First, because we have fostered virtuous
tendencies
and rejected un- wholesome ones, we have achieved the basic state of a human being.
Kalu Rinpoche
Consequently, the mind of such a being can see, hear, smell, taste, touch, and think just as we can now, even though these perceptions are all projections of mind with no physical basis.
The sixth nidana is termed rek pa [reg pa], which literally means "touch," or "contact," in just the same sense that the hand makes contact with an object it touches. In this case the word means that there is contact between the six sense subjects and the six ob- jects-for example, between the faculty ofseeing and form; in a cer- tain sense, mind touches form with this faculty of sight, it touches sound with the faculty of hearing, and so forth. Even though this is a mental state without any physical basis, it is also accompanied by tactile sensation, a feeling of actually being able to touch and make contact with some kind of embodiment.
Formed upon this initial contact is the seventh nidana, which we term tsor wa [tshor ba], meaning sensation or feeling. T o see is to make contact with the form through the eye; then follows a sense of the attractive or disagreeable nature of what we see, and some value judgment about the experience. Thus the initial experience doesn't remain a simple contact. Physical contact, for example, is accom- panied by the sensation of roughness or smoothness, heat or cold, and so forth. In addition, some thought or value judgment arises: "That's beautiful, I like it," or "That's horrible, I don't like it. " All such feelings, arising from the initial contact, belong to the se~enth nidana, tsor wa.
The eighth nidana is termed se pa [sred pa], which means "craving. " If one is very hungry and sees delicous food, a craving develops for that food; likewise, in the consciousness of a being in the si pa bardo, once there is contact between the sense fields and their objects, there come to be feelings and sensations that lead to a further clinging to and craving for that kind of experience. This
leads to the further state which we term len pa (len pa], the ninth nidana.
Len pa literally means "to take," and the image traditionally used is of someone picking fruit, actually taking fruit in the hand. Among the twelve nidanas, the stage of len pa, or grasping, is the one in which the will to take physical rebirth impels the mind toward incarnation. For a being about to be reborn as a human, this results in a perception of the future mother and father engaged in sexual intercourse. A tremendous attachment, a blind will to incar- nate, draws the mind of the si pa bardo being towards the couple in union.
Becoming, The Tenth Nidana
The process of attraction to physical rebirth finds its comple- tion, for a human being, when conception takes place in the mother's womb. This is the tenth nidana, si pa (srid pa] which means "becoming" or "existence. " At this point there is a physical basis-union of the sperm from the father and the egg from the mother-and, as a third component, the entrance of consciousness. Thereafter, according to the teachings of the Buddha, we are speak- ing of a human individual. A monk or nun, for instance, vows not "to take the life of a human or a conceived entity that will develop into a human being. " T o take the life of even a fetus in the womb is to take the life of a human being. Conception represents the final outcome of the urge possessing the disembodied consciousness of the being in the si pa bardo to inhabit a particular realm. Once concep- tion has taken place, the being has entered the human realm and will, in due course, be born, raised, and fully accepted as a human being among humans.
So when we have a blending of the two physical elements, the sperm and egg, and the one immaterial element, the consciousness of the being in the after-death state, a human individual is con- ceived. The consciousness has taken rebirth and is in a physical realm again. One might ask, "How does this come about, this blend- ing of the material and the immaterial? " The point is that mind is fundamentally empty: mind itself is immaterial and has no solidity or corporeality. But because of fundamental ignorance, there is an
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22 The Dharma
inability to experience that immateriality, and a tendency to con? ceive of it in material terms such as "some thing" or "1," "me," and "mine. " This mental tendency to solidify finds its fullest expression in physical rebirth-the conjunction of consciousness and the physical element brought about by fundamental ignorance.
Within the teachings of Buddha, the subsequent stages of fetal development are described in detail. During the first week or two an amorphous mass of cells (described in the traditional texts as being something like a small white blob of yogurt) grows slowly larger in the uterus. During the next stage the various parts of the body begin to differentiate, and the fetus, which now consists of two cellular masses connected by a narrow filament, is said to resemble an ant. Appendages begin to grow, organ systems develop and eventually, at the full term of the pregnancy, we have a fully developed human baby in whom all the complex processes of differentiation are com? plete.
