460
Exile of John Chrysostom
461
Regency of Pulcheria
463
Elevation of Valentinian III
465
Fall of Eudocia
466
Accession of Marcian-of Leo I
467
Rise of Zeno-Murder of Aspar .
Exile of John Chrysostom
461
Regency of Pulcheria
463
Elevation of Valentinian III
465
Fall of Eudocia
466
Accession of Marcian-of Leo I
467
Rise of Zeno-Murder of Aspar .
Cambridge Medieval History - v1 - Christian Roman Empire and Teutonic Kingdoms
After this Mr Barker records the last
struggles of the Western Empire—the loyalty of Gaul and the dis-
affection of Africa—under Aëtius and Majorian, concluding with the
barbarian mutiny at Pavia which overthrew the last Augustus of the
West. Then M. Maurice Dumoulin continues the history of Italy under
the barbarian rule of Odovacar and Theodoric, describing the great
king's policy, and shewing how he kept in check for awhile the feud of
Roman and barbarian which had wrecked the Western Empire. Turning
now to the Eastern provinces, the fifth century, which falls to Mr Brooks,
is upon the whole a prosaic period of second-rate rulers and dire financial
strain. Yet even here we have striking events, remarkable characters,
and important movements-the fall of Rufinus and the failure of
Gaïnas ; Pulcheria ruling the Empire as a girl of sixteen, the romance
## p. ix (#17) ##############################################
Preface
ix
of Athenais, and the catastrophe of Basiliscus; the Isaurian policy of
Leo, and the reforms of Anastasius. Then Miss Alice Gardner traces
the history of religious disunion in the East. The fall of Chrysostom
brought to the front the rivalry of Constantinople and Alexandria, the
defeat of Nestorianism at Ephesus and of Monophysitism at Chalcedon
fixed the lines of orthodoxy, but left Egypt and Syria heterodox and
disaffected, and the reconciling Henoticon of Zeno produced nothing
but a new schism. In the next chapter Dom Butler traces the growth
of monasticism and its various forms in East and West, including the
Benedictine rule and the Irish monks. After this Professor Vinogradoff
surveys the whole field of social and economic conditions in the declining
Empire, and shews the part which rotten economics and bad taxation
played in its destruction. Then Mr H. F. Stewart gives his account of
the heathen and Christian literature of the time, and of the various
lines of thought which seemed to converge upon the grand figure of
Augustine. The volume concludes with Mr Lethaby's account of the
beginnings and early development of Christian art.
Shortly: to the student of universal history the Roman Empire is
the bulwark which for near six hundred years kept back the ever-
threatening attacks of Teutonic and Altaian barbarism. Behind that
bulwark rose the mighty structure of Roman Law, and behind it a new
order of the world was beginning to unfold from the fruitful seeds of
Christian thought. So when the years of respite ended, and the
universal Empire went down in universal ruin, the Christian Church
was able from the first to put some check on the northern conquerors,
and then by the long training of the Middle Ages to mould the nations
of Europe into forms which have issued in richer and fuller developments
of life and civilisation than imperial Rome had ever known.
It remains for us to give our best thanks to Dr A. W. Ward for
much counsel and assistance, and to all those who have kindly helped
us by looking over the proofs of particular chapters.
H. M. G.
J. P. W.
September 1911
62
## p. x (#18) ###############################################
1
## p. xi (#19) ##############################################
xi
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
CONSTANTINE AND HIS CITY.
By H. M. GWATKIN, M. A. , Dixie Professor of Ecclesiastical
History, Cambridge.
.
Where does Medieval History begin?
Early life of Constantine
Constantine made Caesar
Battle of Saxa Rubra
Edict of Milan
Defeat of Maximin Daza
Wars with Licinius
Constantine's religious policy-coinage--legislation-endowments
Council of Nicaea
Executions of Crispus and Fausta
Site of Constantinople .
Earlier history of Byzantium
Foundation of Constantinople
The Gothic War.
Constantine's later years
Last arrangements
Death of Constantine
PAGE
1
2.
3
4
5
6
7
8-12
13-15
15
16
17
18
19
20
22
23
CHAPTER II.
THE REORGANISATION OF THE EMPIRE.
By J. S. Reid, Litt. D. , Professor of Ancient
History, Cambridge.
Tendency to despotism
Growth of centralisation
New form of the Executive.
The Great Officials of the Court-the Praefects--the provincial
governors
Praefectures and dioeceses
24
26
27
28
31
## p. xii (#20) #############################################
xii
Contents
The Praefectus Praetorio—the Vicarius
The Civil Service.
The Agentes in rebus
The Quaestor
Financial changes
Reform of the currency
Assessment of taxes
Financial administration
Organisation of the army
The Magister militum
Comites.
Patricii—the Consistorium
The Senate
The City of Rome
Subjects of the Empire-Ouriales-Collegia ----Coloni
PAGE
33
34
36
37
38
40
41
43
44
46
47
48
49
50
51
CHAPTER III.
CONSTANTINE'S SUCCESSORS TO JOVIAN: AND THE
STRUGGLE WITH PERSIA.
By Norman H. BAYNES, M. A. , Oxon. , Barrister-at-Law.
Last dispositions of Constantine
The Persian War
Reign of Constans
Revolt of Magnentius
Civil War-Vetranio-Battle of Mursa
Julian's youth and conversion to Paganism
Julian made Caesar-his first campaign in Gaul
Constantius at Rome
Battle of Strassburg
Julian on the Rhine
Constantius on the Danube .
Siege of Amida.
“Julianus Augustus”
Negotiations with Constantius
Death and character of Constantius
Julian's reforms
Julian's religious policy
The Persian Expedition
Death of Julian-Election of Jovian
Disgraceful Peace with Persia
Death of Jovian.
所切&ww似的仍侶的HR仍
55
57
58
59
60
63
65
67
68
69
71
72
73
74
76
78
.
79-80
81-3
84
85
86
.
## p. xiii (#21) ############################################
Contents
xiii
CHAPTER IV.
THE TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY.
By the Rev. T. M. LINDSAY, D. D. , LL. D. , Principal of the
Glasgow College of the United Free Church of Scotland.
PAGE
87
88
89
92
Nature of the Triumph
Cosmopolitan Society
Oriental Religions Worship of Isis
The new Paganism— Tuurobolia
Neoplatonism and Christianity
Growing strength of Christianity in the third century
Legislation against Paganism
Julian's youth and education
Julian and Paganism
Julian in Gaul
Julian's religious policy
Julian's endeavours to reform Paganism
The Mysteries
Julian's failure
Decay of Paganism in the East and survivals of it
Paganism in the West, and its influence on literature and
Christianity.
.
93-4
95-6
97
98-9
100
101-2
103
105
109
110
112
114
CHAPTER V.
ARIANISM,
By Professor GWATKIN.
Origin of Arianism
The Council of Nicaea
The Creed—hesitation of the bishops
Significance of the decision of Nicaea .
Causes and general course of the conservative Reaction
Marcellus and Athanasius
Death of Constantine •
Council of the Dedication
Council of Sardica
Renewal of the contest—Third exile of Athanasius
The Homoean domination
Julian's policy, and its influence on the Christians
The Homoean domination restored by Valens
Basil of Caesarea .
Last years of Athanasius
Council of Constantinople and Fall of Arianism.
118
120
121
123
125
127
128
129
130
131
133
134
137
138
139
140
141
Theodosius
## p. xiv (#22) #############################################
1
xiv
Contents
CHAPTER VI.
1
i
1
.
THE ORGANISATION OF THE CHURCH.
By C. H. TURNER, M. A. , F. B. A. , Fellow of Magdalen
College, Oxford.
PAGE
The Missionary Ministry
143
The Local Church
145
The Bishop
146
Presbyters
148
Deacons and Minor Orders .
149
The Cursus Honorum
151
Episcopal Elections
152
Relations of the Orders to each other
154
Altered use of Sacerdos
157
Parish clergy in Rome and Alexandria
159
The right of preaching
162
Local Councils
164
General Councils .
