 2, n. 101).
17. Quoted in Albert Soboul, "La Re? volution franc? aise: Proble`me national et re? alite? s sociales," in Pierre Vilar, ed. , Actes du Colloque Patriotisme et Nationalisme en Europe a` l'e? poque de la Re? volution franc? aise et de Napole? on (Paris, 1973), 29-58, at 34.
18. Ernest Renan, "What Is a Nation? " in Geoff Eley and Ronald Grigor Suny, eds. , Becoming National: A Reader (Oxford, 1996), 42-55, quote from 53.
19. Many of them also cite Renan's stress on patrimony. See Jacques Chirac,
speech to the Institut des Hautes Etudes de De? fense Nationale, cited in Le Monde, May 31, 2000; also Interior Minister Jean-Pierre Cheve`nement in dia- logue with German Foreign Minister Joschka Fischer, cited in Le Monde, June 21, 2000. In recent years in Le Monde, see also, for instance, the following arti- cles: Roger-Pol Droit, "Questions de frontie`res," Le Monde des Livres, Sept. 16, 1996; Eric Melchior and Je? ro^me Sulim, "Thiers, Ce? line, Brasillach: non, nous n'assumons pas! " Le Monde, Feb. 15, 1997; Serina Guillaume, "Une re? flexion ne? cessaire," Le Monde, Oct. 18, 1997; Albrecht Sonntag, "Le football: Ciment des nations," Le Monde, June 4, 1998; Alain Bergounioux et al. , preliminary document of the Parti Socialiste on Europe, discussed in Michel Noblecourt,
Notes to Pages 202-205 289
? Notes to Pages 202-205
290
Notes to Pages 206-210
? 20. 21. 22.
23. 24.
Notes to Pages 206-210
25. 26.
27. 28.
29. 30.
31.
32. 33. 34.
"Le PS a` la recherche d'une position equilibre? e sur la construction europe? enne," Le Monde, Feb. 3, 1999; Jean-Philippe Vincent, "Renan et la Corse," Le Monde, June 4, 1999; Cle? ment Je? ro^me, "France et Allemagne, demain," Le Monde, September 24, 1999; Cullin Michel, "Jo? rg Haider en que^te d'une nouvelle identite? nationale," Le Monde, Feb. 17, 2000. Re? impression de l'ancien Moniteur, Dec. 22, 1792, 803.
Greenfeld, Nationalism (see Intro. , n. 21), 11, 89-188.
Here I take issue with Thiesse, especially in La cre? ation des identite? s nationales and her attempt to present French nationalism as fundamentally little differ- ent from other European varieties.
See Stuart J. Woolf, Napoleon's Integration of Europe (London, 1991).
See Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen (see Intro. , n. 28), 3-22, quote from 9. To be sure, these same bourgeois observers could also perceive the urban lower classes as dangerous and alien, but with the difference that the urban poor tended to be seen less as pure creatures of nature lacking in social organiza- tion, than as members of a corrupt, debauched form of society. In this sense, the distinction recapitulates the early modern distinction between "savages" and "barbarians. " See the classic analysis of Louis Chevalier, Classes laborieuses et classes dangereuses a` Paris pendant la premie`re moitie? du XIXe sie`cle (Paris, 1958).
See Woloch, The New Regime (see Ch. 5, n. 106), 197-222.
Weber, 68, 303-38. See also Antoine Prost, L'enseignement en France, 1800- 1967 (Paris, 1968).
Quoted in Weber, 332-33.
See Jacques and Mona Ozouf, "La Tour de la France par deux enfants," and Pierre Nora, "Lavisse, instituteur national," in Nora, ed. , Les lieux de me? moire (see Intro. , n. 33), I, 277-301 and 239-75.
See Chanet, esp. 216-23.
Most recently on this subject, see Alice Conklin, A Mission to Civilize: The Re- publican Idea of Empire in France and West Arica, 1895-1930 (Stanford, 1997). "Let us regard ourselves, you and I, in these cantons, as if we were in China or in Turkey, even though we are in the middle of Christianity, where one sees practically nought but pagans," a priest from the diocese of Nantes wrote to a colleague in 1731. Quoted in Chartier, Cultural Origins (see Intro. , n. 32), 104. For a sustained analysis of the comparison, see Dominique Deslandres, "Le mode`le franc? ais d'inte? gration socio-religieuse, 1600-1650: Missions inte? rieures et premie`res missions canadiennes," Ph. D. diss. , Universite? de Montre? al (1990).
See Conklin, 102-4, 135-36.
See ibid. , 142-173, 246-56.
On these points, see above all Ge? rard Noiriel, The French Melting Pot: Immi-
Notes to Pages 210-216 291
? gration, Citizenship and National Identity, trans. Geoffroy de Laforcade (Min- neapolis, 1996), esp. 1-90, 189-226. Nora's remarks quoted on 3. For some criticisms of Noiriel, see David A. Bell, "Forgotten Frenchmen," Times Liter- ary Supplement, Jan. 24, 1997.
35. For a comparison of French and German citizenship laws, see Brubaker, Citi- zenship and Nationhood.
36. See Ge? rard Noiriel, "Franc? ais et e? trangers," in Nora, ed. , Les lieux de me? moire, pt. III, I, 275-76.
37. See esp. Richard Kuisel, Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization (Berkeley, 1993). For commentary in the American media, see for instance Roger Cohen, "Lacking Barricades, France Is in a Funk," The New York Times, Dec. 29, 1996, sect. 4, p. 5; Howard LaFranchi, "The Two Faces of France," The Christian Science Monitor, July 25, 1994, 9; "The Declining Glory of France," cover story, Newsweek, European ed. , May 9, 1994.
38. Nora. ed. , Les lieux de me? moire. For comments on this work see Englund, "The Ghost of Nation Past" (see Intro. , n. 27), and Bell, "Paris Blues" (see Intro. , n. 27).
39. Paul Yonnet, Voyage au centre du malaise franc? ais (Paris, 1993). Notes to Pages 210-216
40. Henri Mendras (with Alistair Cole), Social Change in Modern France: Towards
a Cultural Anthropology of the Fifth Republic (Cambridge, 1991), 15.
41. Ibid. , 16, and more generally 15-22. See also Henri Mendras, La fin des
paysans (rev. ed. Paris, 1984).
42. The poll was cited in the Toronto Star, July 26, 1998. The figure of 38% was far
higher than that in any other European country.
43. Quoted in The Independent (London), April 30, 1995, 17. The remark was
made in 1991.
44. Pierre Nora, "De la Re? publique a` la Nation" in Les lieux de me? moire, I, 559-
67.