There are definite experiences during the period of fetal development, a period of relentless growth during which the five bodily appendages (two arms, two legs and the head) emerge from the torso, and the five sensory organs and various organ systems are formed. In general, these are experiences of great suffering, and suffering, indeed, characterizes the entire period of gestation. Because growth within the mother's womb continues from concep? tion to birth, and because during this period the embryo generally becomes a complete human individual able to survive outside the womb, the whole period of gestation belongs to the nidana of becoming. The Sutra of Enten'ng the Womb (ngal juk pay do [mngal 'jug pa'i mdo]), which is basically a study in embryology, describes the whole process in considerable detail.
The Eleventh and Twelfth Nidanas
Towards the end of pregnancy the baby begins to become dim- ly aware of the confined, cramped conditions within its mother's womb, and directly before birth experiences a sense of oppression and claustrophobia. The karmic process of human birth entails a force in the mother's body which turns the child's head downwards in preparation for birth, and then labor contractions that force the child into the world. This brings us to the next nidana, the eleventh,
that of actual physical birth, which is termed che wa in Tibetan [skye ba].
The final link in the chain of Dependent Origination is aging and death, ga shi [rga shi]. Aging begins at the moment of birth and continues up to the moment of death, regardless of the age at which one dies. Attendant on this relentless aging process are all the sickness, suffering, sorrow, and pain that a human being ex- periences.
The final ni'dana is this aging and death. The moment of death is followed by the separation of mind and body, and the arising of the fundamental state of unconsciousness- ignorance. So arriving again at the first nidana, this one lifetime has brought us full cycle. Following the state of unconsciousness, the cycle of twelve links con?
tinues with the stirring of the mind, the reawakening of discursive consciousness, and so on. This is one aspect of samsara, which literally means a cycle or wheel: it makes a complete cycle from lifetime to lifetime.
The Five Skandhas and The Three Aspects of Suffering
Having taken physical existence, we have a body composed of flesh and blood, and at a more fundamental level, of atoms. Through this vehicle we experience the world. Whereas in the si pa bardo state we referred to the skandhas of the Four Names as being purely a mental experience, here we have to add a fifth element of physical existence, which we term the skandha of form. In our pres- ent human condition there are five skandhas: the physical existence plus the four purely mental states of sensation, perception, mental formations, and full discursive consciousness which is able to decide-this is a sound, this is a form-and to arrive at value judgments-this is good, this is bad, and so on.
The word skandha literally means "a heap" or "pile," and one understanding of the term is that as long as we have physical ex- istence, we not only have these five aggregates, but also a heap of trouble. On the basis of our physical existence all kinds of suffer- ing-sickness, pain, aging, death, happiness followed by unhap- piness-are possible. This fundamental potential, intrinsic to all compound things, is chap pa du che chi du ngal [khyab pa 'du byed kyi sdug bsngal], meaning "the Pervasive Suffering of Composite
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24 The Dharma
Things. " It is the most subtle kind of suffering because it exists simp- ly in the fact of being alive. It may not be experienced directly as suffering, or be seen as something tangible or threatening, but it is nonetheless inseparable from the five skandhas in physical rebirth.
In traditional texts it is said that the difference between a noble (pak pa ['phags pa]) individual and an ordinary person is that the first perceives and the second does not perceive this subtle aspect of suffering. To illustrate this the following example is used. If you place a hair on the palm of your hand, you have no sensation of it. If, however, the hair is in your eye, it hurts and you are aware of it very promptly. An ordinary person, who has no sensation of the fun- damental aspect of suffering, is like the palm of the hand in response to the hair; the noble person is like the eye-very much aware.
In addition to the Suffering of Composite Things, there is the Suffering of Change (jur way du ngal ['gyur ba'i sdug bsngal]. When a person in perfectly good health suddenly takes a tum for the worse, that change-that loss of something good-is the aspect of suffering called the suffering of change.