165
Equality of Bishops
167
Metropolitans
168
Church and State
170
The three great Sees
171
The Roman Theory
172
Rise of Jerusalem
174
Councils and the Creed
176
Church Law—its origin and codification
178
Greek and Latin Canon Law
181
CHAPTER VII.
EXPANSION OF THE TEUTONS (TO A. D. 378).
I
By Martin Bang, Ph. D.
Origin of the Teutons .
Teutons and Kelts
Migrations and Civilisation of the Kelts
Teutonic migrations and invasion of Gaul
The Bastarnae
Cimbri and Teutons
Ariovistus and Caesar
Marbod
The Marcomanni .
Marcus Aurelius and Commodus.
The Alemanni
The Goths--Decius–Claudius-Aurelian-Diocletian
Constantine and the Goths .
Julian and Valentinian on the Rhine .
The Goths in Dacia-their Conversion
Invasion of the Huns.
Battle of Hadrianople .
183
185
186
188
190
191
194
196
197
199
201
202
208
209
211
215
216
.
## p. xv (#23) ##############################################
Contents
XV
CHAPTER VIII.
THE DYNASTY OF VALENTINIAN AND THEODOSIUS
THE GREAT.
By Norman H. BAYNES, M. A.
PAGE
218
220
222
225
226
227
228
229
231
Election of Valentinian-Valens co-Emperor
Revolt of Procopius
Valentinian in Gaul-Count Theodosius in Britain
Rome and Armenia
Conspiracy of Theodorus
Count Romanus in Africa
Execution of Count Theodosius
Work and character of Valentinian
Gratian Emperor :
The Goths – Battle of Hadrianople— Death and character of
Valens
Theodosius and the Gothic war
The usurper Maximus .
Partition of Armenia
Riot at Antioch
The Fall of Maximus .
Ambrose and Theodosius
Revolt of Arbogast—Eugenius
Battle of the Frigidus .
Death of Theodosius
232
235
238
240
241
242
244
245
247
248
CHAPTER IX.
THE TEUTONIC MIGRATIONS, 378-412.
e
By Dr M. MANITIUS, Privatgelehrter in Radebeul
bei Dresden.
.
Sequel to the Battle of Hadrianople
Appointment of Theodosius .
Settlement of the Goths in the Empire
The Franks.
Revolt of Arbogast-Death of Theodosius
Division of the Empire
Alaric in Greece.
Revolt of Gaïnas .
Battle of Pollentia
Barbarian invasion of Gaul—The usurper Constantine
Fall of Stilicho
Alaric in Italy
Attalus Emperor
Sack of Rome by the Goths
Barbarian conquests in Spain
250
253
254
256
257
260
261
262
265
266
269
270
272
273
274
Constantius.
275
## p. xvi (#24) #############################################
xvi
Contents
CHAPTER X.
TEUTONIC KINGDOMS IN GAUL.
(A) THE VISIGOTHS TO THE DEATH OF EURIC.
By Prof. Dr Ludwig SCHMIDT, Bibliothekar an der
Königl. Bibliothek Dresden.
.
The Visigoths in Gaul-Ataulf and Wallia
Theodoric and Aëtius
Invasion of Attila
Theodoric II-Euric
Alaric II—Battle of Vouglé
Goths and Romans-Social and political conditions
The Church--Arianism
PAGE
277
279
280
281
285
287
290
(B) The FrankS BEFORE Clovis.
By M. CHRISTIAN PFister, docteur ès lettres, professeur
à la Faculté des lettres de l'Université de Paris.
Origin of the Franks—Tacitus
Franks and Romans
The Salian Franks
Clodion-Merovech-Childeric
The Ripuarian Franks .
The Salic Law
Political organisation
292
295
296
297
299
300
301
CHAPTER XI.
THE SUEVES, ALANS AND VANDALS IN SPAIN, 409-429.
THE VANDAL DOMINION IN AFRICA, 429-533.
.
By Dr Ludwig SCHMIDT.
Sueves and Alans in Spain .
Passage of the Vandals into Africa
Capture of Carthage
Settlement in Africa
Sack of Rome by the Vandals
Majorian
Last years of Gaiseric .
Huneric-Gunthamund-Thrasamund-Hilderic
Gelimer-Fall of the Vandal kingdom
Social state-Vandals and Romans
Political organisation
Religion
304
305
306
307
308
309
311
312
315
316
318
321
.
## p. xvii (#25) ############################################
Contents
xvii
CHAPTER XII.
(A) THE ASIATIC BACKGROUND.
By T. PEISKER, Ph. D. , Privatdocent and Librarian, Graz.
Soil and climate of Central Asia
Changes of climate-Irrigation
Origin of the nomads .
Domestication of animals—the horse
Ethnography and languages
Social organisation of the nomads
Wanderings—the tent.
Winter and summer pastures
Food-kumiz
Dress of the nomads
Religion-Shamanism-Cosmogony
Weapons Predatory life-Slavery
Conquests
Altaian Empires
Mixture of races-disappearance of Altaian features and language
Scythians and Magyars
Origin of the Roumanians
Place of the nomads in history
PAGE
323
325
328
330
332
333
335
337
339
341
343
347
349
352
353
355
357
359
(B) ATTILA.
By Dr Ludwig SCHMIDT.
Attila's policy-Relations to the Eastern Empire
Attila in GaúlBattle of the Mauriac Plain
360
364
365
Death of Attila
CHAPTER XIII.
(A) ROMAN BRITAIN.
By F. J. HAVERFIELD, LL. D. , F. B. A. , Camden Professor
of Ancient History, Oxford.
Geographical position of Britain .
The Roman Conquest
The Roman garrison
How far Britain became Roman .
Towns-Villages-Roads
Saxon invasions
The Saxon Conquest
367
368
369
371
373
378
380
## p. xviii (#26) ###########################################
xviii
Contents
(B) TEUTONIC CONQUEST OF BRITAIN.
By F. G. M. Beck, M. A. , Fellow of Clare College,
Cambridge.
Bede's account of the Conquest
Early notices of the Invaders
Civilisation of the Invaders—Religion- Agriculture
Nature and course of the Invasion
The English kingdoms—Wessex-Mercia—Northumbria
PAGE
382
384
385
388
389
CHAPTER XIV.
ITALY AND THE WEST, 410-476.
By Ernest BARKER, M. A. , Fellow of St John's College,
Oxford.
The Barbarians in the Empire—the barbarian magister militiae
East and West
The Papacy—the Senate
Placidia and Attila
Ataulf in Italy—in Gaul
Revolt of Heraclian
The reign of Wallia
Castinus and Boniface .
Usurpation of John-Regency of Placidia
The Vandal invasion of Africa
Aëtius and Boniface-Aëtius in Gaul
The Codex Theodosianus--Gaiseric's policy
The Huns-Attila and the West
Battle of the Mauriac Plain
Attila in Italy-his death
Assassination of Aëtius-of Valentinian III
Maximus and Avitus
Ricimer and Majorian .
Aegidius and St Severinus
The Armada of Basiliscus
The reign of Anthemius
The mutiny of 476-End of the Western Empire
392
395
396
398
399
402
404
406
407
409
410
411
414
416
417
418
421
422
425
426
427
430
CHAPTER XV.
THE KINGDOM OF ITALY UNDER ODOVACAR AND
THEODORIC.
By MAURICE DUMOULIN, Professeur de l'Université de France.
Orestes
433
Odovacar
434
Zeno and Odovacar
435
Government of Odovacar
436
Theodoric's early life.
437
## p. xix (#27) #############################################
1
Contents
xix
Theodoric's invasion of Italy-Fall of Odovacar
Theodoric's Court and Officials
The Senate—the Consulship
Theodoric's Government
Corn-distributions—Buildings
The Church-Theodoric's tolerance
Foreign affairs
Theodoric's last years-Boethius
Death of Theodoric
PAGE
439
442
443
445
447
449
451
452
453
CHAPTER XVI.
THE EASTERN PROVINCES FROM ARCADIUS TO ANASTASIUS.
459
By E. W. Brooks, M. A. , King's College, Cambridge.
Murder of Rufinus
457
Fall of Eutropius
Revolt of Gaïnas .
460
Exile of John Chrysostom
461
Regency of Pulcheria
463
Elevation of Valentinian III
465
Fall of Eudocia
466
Accession of Marcian-of Leo I
467
Rise of Zeno-Murder of Aspar .
469
Usurpation of Basiliscus
473
Gothic wars
474
Revolt of Illus
478
Accession of Anastasius
479
Isaurian revolt
480
Invasion of Kawad
481
Peace with Persia
483
Financial administration of Anastasius
484
Revolt of Vitalianus
485
Death of Anastasius
486
CHAPTER XVII.
RELIGIOUS DISUNION IN THE FIFTH CENTURY.
By ALICE GARDNER, Lecturer of Newnham College,
Cambridge.
Schools of Antioch and Alexandria
487
Chrysostom and Theophilus.
489-94
Theophilus
489
Chrysostom
491
Council of the Oak
492
Exile of Chrysostom
493
Nestorianism
494-503
Cyril
494
T
## p. xx (#28) ##############################################
=
XX
Contents
Nestorius
The Θεοτόκος.
Beginnings of the Controversy
Council of Ephesus
End of Nestorius
Eutychianism
Dioscorus
Outbreak of the Controversy
The Latrocinium
Leo and Marcian
Council of Chalcedon-definition of Faith
Canon XXVIII and Roman objections .
Timothy the Cat-Rise of Monophysitism
The School of Edessa
The Henoticon of Zeno
Zeno-Acacius
The Henoticon
End of the Schism
The Nestorian Church in Persia
PAGE
495
496
498
500
502
503-15
503
504
505
506
507
511
512
514
515-20
515
516
518
519
.
CHAPTER XVIII.
MONASTICISM.
By Dom E. C. BUTLER, M. A. , Hon. D. Litt. Dublin,
Abbot of Downside Abbey.
Early Monasticism
521
Anthony
522
Pachomius
523
Cassian's Collations
525
Monasticism in Greek countries: Basil-Sabas—Theodore the
Studite.
527
Nuns in the East
530
Monasticism in the West: Rome-Africa-Spain
531
Keltic Monasticism
533
Monasticism in Gaul
534,
The Benedictine Rule and its spread in the West
535-42
CHAPTER XIX.
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF THE ROMAN
EMPIRE IN THE URTH CENTURY.
By Paul VINOGRADOFF, Hon. D. C. L. , F. B. A. , Corpus
Professor of Jurisprudence, Oxford.
The Roman world
542
Languages in the Empire
545
Debasement of Culture
547
Commerce
548
Corporations--their decay
551-3
.
## p. xxi (#29) #############################################
Contents
xxi
The Curia
The Colonate
Emphyteusis
Landowners and Patronage
Checks-Curiosi, defensores, the Church
Powers and influence of Bishops
PAGE
557
558
560
563
564
566
CHAPTER XX.
THOUGHTS AND IDEAS OF THE PERIOD.
By the Rev. H. F. STEWART, B. D. , Fellow of St John's
College, Cambridge.
The persistence of Paganism
The influence of Rhetoric
Macrobius–Martianus Capella
The Eternal City
The De Civitate Dei
Neoplatonism-Synesius-Augustine
Divination
Authority of Scripture-Cosmogony
Chronography-Eusebius
Theological Controversy-Substance and Person- Freewill and
Grace-The Atonement
The Church-Sacraments
The Empire and the Church-Organisation—Taxation—Justice .
The Church and Society-Slavery_Games_Luxury_Charities-
Women
568
570
572
574
576
578
580
581
582
584
588
590
592
CHAPTER XXI.
EARLY CHRISTIAN ART.
By W. R. LETHABY, Architect, Professor of Design,
Royal College of Art.
The Catacombs
Christian paintings
Sculpture
Engraved gems
Symbols
Ivories-Gilt glasses-Lamps
Architecture
Churches-at Jerusalem, etc.
Mosaics
Art in Britain
598
600
601
602
603
604
608
609
612
613
## p. xxii (#30) ############################################
xxii
LIST OF BIBLIOGRAPHIES.
CHAPS.
PAGES
.
61546
617—23
624-9
O
630-5
636-41
642_3
64448
649-51
652–3
6546
657
Abbreviations
General Bibliography for Volume I.
I, II, V. I. Constantine and his City. II. The Reorgani-
sation of the Empire. V. Heresies (Arian
Controversy to 381)
III. Constantine's Successors (to Jovian) and the
Struggle with Persia
IV. The Triumph of Christianity
VI.
Organisation of the Church
VII. Expansion of the Teutons
VIII. Valentinian to Theodosius
IX. The Teutonic Migrations .
X (A). The Visigoths in Gaul, 412-507
X(B). The Franks before Clovis .
XI. The Sueves, Alans and Vandals in Spain, 409-429.
The Rule of the Vandals in Africa, 429-533
XII(A). The Asiatic Background
XII (B). Attila
XIII (A). Roman Britain
XIII (B). Teutonic Conquest of Britain
XIV.
Italy to the Revolution of Odovacar
XV. The Kingdom of Italy under Odovacar and
Theodoric
XVI. The Eastern Provinces
XVII. Religious Disunion in the Fifth Century
XVIII. Monasticism
XIX. Social and Economic Conditions
XX. Thought and Ideas of the Age
XXI.
Early Christian Art.
.
t
.
6589
660—4
665
666–7
668—70
671-4
675
676480
681-2
683—7
688–90
691-4
.
1
695,
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF LEADING EVENTS
INDEX
696-7
699
## p. 1 (#31) ###############################################
CHAPTER I.
CONSTANTINE AND HIS CITY.
The first question that has to be considered in laying down the plan
of a Medieval History is, Where to begin? Where shall we draw the
line that separates it from Ancient History ? Some would fix it at the
death of Domitian, others at that of Marcus. Some would come down
to Constantine, to the death of Theodosius, to the great barbarian in-
vasion of 406, or to the end of the Western Empire in 476; and others
again would go on to Gregory I, or even as late as Charlemagne. There
is even something to be said for beginning with Augustus, or at the
destruction of Jerusalem, though perhaps these epochs are not seriously
proposed. However, they all have their advantages. If for example we
consider only the literary merit of the historians, we must draw the line
after Tacitus; and if we fix our eyes on the feud of Roman and bar-
barian, we cannot stop till the coronation of Charlemagne. Curiously
enough, the epoch usually laid down at the end of the Western Empire
in 476, is precisely the one for which there is least to be said. We
should do better than this by dividing in the middle of the Gothic
War (535–553). We have in quick succession the closing of the
Schools of Athens, the Code of Justinian, the great siege of Rome,
and the abolition of the consulship. The Rome which Belisarius de-
livered was still the Rome of the Caesars, while the Rome which Narses
entered sixteen years later is already the Rome of the popes. It is the
same in Gaul. The remains of the old civilisation still found under the
sons of Clovis are mostly obliterated in the next generation. Procopius
witnessed as great a revolution as did Polybius.
But even this would not be satisfactory. We cannot cut in two the
Gothic War and the reign of Justinian; and in any case we can draw no
sharp division after Constantine without ignoring the greatest power
of
the world—that Eastern Roman Empire which carried down the old
Graeco-Roman civilisation almost to the end of the Middle Ages. In
truth, the precise beginning of Medieval History is as indefinite as the
precise beginning of the fog. There is no point between Augustus and
Charlemagne where we can say, The old is finished, the new not yet
1
C. MED. H. VOL. I. CH. I.
## p. 2 (#32) ###############################################
2
Early life of Constantine
[274–317
begun. Choose where we will, medieval elements are traceable before it,
ancient elements after it. Thus Theodoric's government of Italy is on
the old lines, while the Frankish invasion of Gaul belongs to the new
order. If in the present work we begin with Constantine, we do not
mean that there is any break in history at this point, though we see
important changes in the adoption of Christianity and the fixing of the
government in the form it retained for centuries. The chief advantage
of choosing this epoch is that as the medieval elements were not strong
before the fourth century, we shall be able to trace nearly the whole of
their growth without encroaching too much on Ancient History. At
the same time, we shall hold ourselves free to trace them back as far as
may be needful, and to point out the ancient elements as late as they
may appear.