When we actually experience pain, suffering, and frustration, or one pain laid upon another, such as death following severe illness, then we speak of a third kind of suffering: actual pain, or, the Suf- fering of Suffering (du ngal ji du ngal [sdug bsngal gyi sdug bsngal]).
This, then, is a general account of the Buddha's teaching of the first two Noble Truths, the truth of the causes of suffering and the truth of the suffering we actually experience.
The first Noble Truth is termed the Truth ofSuffering, and the second the Truth of the Origin [of Suffering]. The origin meant here is the ignorance that gives rise to the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination. The consequence of this cycle is suffering, and a tradi- tional illustration of the samsaric process is a tree whose root represents ignorance and whose fruit is suffering.
The Suffering of the Different Realms
In the Buddhist tradition another way of looking at the universe is in terms of the three realms (kam sum [khams gsum]):
The Realm of Desire (do pa'i kham ['dod pa'i khams]), the Realm of Form (zuk pay kam [gzugs pa'i khams]), and the Formless Realm (zu me chi kam [gzugs med kyi khams]). The Realm of Desire encom? passes everything from the lowest hell up through the desire gods' realms. The six kinds of beings in the Realm of Desire are hell? beings, hungry ghosts, animals, humans, asuras and gods. Beyond it lie the seventeen levels of gods in the Realm of Form, and beyond that are the four levels of gods in the Formless Realm. But whatever the realm, and however subtle or gross the level of experience, it is included in the cycle of samsara, where no individual being is in any way separate from the three kinds of suffering, where no being finds a complete solution to any one of them.
The fact is that suffering is the fundamental, central ex- perience of all life, in whichever realm of samsara it occurs. In the hell realms, for instance, beings experience intense heat and cold. In the hungry ghost realm, suffering is due to hunger, thirst, and af? fliction by the elements. In the animal realm stupidity and ig? norance lead to blind, instinctive behavior and to the preying of one species upon another.
The situation and sufferings of beings in these three lower realms are mostly invisible to us. There are descriptions of them in the teachings of the Buddha, but we have no personal, direct evidence of them, except for what we can observe in a small part of the animal realm. If we examine animals in the ocean, or domesticated or wild animals, we can see the kinds of body these creatures inhabit and the kind of mentality they have. In this way we can gain a little understanding of what this lower realm of existence is like, and what kinds of suffering the beings in it may experience.
The Buddha once said, if we were really aware of suffering, if we weren't so ignorant, if we even understood the pain and suffering a fetus experiences in its mother's womb, then we would work hard in this lifetime to become enlightened and never experience such suffering again.
For example, if we remembered the pains of fetal development, we would remember that during the development of the different orifices and sensory organs, the pain is as though someone were sticking a finger into a open wound, probing it, and ripping it open. And we would remember that when the various appendages, the
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26 The Dharma
arms, legs, head and so forth, are developing, the pain is as though a very strong person were pulling our arms out of their sockets while someone else was beating them with a club. The development of the different organ systems-nerves, bones, muscles, digestive tract and so o n - entailed similar pains, which would also be remembered.
Moreover, the mind of the fetus is very sensitive to the mother's physical condition. If the mother eats food which is very cold, the child feels as though it's being thrown naked onto ice. If the mother drinks or eats something extremely hot, the child feels as though it's being boiled or scalded. If the mother does not eat, the child feels as though it's suspended in space; if the mother eats too much, the im- pression is of being crushed by a mountain. If the mother engages in sexual intercourse, the child feels as though it's being beaten with thorns. If the mother runs or jumps or engages in any violent physical exercise, the child feels as though it's being thrown over a cliff, and bouncing down a mountainside. In addition to all this, there is the suffering of simply being in the womb: of being in a dark, cramped, oppressive space where there is also a sense of uncleanness, and a disagreeable smell arising from waste fluids.