We begin with an outline of Constantine's life. Its significance we
can discuss later.
Flavius Valerius Constantinus was born at Naissus in Dacia, about
the year 274. His father Constantius was already a man of some mark,
though still in the lower stages of the career which brought him to the
purple. On his father's side Constantius belonged to the great families
of Dardania, the hilly province north of Macedonia, while his mother
was a niece of the emperor Claudius Gothicus. But Constantine's own
mother Helena was a woman of low rank from Drepanum in Bithynia,
though there is no reason to doubt that she held the legal (and quite
moral) position of concubina or morganatic wife to Constantius.
Of Constantine's early years we know only that he had no learned
education; and we may presume from his hesitating Greek that he was
brought up in Latin lands, perhaps partly in Dalmatia, where his father
was at one time governor. In 293 Constantius was made Caesar, and
practically master of Gaul, with the task assigned him of recovering
Britain from Carausius. But as a condition of his elevation he was
required to divorce Helena and marry Theodora, a stepdaughter of
Maximian. Constantine was taken to the court of Diocletian, partly as
a hostage for his father, and partly with a view to a future place for him
in the college of emperors. So he went with Diocletian to Egypt in
296, and made acquaintance on the way with Eusebius, the future
historian and bishop of Caesarea. Next year he seems to have seen
service with Galerius against the Persians. About this time he must
have taken Minervina (most likely as a concubina), for her son Crispus
was already a young man in 317. Early in 303 the Great Persecution
was begun with the demolition of the church at Nicomedia : and there
was a tall young officer looking on with thoughts of his own, like
Napoleon watching the riot of June 1792.
When Diocletian and Maximian abdicated (1 May 305) it was
generally believed that Constantine would be one of the new Caesars.
There was reason for this belief. He had been betrothed to Fausta the
## p. 3 (#33) ###############################################
254–312]
Constantine Caesar
3
a
daughter of Maximian as far back as 293, when she was a mere child;
and daughters of emperors were not common enough to be thrown away
on outsiders. Moreover, money had recently been coined at Alexandria
with the inscription CONSTANTINUS CAESAR.
But at the last moment
Diocletian passed him over. Perhaps he was over-persuaded by
Galerius: more likely he was reserving him to succeed his father in
Gaul. After this however the court of Galerius was no place for
Constantine. Presently he managed to escape, and joined his father
at Boulogne. After a short campaign in Caledonia, Constantius died
at York (25 July 306) and the army hailed Constantine Augustus. He
was a good officer, the sons of Theodora were only boys, and the army
of Britain (always the most mutinous in the Empire) had no mind to
wait for a new Caesar from the East. Its chief mover was Crocus the
Alemannic king: and this would seem to be the first case of a barbarian
king as a Roman general, and also the first case of barbarian action in
the election of an emperor. Willingly or unwillingly, Galerius recog-
nised Constantine, though only as Caesar. It mattered little: he had
the power, and the title came a couple of years later.
Thus Constantine succeeded his father in Gaul and Britain. We
hear little of his administration during the next six years (306–312)
but we get a general impression that he was a good ruler, and careful of
his people. Such fighting as he had to do was of the usual sort against
the Franks, mostly inside the Rhine, and against the Alemanni and the
Bructeri beyond it. The war however was merciless, for even heathen
feeling was shocked when he gave barbarian kings to the beasts, along with
their followers by thousands at a time. But Gaul had never recovered
from the great invasions (254–285) and his remissions of taxation gave
no permanent relief to the public misery. In religion he was of course
heathen ; but he grew more and more monotheistic, and the Christians
always counted him friendly like his father.
The last act of Galerius (Apr. 311) was an edict of toleration for the
Christians. It was not encumbered with any “hard conditions,” but it
was given on the heathen principle that every god is entitled to the
worship of his own people, whereas the persecution hindered the Chris-
tians from rendering that worship. A few days after this Galerius died.
There were now four emperors. Constantine held Gaul and Britain,
Maxentius Italy, Spain and Africa, while Licinius (more properly
Licinian) ruled Illyricum, Greece and Thrace, and Maximin Daza (or
Daia) held everything beyond the Bosphorus. Their political alliances
were partly determined by their geographical position, Constantine
reaching over Maxentius to Licinius, while Maximin reached over Licinius
to Maxentius; partly also by their relation to the Christians, for this
was now the immediate question of practical politics. Constantine was
1 One of the toleration laws alluded to by Licinius was so encumbered; but this
appears to have been the rescript of Maximin Daza a little later.
CH. I.
1-2
## p. 4 (#34) ###############################################
4
The War with Maxentius
[312–338
-
friendly to them, and Licinius had never been an active persecutor;
whereas Maximin was a cruel and malicious enemy, and Maxentius,
standing as he did for Rome, could not but be hostile to them. So
Maxentius was to crush Constantine, and Maximin to deal with Licinius.
Constantine did not wait to be crushed. Breaking up his camp at
Colmar, he pushed rapidly across the Alps. In a cavalry fight near
Turin, the Gauls overcame the formidable cataphracti—horse and rider
clad in mail—of Maxentius. Then straight to Verona, where in Ruricius
Pompeianus he found a foeman worthy of his steel. Right well did
Pompeianus defend Verona ; and if he escaped from the siege, it was
only to gather an army for its relief. Then another great battle.
Pompeianus was killed, Verona surrendered, and Constantine made
straight for Rome. Still Maxentius gave no sign. He had baffled
invasion twice before by sitting still in Rome, and Constantine could
not have besieged the city with far inferior forces. At the last moment
Maxentius came out a few miles, and offered battle (28 Oct. 312) at
Saxa Rubra. A skilful flank march of Constantine forced him to fight
with the Tiber behind him, and the Mulvian bridge for his retreat.
His Numidians fled before the Gaulish cavalry, the Praetorian Guard
fell fighting where it stood, and the rest of the army was driven head-
long into the river. Maxentius perished in the waters, and Constantine
was master of the West.
This short campaign-the most brilliant feat of arms since Aurelian's
time—was an epoch for Constantine himself. To it belongs the story
of the Shining Cross. Somewhere between Colmar and Saxa Rubra he
saw in the sky one afternoon a bright cross with the words Hoc vince,
and the army saw it too; and in a dream that night Christ bade him
take. it for his standard. So Constantine himself told Eusebius, and so
Eusebius recorded it in 338; and there is no reason to suspect either
the one or the other of deceit. The evidence of the
any case
not worth much; but that of Lactantius' in 314 and of the heathen
Nazarius in 321 puts it beyond reasonable doubt that something of the
sort did happen. But we need not therefore set it down for a miracle.
The cross observed may very well have been a halo, such as Whymper
saw when he came down after the accident on the Matterhorn in 1865—
three crosses for his three lost companions. The rest is no more than
can be accounted for by Constantine's imagination, inflamed as it must
have been by the intense anxiety of the unequal contest. Yet after all,
the cross was not an exclusively Christian symbol. The action was am-
biguous, like most of Constantine's actions at this period of his life. He
was quite clear about monotheism; but he was not equally clear about
the difference between Christ and the Unconquered Sun. The Gauls had
fought of old beneath the Sun-god's cross of light: so while the Christians
army
is in
1 Lactantius is not discredited by the similar vision he gives to Licinius. Why
should not Licinius take a hint from Constantine, and have a vision of his own?
## p. 5 (#35) ###############################################
311-315]
The Edict of Milan
5
saw in the labarum the cross of Christ, the heathens in the army
would
only be receiving an old standard back again. Such was the origin of
the Byzantine Labarum.