The actual process of birth is extremely painful. In Tibet we have a certain device, a metal disc with a small hole in it, through which a large thread can be drawn to make it smaller and tighter. When a baby is compressed in the narrow space of the vagina and thrust into the world, it feels as though it were being drawn through just such a device. And once the baby has been born, it is extremely sensitive to the touch of anything in the outer world; it feels, as it comes into the world, like a small bird being attacked by wolves or hawks- an immediate, overwhelming experience of being handled, grabbed, and spun around in various ways. When the child is washed, it feels as though it were being flayed; and when it's laid down, however soft the cover that it's put on, it feels as though it were being stretched on a bed of thorns. Children invariably cry when they ar~ born, a sign of suffering and distress; if the birth pro- cess were not painful, one would expect babies to be born smiling and laughing.
We have all experienced the various sufferings of the rebirth process described by the Buddha, but we don't remember. Most of us, though, and more especially doctors and people involved in
medicine, are aware of the suffering of growing up and being alive in the world. We've experienced illness and various physical and mental problems, and we know that these are always followed by the pain and suffering of death. This is where we are sitting now: in the middle of all this suffering.
Within the context of human existence, however, there is a great range of individual experience. Some people experience great pain, suffering and hardship in life, while others live fairly comfort? ably, without much pain or distress. For example, the Third Kar- mapa, Rangjung Dorje, once said that his experience in his mother's womb had been very pleasant: he had felt like a god in one of the high desire realms, enjoying a most pleasant existence throughout the whole term of pregnancy. As for the Buddha himself, his power and realization were so strong that even in the womb of his mother, Q. ueen Mayadevi, he was able to benefit many creatures through a certain kind of transmission of the Dharma.
Although in general we can say that suffering and pain attend all experiences, our own karma must always be taken into account. For those with especially virtuous karma, there will be a preponderance of happiness in any experience, and a lessening of suffering. Such circumstances are the results of the individual aspects of karma, as distinct from the common karma of human ex- istence.
The realm of existence above ours in samsara, that of the asuras, approximates, in terms of splendour, wealth and enjoyment, the state of the gods. There is, however, such a strong element of envy in the minds of these asuras that they live in continual strife, always fighting and quarreling with each other and with the gods in an effort to rob them of their wealth. Strife and quarrel are the dominant characteristics of this realm of existence and attendant on them are constant suffering and pain.
The last of the six realms in the Realm of Desire is that of the gods. From a relative point of view this is the superior realm of ex- istence, since it is marked by the greatest degree of happiness and contentment, and by a level of prosperity and sensual enjoyment we cannot begin to imagine. The most intense feeling of contentment and happiness a human can experience probably amounts to less than one percent of the total physical and mental bliss a god enjoys.
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28 The Dharma
Nonetheless, the relative state of ease and comfon in the god realm is impermanent, and when the causal factor-the merit that has led to rebirth there-is exhausted, the gods fall to a lower state of existence. This fall is forecast by cenain premonitions that begin seven days before the god will die and pass to a lower state. At first, the gods hear a voice speaking of impending death; then they begin to resemble a withering flower: the garlands of flowers they wear begin to decay and lose their fine scent; the body for the first time begins to sweat and smells disagreeable. Their companions, the gods and goddesses who shared the pleasures of the god realm with them, are utterly repelled by these signs of dying and flee, offering no more help or encouragement than the rain of flowers that they scatter behind them, and a sincere prayer that their future rebirth be used skillfully to regain the godly state and join them again. Beyond that, they simply abandon dying gods, leaving them to spend their last week alone, contemplating, with the limited prescience that gods have, their future state of rebirth. The dying gods feel great distress because that state will inevitably be a lower one. Moreover, this seven day period corresponds to seven hundred of our years, so the gods experience this suffering of change for a very long time.
For these reasons the Buddha, after examining the various realms, said that no place in the cycle of rebinh is free from sorrow: suffering is the central and fundamental experience of unenlight- ened existence.
The Importance of Studying the First Two Noble Truths
These, then, are the ideas the Buddha presented as the first two of the Four Noble Truths: the truth of the suffering we experience in the cycle of rebirth and its origin. The Buddha taught these subjects extensively and in great detail, and it is important for us to under- stand them in order to recognize the limitations of our present situa- tion. We have to understand our circumstances and know that, given the nature of cause and effect, or karmic relationship, we can look forward to nothing but suffering. We have to realize that we are enmeshed in the various factors of cause and effect, which lead first to one state of suffering and on that basis to another, and so on. When we have seen the inherent limitations of this situation, we can begin to consider getting out of it. We can begin to look for the
possibility of transcending samsaric existence and all its attendant sufferings, limitations, and frustrations.
If we have not examined these questions, our basic approach to existence will be naive. As long as we are happy and things are going well we think, "Oh, everything's fine. What's all this talk about suf- fering? Samsara's a nice place to be. " From this attitude comes a general tendency to let things slide. But as soon as something un- toward happens, the minute there is any kind of pain, or suffering, or trouble, we become completely unnerved. We think, "Oh, I'm dying. Oh, I'm sick. Oh, things are falling apart. Everything's going wrong. " We may then make some ineffective and rudimentary at- tempts to remedy the situation, but we have no real recourse to anything that will allow us to transcend our suffering.
? W e are caught in samsara. As long as things go well, we ignore the situation; when they go badly, we are helpless to deal with them. But once we have understood the situation, we will begin to look for a way of dealing with the suffering and frustration we inevitably meet. The techniques and methods of the Buddhadharma provide the means for this positive development.
Ultimately speaking, the causes of samsara are produced by the mind, and mind is what experiences the consequences. Nothing other than mind makes the universe, and nothing other than mind experiences it. Yet, still ultimately speaking, mind is fundamentally empty, no 'thing' in and of itself. T o understand that the mind pro- ducing and experiencing samsara is nothing real in itself can actual- ly be a source of great relief. If the mind is not fundamentally real, neither are the situations it experiences. By finding the empty nature of mind and letting it rest there, we can find much relief and relaxation amidst the turmoil, confusion, and suffering that con- stitute the world.
Moreover, when there is a complete understanding and ex- perience of the mind's Emptiness, we transcend causality: being beyond the cause and effect of karmic tendencies, we are a Buddha. But until this happens, simply thinking "It's all empty" is not going to do any good; we are still entirely subject to the unfailing process of karma.
Therefore, we need to understand not only the concept of the ultimate Emptiness of all experience, but also the conventional
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validity of karmic cause and effect. With this kind of approach, we can achieve Enlightenment. But if we fall into either ex? treme-either naively assuming the ultimate reality of everything (the error of the etemalists) or else denying everything (the error of the nihilists)-then we cannot achieve Enlightenment.
The Third and Fourth Noble Truths:
The Truth of Cessation and The Truth of The Path
After the Buddha had described the Truths of Suffering and the Origin of Suffering, he went on to examine the other side: the factors of cause and result in the context of Nirvana. The cause here is the Fourth Noble Truth, known as the Truth of the Path. The result is the achievement of Enlightenment, and in the context of the Four Noble Truths this is called the Truth of Cessation, the Third Noble Truth. Enlightenment here is seen from the Hinayana viewpoint as the cessation of emotions that confuse and trouble the mind, and the cessation of the sufferings they cause.
The Beginning of the Path
Just as the first two Noble Truths describe samsara as arising from ignorance, from unknowing, so it follows that the enlight. " ened experience arises from awareness (rik pa [rig pa]) instead of ig? norance (ma rik pa [ma rig pa]). But such awareness is not easily ex? perienced; we have to work towards it, and this is what constitutes Dharma practice. We adopt a vinuous and skillful way of life, avoiding actions harmful to ourselves and others, and engaging in actions that are helpful and positive. Then, motivated by the in- clination to establish a connection with the Three Jewels- the Bud? dha, the Dharma (his teaching), and the Sangha (the community of his followers), we take Refuge, and continue to take Refuge, motivated by faith, devotion, and our ongoing experience of the Path. All these aspects of Dharma practice contribute to our ex? perience of that awareness from which Enlightenment develops. The Seed of Enlightenment, this potential for Buddhahood, which we term Tathagatagarbha, is latent in every one of us, though in our present circumstances we cannot perceive it directly.