One enduring monument of the victory is the triumphal arch still
standing at Rome, dedicated to him by the Senate and People in 315.
Its inscription recites how INSTINCTU DIVINITATIS he inflicted just punish-
ment on the tyrant and all his party. The expression has been set down
as a later correction of some such heathen form as NUTU IOVIS O.
struggles of the Western Empire—the loyalty of Gaul and the dis-
affection of Africa—under Aëtius and Majorian, concluding with the
barbarian mutiny at Pavia which overthrew the last Augustus of the
West. Then M. Maurice Dumoulin continues the history of Italy under
the barbarian rule of Odovacar and Theodoric, describing the great
king's policy, and shewing how he kept in check for awhile the feud of
Roman and barbarian which had wrecked the Western Empire. Turning
now to the Eastern provinces, the fifth century, which falls to Mr Brooks,
is upon the whole a prosaic period of second-rate rulers and dire financial
strain. Yet even here we have striking events, remarkable characters,
and important movements-the fall of Rufinus and the failure of
Gaïnas ; Pulcheria ruling the Empire as a girl of sixteen, the romance
## p. ix (#17) ##############################################
Preface
ix
of Athenais, and the catastrophe of Basiliscus; the Isaurian policy of
Leo, and the reforms of Anastasius. Then Miss Alice Gardner traces
the history of religious disunion in the East. The fall of Chrysostom
brought to the front the rivalry of Constantinople and Alexandria, the
defeat of Nestorianism at Ephesus and of Monophysitism at Chalcedon
fixed the lines of orthodoxy, but left Egypt and Syria heterodox and
disaffected, and the reconciling Henoticon of Zeno produced nothing
but a new schism. In the next chapter Dom Butler traces the growth
of monasticism and its various forms in East and West, including the
Benedictine rule and the Irish monks. After this Professor Vinogradoff
surveys the whole field of social and economic conditions in the declining
Empire, and shews the part which rotten economics and bad taxation
played in its destruction. Then Mr H. F. Stewart gives his account of
the heathen and Christian literature of the time, and of the various
lines of thought which seemed to converge upon the grand figure of
Augustine. The volume concludes with Mr Lethaby's account of the
beginnings and early development of Christian art.
Shortly: to the student of universal history the Roman Empire is
the bulwark which for near six hundred years kept back the ever-
threatening attacks of Teutonic and Altaian barbarism. Behind that
bulwark rose the mighty structure of Roman Law, and behind it a new
order of the world was beginning to unfold from the fruitful seeds of
Christian thought. So when the years of respite ended, and the
universal Empire went down in universal ruin, the Christian Church
was able from the first to put some check on the northern conquerors,
and then by the long training of the Middle Ages to mould the nations
of Europe into forms which have issued in richer and fuller developments
of life and civilisation than imperial Rome had ever known.
It remains for us to give our best thanks to Dr A. W. Ward for
much counsel and assistance, and to all those who have kindly helped
us by looking over the proofs of particular chapters.
H. M. G.
J. P. W.
September 1911
62
## p. x (#18) ###############################################
1
## p. xi (#19) ##############################################
xi
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
CONSTANTINE AND HIS CITY.
By H. M. GWATKIN, M. A. , Dixie Professor of Ecclesiastical
History, Cambridge.
.
Where does Medieval History begin?
Early life of Constantine
Constantine made Caesar
Battle of Saxa Rubra
Edict of Milan
Defeat of Maximin Daza
Wars with Licinius
Constantine's religious policy-coinage--legislation-endowments
Council of Nicaea
Executions of Crispus and Fausta
Site of Constantinople .
Earlier history of Byzantium
Foundation of Constantinople
The Gothic War.
Constantine's later years
Last arrangements
Death of Constantine
PAGE
1
2.
3
4
5
6
7
8-12
13-15
15
16
17
18
19
20
22
23
CHAPTER II.
THE REORGANISATION OF THE EMPIRE.
By J. S. Reid, Litt. D. , Professor of Ancient
History, Cambridge.
Tendency to despotism
Growth of centralisation
New form of the Executive.
The Great Officials of the Court-the Praefects--the provincial
governors
Praefectures and dioeceses
24
26
27
28
31
## p. xii (#20) #############################################
xii
Contents
The Praefectus Praetorio—the Vicarius
The Civil Service.
The Agentes in rebus
The Quaestor
Financial changes
Reform of the currency
Assessment of taxes
Financial administration
Organisation of the army
The Magister militum
Comites.
Patricii—the Consistorium
The Senate
The City of Rome
Subjects of the Empire-Ouriales-Collegia ----Coloni
PAGE
33
34
36
37
38
40
41
43
44
46
47
48
49
50
51
CHAPTER III.
CONSTANTINE'S SUCCESSORS TO JOVIAN: AND THE
STRUGGLE WITH PERSIA.
By Norman H. BAYNES, M. A. , Oxon. , Barrister-at-Law.
Last dispositions of Constantine
The Persian War
Reign of Constans
Revolt of Magnentius
Civil War-Vetranio-Battle of Mursa
Julian's youth and conversion to Paganism
Julian made Caesar-his first campaign in Gaul
Constantius at Rome
Battle of Strassburg
Julian on the Rhine
Constantius on the Danube .
Siege of Amida.
“Julianus Augustus”
Negotiations with Constantius
Death and character of Constantius
Julian's reforms
Julian's religious policy
The Persian Expedition
Death of Julian-Election of Jovian
Disgraceful Peace with Persia
Death of Jovian.
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55
57
58
59
60
63
65
67
68
69
71
72
73
74
76
78
.
79-80
81-3
84
85
86
.
## p. xiii (#21) ############################################
Contents
xiii
CHAPTER IV.
THE TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY.
By the Rev. T. M. LINDSAY, D. D. , LL. D. , Principal of the
Glasgow College of the United Free Church of Scotland.
PAGE
87
88
89
92
Nature of the Triumph
Cosmopolitan Society
Oriental Religions Worship of Isis
The new Paganism— Tuurobolia
Neoplatonism and Christianity
Growing strength of Christianity in the third century
Legislation against Paganism
Julian's youth and education
Julian and Paganism
Julian in Gaul
Julian's religious policy
Julian's endeavours to reform Paganism
The Mysteries
Julian's failure
Decay of Paganism in the East and survivals of it
Paganism in the West, and its influence on literature and
Christianity.
.
93-4
95-6
97
98-9
100
101-2
103
105
109
110
112
114
CHAPTER V.
ARIANISM,
By Professor GWATKIN.
Origin of Arianism
The Council of Nicaea
The Creed—hesitation of the bishops
Significance of the decision of Nicaea .
Causes and general course of the conservative Reaction
Marcellus and Athanasius
Death of Constantine •
Council of the Dedication
Council of Sardica
Renewal of the contest—Third exile of Athanasius
The Homoean domination
Julian's policy, and its influence on the Christians
The Homoean domination restored by Valens
Basil of Caesarea .
Last years of Athanasius
Council of Constantinople and Fall of Arianism.
118
120
121
123
125
127
128
129
130
131
133
134
137
138
139
140
141
Theodosius
## p. xiv (#22) #############################################
1
xiv
Contents
CHAPTER VI.
1
i
1
.
THE ORGANISATION OF THE CHURCH.
By C. H. TURNER, M. A. , F. B. A. , Fellow of Magdalen
College, Oxford.
PAGE
The Missionary Ministry
143
The Local Church
145
The Bishop
146
Presbyters
148
Deacons and Minor Orders .
149
The Cursus Honorum
151
Episcopal Elections
152
Relations of the Orders to each other
154
Altered use of Sacerdos
157
Parish clergy in Rome and Alexandria
159
The right of preaching
162
Local Councils
164
General Councils .
165
Equality of Bishops
167
Metropolitans
168
Church and State
170
The three great Sees
171
The Roman Theory
172
Rise of Jerusalem
174
Councils and the Creed
176
Church Law—its origin and codification
178
Greek and Latin Canon Law
181
CHAPTER VII.