A rough analogy of our situation can be found in the process of sleep. When we go to sleep there is an initial period of complete un- consciousness, a very deep sleep in which there is no dreaming, no conscious activity at all. This state corresponds to the causal factor offundamental ignorance. During the night, however, there is from time to time a certain reawakening of conscious activity, which pro- duces the many kinds of illusion we call dreams. These can sometimes be very frightening, nightmarish experiences, which cor- respond to the suffering in samsara produced by ignorance. In the dream state, as in the waking experience of samsara, there is mental activity, which arises out of unawareness. In the morning, before we actually wake up, the body begins to stir, and consciousness starts to approach the waking state. For the purpose of our analogy, we can say this period corresponds to the arising of such virtuous tendencies in the mind as faith, compassion, energy, and exertion in Dharma practice. Then follows the actual awakening, when we_stretch in bed, get up, begin to move around, and start our activities for the day. In our analogy, this corresponds to achieving Enlighten- ment-we have completely awakened. We are not just in the dream state, which is our present condition, and not just half awake in Dharma practice, which is instilling and developing these good qualities in us; instead, we are totally awake, able to get up and be effective.
Part of the fundamental process of turning our minds away from samsara and towards Enlightenment is understanding samsara for what it is. Understanding suffering, and recognizing the limita- tions of our present situation, we begin to seek a way out. This initial turning of the mind is the foundation of the Path in its aspect as a causal factor leading to Enlightenment. Our ability to follow the Path by actually undertaking Dharma practice has a twofold basis.
First, because we have fostered virtuous tendencies and rejected un- wholesome ones, we have achieved the basic state of a human being. Second, because of the efficacy and compassion of the Three Jewels, we have established a connection with the Dharma which is bearing fruit in this life: we are not only human beings, but humans who are in contact with the teachings of Dharma, and have developed some certainty or conviction in them that leads to practice. Our actual practice-taking Refuge in the Three jewels, continuing to take
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Refuge, developing Bodhicitta (our concern for the Liberation of each and every living being), developing different meditation techniques-constitutes the real pith or essence of the cause leading us towards the goal of Enlightenment.
Aspects of the Path
There are various aspects of the Path. For instance, we can look at the different levels of ordination starting with the vows of Refuge, then the vows of a layperson, a novice monk or nun, a fully ordained monk or nun, the Bodhisattva vows, and so on. Another aspect of the Path is ngondro practice: the 100,000 recitations of the Refuge prayer accompanied by physical acts of prostration, the 100,000 recitations of the purification mantra of Vajrasattva, the 100,000 mandala offerings and the recitation of 100,000 prayers in the Guru-Yoga meditation. Both aspects-the levels of ordination and the graduations of Ngondro practice-belong to what we term the Path of Accumulation (tsok lam [tshogs lam]), because this first stage of the Complete Path to Enlightenment is the gathering of what we need for the journey.
Yet practice aimed only at purifying our obscurations and developing merit is unstable because its benefits can be lost. Medita? tion practice provides the stabilizing factor by producing a benefit that will not be lost, but continues as a stable element of our ex- perience. In particular, the practice of shi nay is important because whatever merit we accumulate, whatever virtuous tendencies we reinforce, all gain a degree of stability when the mind has been calmed. Moreover, whatever sort of meditation we attempt to develop is given a firm foundation by this initial phase of shi nay meditation. Therefore, when this stabilizing element has entered the picture, we speak of a superior degree of the Path of Accumula- tion.
There are various ways of examining the Complete Path. For example, we can speak of the Five Paths constituting its different levels: the Path of Accumulation, the Path of Application, the Path of Seeing, the Path of Meditation, and the Path of No More Learn- ing, or Buddhahood. At a more extensive and detailed level are the Thirty-seven Elements which contribute to complete Enlighten-
ment. All of these are different ways of examining the same phenomenon-all detail different aspects of Enlightenment.
Among the Thirty-seven Elements conducive to Enlightenment are four essential recollections, four proper attitudes towards what one should renounce and what one should accept, four bases for the development of supernormal power, five faculties, and five strengths which are developed in one's Dharma practice. All these elements pertain to the first two Paths, those of Accumulation and Applica? tion; they do not include the first level of Bodhisattva Realization, which corresponds to the Path of Seeing, the third of the Five Paths.
At present, when we talk about mind being empty, clear and unimpeded, we are simply expressing an intellectual concept. But as your Dharma practice progresses and develops, there comes a point where you actually have a direct experience of the mind as empty, clear and unimpeded. When this direct experience is stable, we refer to it as the first level of Bodhisattva realization. In Tibetan this is termed rap tu ga wa [rab tu dga' ba), meaning "complete joy. " At this point you enter the Path of Seeing, because now, instead of see- ing things in the ordinary sense, you actually see the nature of mind, and experience it directly. This moment of insight, therefore, lends its name to the Path at this particular stage.
The first level of Bodhisattva realization is termed a state of ut? ter joy because the nature of mind, which is now experienced direct? ly, is supremely blissful, supremely illuminating and, in the sense of not being anything ultimately real in and of itself, supremely empty. Although empty, the experience is one of complete bliss. The term used for this state is de wa chen po [bde ba chen po), "supreme bliss"-"supreme" because there is nothing in our ordinary ex- perience we can compare it to. So, accordingly, direct experience of the nature of mind in its intrinsic purity is known as the state of complete joy.
At this stage of realization since you are no longer concerned with conceptual thought but with direct experience, you have greater freedom of mind. At the first level of Bodhisattva realization there is a freedom from the limitations of clinging to a self (dan dzin [bdag 'dzin]). This is why we can speak of the one hundred emana? tions a first level Bodhisattva can manifest in a single instant, or of the ability to recall a hundred previous existences, or to foresee a
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hundred future ones. These abilities belong to a partial, not a com- plete, freedom of the mind from the limits of ignorance, and we traditionally refer to the twelve aspects of this freedom as the Twelve Hundreds.
Moreover, a first level Bodhisattva has transcended the karmic process, and is no longer completely subject to its obscuring limita- tions. Awareness has replaced ignorance. Since fundamental discur- sive consciousness, kun shi nam she [kun gzhi rnam shes], is based on that ignorance, it too no longer obtains. Kun shi nam she functions as a kind of store-house for the karmic process, which is reinforced (1) by the obscuration of the emotional afflictions (nyon mong pay dri pa [nyon mongs pa'i sgrib pa]) that develop from dualistic cling- ing, and (2) by the physical, verbal and mental activities (lay chi dri pa [las kyi sgrib pa]) based on that obscuration. Without fun- damental ignorance, the karmic process has no basis. Thus a first? level Bodhisattva transcends the obscuring limitation of karma.
In Tibet we use a lunar calendar. On the third day of any month the moon is just a thin sliver, which gradually increases until on the fifteenth day it attains complete fullness. This gradual wax- ing of the moon provides an image for the different levels of Bodhisattva realization. The first glimmering of awareness is like the thin sliver of the moon. It's there, but not fully developed. Where development takes place is in the continued deepening and extend- ing of awareness, and in the increasing freedom of mind experi- enced at the ten different levels of Bodhisattva realization.
In the context of the increasing freedom of mind, the qualities known on the first level as the Twelve Hundreds are increased ten- fold on the second level. So there we speak of the Twelve Thousands, of the ability to manifest a thousand emanations in a single instant, to recall a thousand previous existences, to foretell a thousand future existences, and so forth. This increase in depth and scope of awareness continues as we progress through the different stages of Bodhisattva Realization.
The waxing moon of the eleventh day, when the moon is not quite full but is rapidly approaching fullness, corresponds to the seventh level of Bodhisattva Realization. Here the increase in positive tendencies and the deepening of awareness accompany a diminishing of the negative aspects of one's being. In particular,
emotional afflictions have been mostly eliminated at the seventh Bodhisattva stage.