EXPANSION OF THE TEUTONS (TO A. D. 378).
I
By Martin Bang, Ph. D.
Origin of the Teutons .
Teutons and Kelts
Migrations and Civilisation of the Kelts
Teutonic migrations and invasion of Gaul
The Bastarnae
Cimbri and Teutons
Ariovistus and Caesar
Marbod
The Marcomanni .
Marcus Aurelius and Commodus.
The Alemanni
The Goths--Decius–Claudius-Aurelian-Diocletian
Constantine and the Goths .
Julian and Valentinian on the Rhine .
The Goths in Dacia-their Conversion
Invasion of the Huns.
Battle of Hadrianople .
183
185
186
188
190
191
194
196
197
199
201
202
208
209
211
215
216
.
## p. xv (#23) ##############################################
Contents
XV
CHAPTER VIII.
THE DYNASTY OF VALENTINIAN AND THEODOSIUS
THE GREAT.
By Norman H. BAYNES, M. A.
PAGE
218
220
222
225
226
227
228
229
231
Election of Valentinian-Valens co-Emperor
Revolt of Procopius
Valentinian in Gaul-Count Theodosius in Britain
Rome and Armenia
Conspiracy of Theodorus
Count Romanus in Africa
Execution of Count Theodosius
Work and character of Valentinian
Gratian Emperor :
The Goths – Battle of Hadrianople— Death and character of
Valens
Theodosius and the Gothic war
The usurper Maximus .
Partition of Armenia
Riot at Antioch
The Fall of Maximus .
Ambrose and Theodosius
Revolt of Arbogast—Eugenius
Battle of the Frigidus .
Death of Theodosius
232
235
238
240
241
242
244
245
247
248
CHAPTER IX.
THE TEUTONIC MIGRATIONS, 378-412.
e
By Dr M. MANITIUS, Privatgelehrter in Radebeul
bei Dresden.
.
Sequel to the Battle of Hadrianople
Appointment of Theodosius .
Settlement of the Goths in the Empire
The Franks.
Revolt of Arbogast-Death of Theodosius
Division of the Empire
Alaric in Greece.
Revolt of Gaïnas .
Battle of Pollentia
Barbarian invasion of Gaul—The usurper Constantine
Fall of Stilicho
Alaric in Italy
Attalus Emperor
Sack of Rome by the Goths
Barbarian conquests in Spain
250
253
254
256
257
260
261
262
265
266
269
270
272
273
274
Constantius.
275
## p. xvi (#24) #############################################
xvi
Contents
CHAPTER X.
TEUTONIC KINGDOMS IN GAUL.
(A) THE VISIGOTHS TO THE DEATH OF EURIC.
By Prof. Dr Ludwig SCHMIDT, Bibliothekar an der
Königl. Bibliothek Dresden.
.
The Visigoths in Gaul-Ataulf and Wallia
Theodoric and Aëtius
Invasion of Attila
Theodoric II-Euric
Alaric II—Battle of Vouglé
Goths and Romans-Social and political conditions
The Church--Arianism
PAGE
277
279
280
281
285
287
290
(B) The FrankS BEFORE Clovis.
By M. CHRISTIAN PFister, docteur ès lettres, professeur
à la Faculté des lettres de l'Université de Paris.
Origin of the Franks—Tacitus
Franks and Romans
The Salian Franks
Clodion-Merovech-Childeric
The Ripuarian Franks .
The Salic Law
Political organisation
292
295
296
297
299
300
301
CHAPTER XI.
THE SUEVES, ALANS AND VANDALS IN SPAIN, 409-429.
THE VANDAL DOMINION IN AFRICA, 429-533.
.
By Dr Ludwig SCHMIDT.
Sueves and Alans in Spain .
Passage of the Vandals into Africa
Capture of Carthage
Settlement in Africa
Sack of Rome by the Vandals
Majorian
Last years of Gaiseric .
Huneric-Gunthamund-Thrasamund-Hilderic
Gelimer-Fall of the Vandal kingdom
Social state-Vandals and Romans
Political organisation
Religion
304
305
306
307
308
309
311
312
315
316
318
321
.
## p. xvii (#25) ############################################
Contents
xvii
CHAPTER XII.
(A) THE ASIATIC BACKGROUND.
By T. PEISKER, Ph. D. , Privatdocent and Librarian, Graz.
Soil and climate of Central Asia
Changes of climate-Irrigation
Origin of the nomads .
Domestication of animals—the horse
Ethnography and languages
Social organisation of the nomads
Wanderings—the tent.
Winter and summer pastures
Food-kumiz
Dress of the nomads
Religion-Shamanism-Cosmogony
Weapons Predatory life-Slavery
Conquests
Altaian Empires
Mixture of races-disappearance of Altaian features and language
Scythians and Magyars
Origin of the Roumanians
Place of the nomads in history
PAGE
323
325
328
330
332
333
335
337
339
341
343
347
349
352
353
355
357
359
(B) ATTILA.
By Dr Ludwig SCHMIDT.
Attila's policy-Relations to the Eastern Empire
Attila in GaúlBattle of the Mauriac Plain
360
364
365
Death of Attila
CHAPTER XIII.
(A) ROMAN BRITAIN.
By F. J. HAVERFIELD, LL. D. , F. B. A. , Camden Professor
of Ancient History, Oxford.
Geographical position of Britain .
The Roman Conquest
The Roman garrison
How far Britain became Roman .
Towns-Villages-Roads
Saxon invasions
The Saxon Conquest
367
368
369
371
373
378
380
## p. xviii (#26) ###########################################
xviii
Contents
(B) TEUTONIC CONQUEST OF BRITAIN.
By F. G. M. Beck, M. A. , Fellow of Clare College,
Cambridge.
Bede's account of the Conquest
Early notices of the Invaders
Civilisation of the Invaders—Religion- Agriculture
Nature and course of the Invasion
The English kingdoms—Wessex-Mercia—Northumbria
PAGE
382
384
385
388
389
CHAPTER XIV.
ITALY AND THE WEST, 410-476.
By Ernest BARKER, M. A. , Fellow of St John's College,
Oxford.
The Barbarians in the Empire—the barbarian magister militiae
East and West
The Papacy—the Senate
Placidia and Attila
Ataulf in Italy—in Gaul
Revolt of Heraclian
The reign of Wallia
Castinus and Boniface .
Usurpation of John-Regency of Placidia
The Vandal invasion of Africa
Aëtius and Boniface-Aëtius in Gaul
The Codex Theodosianus--Gaiseric's policy
The Huns-Attila and the West
Battle of the Mauriac Plain
Attila in Italy-his death
Assassination of Aëtius-of Valentinian III
Maximus and Avitus
Ricimer and Majorian .
Aegidius and St Severinus
The Armada of Basiliscus
The reign of Anthemius
The mutiny of 476-End of the Western Empire
392
395
396
398
399
402
404
406
407
409
410
411
414
416
417
418
421
422
425
426
427
430
CHAPTER XV.
THE KINGDOM OF ITALY UNDER ODOVACAR AND
THEODORIC.
By MAURICE DUMOULIN, Professeur de l'Université de France.
Orestes
433
Odovacar
434
Zeno and Odovacar
435
Government of Odovacar
436
Theodoric's early life.
437
## p. xix (#27) #############################################
1
Contents
xix
Theodoric's invasion of Italy-Fall of Odovacar
Theodoric's Court and Officials
The Senate—the Consulship
Theodoric's Government
Corn-distributions—Buildings
The Church-Theodoric's tolerance
Foreign affairs
Theodoric's last years-Boethius
Death of Theodoric
PAGE
439
442
443
445
447
449
451
452
453
CHAPTER XVI.
THE EASTERN PROVINCES FROM ARCADIUS TO ANASTASIUS.
459
By E. W. Brooks, M. A. , King's College, Cambridge.
Murder of Rufinus
457
Fall of Eutropius
Revolt of Gaïnas .
460
Exile of John Chrysostom
461
Regency of Pulcheria
463
Elevation of Valentinian III
465
Fall of Eudocia
466
Accession of Marcian-of Leo I
467
Rise of Zeno-Murder of Aspar .
469
Usurpation of Basiliscus
473
Gothic wars
474
Revolt of Illus
478
Accession of Anastasius
479
Isaurian revolt
480
Invasion of Kawad
481
Peace with Persia
483
Financial administration of Anastasius
484
Revolt of Vitalianus
485
Death of Anastasius
486
CHAPTER XVII.
RELIGIOUS DISUNION IN THE FIFTH CENTURY.
By ALICE GARDNER, Lecturer of Newnham College,
Cambridge.
Schools of Antioch and Alexandria
487
Chrysostom and Theophilus.
489-94
Theophilus
489
Chrysostom
491
Council of the Oak
492
Exile of Chrysostom
493
Nestorianism
494-503
Cyril
494
T
## p. xx (#28) ##############################################
=
XX
Contents
Nestorius
The Θεοτόκος.
Beginnings of the Controversy
Council of Ephesus
End of Nestorius
Eutychianism
Dioscorus
Outbreak of the Controversy
The Latrocinium
Leo and Marcian
Council of Chalcedon-definition of Faith
Canon XXVIII and Roman objections .
Timothy the Cat-Rise of Monophysitism
The School of Edessa
The Henoticon of Zeno
Zeno-Acacius
The Henoticon
End of the Schism
The Nestorian Church in Persia
PAGE
495
496
498
500
502
503-15
503
504
505
506
507
511
512
514
515-20
515
516
518
519
.
CHAPTER XVIII.
MONASTICISM.
By Dom E. C. BUTLER, M. A. , Hon. D. Litt. Dublin,
Abbot of Downside Abbey.
Early Monasticism
521
Anthony
522
Pachomius
523
Cassian's Collations
525
Monasticism in Greek countries: Basil-Sabas—Theodore the
Studite.
527
Nuns in the East
530
Monasticism in the West: Rome-Africa-Spain
531
Keltic Monasticism
533
Monasticism in Gaul
534,
The Benedictine Rule and its spread in the West
535-42
CHAPTER XIX.
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF THE ROMAN
EMPIRE IN THE URTH CENTURY.
By Paul VINOGRADOFF, Hon. D. C. L. , F. B. A. , Corpus
Professor of Jurisprudence, Oxford.
The Roman world
542
Languages in the Empire
545
Debasement of Culture
547
Commerce
548
Corporations--their decay
551-3
.
## p. xxi (#29) #############################################
Contents
xxi
The Curia
The Colonate
Emphyteusis
Landowners and Patronage
Checks-Curiosi, defensores, the Church
Powers and influence of Bishops
PAGE
557
558
560
563
564
566
CHAPTER XX.
THOUGHTS AND IDEAS OF THE PERIOD.
By the Rev. H. F. STEWART, B. D. , Fellow of St John's
College, Cambridge.
The persistence of Paganism
The influence of Rhetoric
Macrobius–Martianus Capella
The Eternal City
The De Civitate Dei
Neoplatonism-Synesius-Augustine
Divination
Authority of Scripture-Cosmogony
Chronography-Eusebius
Theological Controversy-Substance and Person- Freewill and
Grace-The Atonement
The Church-Sacraments
The Empire and the Church-Organisation—Taxation—Justice .
The Church and Society-Slavery_Games_Luxury_Charities-
Women
568
570
572
574
576
578
580
581
582
584
588
590
592
CHAPTER XXI.
EARLY CHRISTIAN ART.
By W. R. LETHABY, Architect, Professor of Design,
Royal College of Art.
The Catacombs
Christian paintings
Sculpture
Engraved gems
Symbols
Ivories-Gilt glasses-Lamps
Architecture
Churches-at Jerusalem, etc.
Mosaics
Art in Britain
598
600
601
602
603
604
608
609
612
613
## p. xxii (#30) ############################################
xxii
LIST OF BIBLIOGRAPHIES.
CHAPS.
PAGES
.
61546
617—23
624-9
O
630-5
636-41
642_3
64448
649-51
652–3
6546
657
Abbreviations
General Bibliography for Volume I.
I, II, V. I. Constantine and his City. II. The Reorgani-
sation of the Empire. V. Heresies (Arian
Controversy to 381)
III. Constantine's Successors (to Jovian) and the
Struggle with Persia
IV. The Triumph of Christianity
VI.
Organisation of the Church
VII. Expansion of the Teutons
VIII. Valentinian to Theodosius
IX. The Teutonic Migrations .
X (A). The Visigoths in Gaul, 412-507
X(B). The Franks before Clovis .
XI. The Sueves, Alans and Vandals in Spain, 409-429.
The Rule of the Vandals in Africa, 429-533
XII(A). The Asiatic Background
XII (B). Attila
XIII (A). Roman Britain
XIII (B). Teutonic Conquest of Britain
XIV.
Italy to the Revolution of Odovacar
XV. The Kingdom of Italy under Odovacar and
Theodoric
XVI. The Eastern Provinces
XVII. Religious Disunion in the Fifth Century
XVIII. Monasticism
XIX. Social and Economic Conditions
XX. Thought and Ideas of the Age
XXI.
Early Christian Art.
.
t
.
6589
660—4
665
666–7
668—70
671-4
675
676480
681-2
683—7
688–90
691-4
.
1
695,
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF LEADING EVENTS
INDEX
696-7
699
## p. 1 (#31) ###############################################
CHAPTER I.
CONSTANTINE AND HIS CITY.
The first question that has to be considered in laying down the plan
of a Medieval History is, Where to begin? Where shall we draw the
line that separates it from Ancient History ? Some would fix it at the
death of Domitian, others at that of Marcus. Some would come down
to Constantine, to the death of Theodosius, to the great barbarian in-
vasion of 406, or to the end of the Western Empire in 476; and others
again would go on to Gregory I, or even as late as Charlemagne. There
is even something to be said for beginning with Augustus, or at the
destruction of Jerusalem, though perhaps these epochs are not seriously
proposed. However, they all have their advantages. If for example we
consider only the literary merit of the historians, we must draw the line
after Tacitus; and if we fix our eyes on the feud of Roman and bar-
barian, we cannot stop till the coronation of Charlemagne. Curiously
enough, the epoch usually laid down at the end of the Western Empire
in 476, is precisely the one for which there is least to be said. We
should do better than this by dividing in the middle of the Gothic
War (535–553). We have in quick succession the closing of the
Schools of Athens, the Code of Justinian, the great siege of Rome,
and the abolition of the consulship. The Rome which Belisarius de-
livered was still the Rome of the Caesars, while the Rome which Narses
entered sixteen years later is already the Rome of the popes. It is the
same in Gaul. The remains of the old civilisation still found under the
sons of Clovis are mostly obliterated in the next generation. Procopius
witnessed as great a revolution as did Polybius.
But even this would not be satisfactory. We cannot cut in two the
Gothic War and the reign of Justinian; and in any case we can draw no
sharp division after Constantine without ignoring the greatest power
of
the world—that Eastern Roman Empire which carried down the old
Graeco-Roman civilisation almost to the end of the Middle Ages. In
truth, the precise beginning of Medieval History is as indefinite as the
precise beginning of the fog. There is no point between Augustus and
Charlemagne where we can say, The old is finished, the new not yet
1
C. MED. H. VOL. I. CH. I.
## p. 2 (#32) ###############################################
2
Early life of Constantine
[274–317
begun. Choose where we will, medieval elements are traceable before it,
ancient elements after it. Thus Theodoric's government of Italy is on
the old lines, while the Frankish invasion of Gaul belongs to the new
order. If in the present work we begin with Constantine, we do not
mean that there is any break in history at this point, though we see
important changes in the adoption of Christianity and the fixing of the
government in the form it retained for centuries. The chief advantage
of choosing this epoch is that as the medieval elements were not strong
before the fourth century, we shall be able to trace nearly the whole of
their growth without encroaching too much on Ancient History. At
the same time, we shall hold ourselves free to trace them back as far as
may be needful, and to point out the ancient elements as late as they
may appear.
We begin with an outline of Constantine's life. Its significance we
can discuss later.
Flavius Valerius Constantinus was born at Naissus in Dacia, about
the year 274. His father Constantius was already a man of some mark,
though still in the lower stages of the career which brought him to the
purple. On his father's side Constantius belonged to the great families
of Dardania, the hilly province north of Macedonia, while his mother
was a niece of the emperor Claudius Gothicus. But Constantine's own
mother Helena was a woman of low rank from Drepanum in Bithynia,
though there is no reason to doubt that she held the legal (and quite
moral) position of concubina or morganatic wife to Constantius.
Of Constantine's early years we know only that he had no learned
education; and we may presume from his hesitating Greek that he was
brought up in Latin lands, perhaps partly in Dalmatia, where his father
was at one time governor. In 293 Constantius was made Caesar, and
practically master of Gaul, with the task assigned him of recovering
Britain from Carausius. But as a condition of his elevation he was
required to divorce Helena and marry Theodora, a stepdaughter of
Maximian. Constantine was taken to the court of Diocletian, partly as
a hostage for his father, and partly with a view to a future place for him
in the college of emperors. So he went with Diocletian to Egypt in
296, and made acquaintance on the way with Eusebius, the future
historian and bishop of Caesarea. Next year he seems to have seen
service with Galerius against the Persians. About this time he must
have taken Minervina (most likely as a concubina), for her son Crispus
was already a young man in 317. Early in 303 the Great Persecution
was begun with the demolition of the church at Nicomedia : and there
was a tall young officer looking on with thoughts of his own, like
Napoleon watching the riot of June 1792.
When Diocletian and Maximian abdicated (1 May 305) it was
generally believed that Constantine would be one of the new Caesars.
There was reason for this belief. He had been betrothed to Fausta the
## p. 3 (#33) ###############################################
254–312]
Constantine Caesar
3
a
daughter of Maximian as far back as 293, when she was a mere child;
and daughters of emperors were not common enough to be thrown away
on outsiders. Moreover, money had recently been coined at Alexandria
with the inscription CONSTANTINUS CAESAR.
But at the last moment
Diocletian passed him over. Perhaps he was over-persuaded by
Galerius: more likely he was reserving him to succeed his father in
Gaul. After this however the court of Galerius was no place for
Constantine. Presently he managed to escape, and joined his father
at Boulogne. After a short campaign in Caledonia, Constantius died
at York (25 July 306) and the army hailed Constantine Augustus. He
was a good officer, the sons of Theodora were only boys, and the army
of Britain (always the most mutinous in the Empire) had no mind to
wait for a new Caesar from the East. Its chief mover was Crocus the
Alemannic king: and this would seem to be the first case of a barbarian
king as a Roman general, and also the first case of barbarian action in
the election of an emperor. Willingly or unwillingly, Galerius recog-
nised Constantine, though only as Caesar. It mattered little: he had
the power, and the title came a couple of years later.
Thus Constantine succeeded his father in Gaul and Britain. We
hear little of his administration during the next six years (306–312)
but we get a general impression that he was a good ruler, and careful of
his people. Such fighting as he had to do was of the usual sort against
the Franks, mostly inside the Rhine, and against the Alemanni and the
Bructeri beyond it. The war however was merciless, for even heathen
feeling was shocked when he gave barbarian kings to the beasts, along with
their followers by thousands at a time. But Gaul had never recovered
from the great invasions (254–285) and his remissions of taxation gave
no permanent relief to the public misery. In religion he was of course
heathen ; but he grew more and more monotheistic, and the Christians
always counted him friendly like his father.
The last act of Galerius (Apr. 311) was an edict of toleration for the
Christians. It was not encumbered with any “hard conditions,” but it
was given on the heathen principle that every god is entitled to the
worship of his own people, whereas the persecution hindered the Chris-
tians from rendering that worship. A few days after this Galerius died.
There were now four emperors. Constantine held Gaul and Britain,
Maxentius Italy, Spain and Africa, while Licinius (more properly
Licinian) ruled Illyricum, Greece and Thrace, and Maximin Daza (or
Daia) held everything beyond the Bosphorus. Their political alliances
were partly determined by their geographical position, Constantine
reaching over Maxentius to Licinius, while Maximin reached over Licinius
to Maxentius; partly also by their relation to the Christians, for this
was now the immediate question of practical politics. Constantine was
1 One of the toleration laws alluded to by Licinius was so encumbered; but this
appears to have been the rescript of Maximin Daza a little later.
CH. I.
1-2
## p. 4 (#34) ###############################################
4
The War with Maxentius
[312–338
-
friendly to them, and Licinius had never been an active persecutor;
whereas Maximin was a cruel and malicious enemy, and Maxentius,
standing as he did for Rome, could not but be hostile to them. So
Maxentius was to crush Constantine, and Maximin to deal with Licinius.
Constantine did not wait to be crushed. Breaking up his camp at
Colmar, he pushed rapidly across the Alps. In a cavalry fight near
Turin, the Gauls overcame the formidable cataphracti—horse and rider
clad in mail—of Maxentius. Then straight to Verona, where in Ruricius
Pompeianus he found a foeman worthy of his steel. Right well did
Pompeianus defend Verona ; and if he escaped from the siege, it was
only to gather an army for its relief. Then another great battle.
Pompeianus was killed, Verona surrendered, and Constantine made
straight for Rome. Still Maxentius gave no sign. He had baffled
invasion twice before by sitting still in Rome, and Constantine could
not have besieged the city with far inferior forces. At the last moment
Maxentius came out a few miles, and offered battle (28 Oct. 312) at
Saxa Rubra. A skilful flank march of Constantine forced him to fight
with the Tiber behind him, and the Mulvian bridge for his retreat.
His Numidians fled before the Gaulish cavalry, the Praetorian Guard
fell fighting where it stood, and the rest of the army was driven head-
long into the river. Maxentius perished in the waters, and Constantine
was master of the West.
This short campaign-the most brilliant feat of arms since Aurelian's
time—was an epoch for Constantine himself. To it belongs the story
of the Shining Cross. Somewhere between Colmar and Saxa Rubra he
saw in the sky one afternoon a bright cross with the words Hoc vince,
and the army saw it too; and in a dream that night Christ bade him
take. it for his standard. So Constantine himself told Eusebius, and so
Eusebius recorded it in 338; and there is no reason to suspect either
the one or the other of deceit. The evidence of the
any case
not worth much; but that of Lactantius' in 314 and of the heathen
Nazarius in 321 puts it beyond reasonable doubt that something of the
sort did happen. But we need not therefore set it down for a miracle.
The cross observed may very well have been a halo, such as Whymper
saw when he came down after the accident on the Matterhorn in 1865—
three crosses for his three lost companions. The rest is no more than
can be accounted for by Constantine's imagination, inflamed as it must
have been by the intense anxiety of the unequal contest. Yet after all,
the cross was not an exclusively Christian symbol. The action was am-
biguous, like most of Constantine's actions at this period of his life. He
was quite clear about monotheism; but he was not equally clear about
the difference between Christ and the Unconquered Sun. The Gauls had
fought of old beneath the Sun-god's cross of light: so while the Christians
army
is in
1 Lactantius is not discredited by the similar vision he gives to Licinius. Why
should not Licinius take a hint from Constantine, and have a vision of his own?
## p. 5 (#35) ###############################################
311-315]
The Edict of Milan
5
saw in the labarum the cross of Christ, the heathens in the army
would
only be receiving an old standard back again. Such was the origin of
the Byzantine Labarum.
One enduring monument of the victory is the triumphal arch still
standing at Rome, dedicated to him by the Senate and People in 315.
Its inscription recites how INSTINCTU DIVINITATIS he inflicted just punish-
ment on the tyrant and all his party. The expression has been set down
as a later correction of some such heathen form as NUTU IOVIS O.