At the eighth and ninth levels of Bodhisattva realization habitual dualistic clinging (bak chak chi dri pa [bag chags kyi sgrib pa]), which is the next most subtle level of obscuration, is gradually eliminated.
At the tenth Bodhisattva level, fundamental ignorance, the final level of obscuration (she jay dri pa [shes bya'i sgrib pa]), is almost completely removed, and the mind is almost completely without limitation. An enormous capability to express the positive qualities of mind arises. At this point we speak not of a hundred or a thousand emanations, but of one hundred thousand million emana- tions, previous lifetimes, future lifetimes, and so forth.
These ten levels of Bodhisattva Realization constitute the third and fourth Paths, the Path of Seeing and the Path of Meditation. Within this framework further levels are distinguished-the in- ferior, medium and superior levels of the Path of Seeing, and the in- ferior, medium and superior levels of the Path of Meditation- but in sum they coincide with the ten levels of Realization. Among the Thirty-seven Elements conducive to Enlightenment, the seven Branches of Enlightenment- mindfulness, investigation of dharmas (phenomena), diligence, joy, purification, samadhi, and equanimity-and the Noble Eightfold Path are experienced at these levels.
On the tenth level of Bodhisattva Realization, the final step to complete Enlightenment is accomplished by the particular state of meditation known as the Vajra-like samadhi (dor je ta bii ting nge dzin [rdo rje Ita bu'i ting nge 'dzin]), where "vajra" has the sense of something invincible, something that can cut through anything else. And what is being cut through here are the final and most subtle traces of ignorance about the ultimate nature of reality. When this finest veil has been rent asunder by Vajra-like samadhi, we are com- pletely enlightened. We have reached full and complete Bud- dhahood, sometimes called the eleventh Bodhisattva stage.
Our present circumstances are like those of someone who has been bound in chains and locked in a dark prison cell. The cell is samsara, and we are bound up and confined in it by our own ig- norance. On the Paths of Accumulation and Application, up to but
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36 The Dharma
not including the first level of Bodhisattva Realization, there is a growing sense of freedom, just as if a person in prison were to have these bonds and manacles removed and, though still imprisoned, were free to move about the cell. The experience of first level Bodhisattva Realization, the Path of Seeing, resembles the opening of the prison door, after which we can walk out and go anywhere.
In this analogy, the prison represents the confining nature of samsara. The manacles and chains represent the limitations im- posed by our own ego-clinging; regardless of which realm of sam? saric existence we experience-regardless of where in the prison we may be-we are still chained by the impression of being a self, by the conviction that this ego ultimately exists. With the experience of the first and subsequent Bodhisattva levels we are freed from the shackles and then freed from the prison.
The Three Kayas
Buddhahood, complete Enlightenment, is described in tenns of the Three Kayas {three bodies) (ku sum [sku gsum]). These three aspects of complete Enlightenment are known as the Dharmakaya, Sambhogakaya and Nirmanakaya. The three are related to the fun? damental nature of mind in the following way. The mind's quality of being in essence empty corresponds to the Dharmakaya. Its clear nature corresponds to the Sambhogakaya, and its quality of unimpeded manifestation corresponds to the Nirmanakaya. These qualities, which express the bask nature of mind, are what we term Buddhahood, which is also canid, "the embodiment of the Three Kayas. "
The Dharmakaya, or ultimate aspect, is described in a number of ways. For example, there are traditional references to the Twenty-one Flawless Aspects of the Dharmakaya that represent a state of mind not subject to change or degenerat~on. There is an om? nipresent aspect, in that the Dharmakaya pe~des both samsara
and Nirvana. There is also the permanent quality, because the Dhar? makaya is beyond form, beyond all limiting characteristics, and has no origination or cessation; being beyond dualistic or conceptual frameworks, it is without highness, lowness, happiness, sadness, or any kind of change. In such ways the texts attempt to describe the
Dharmakaya's unchangeable nature, subject neither to degenera- tion, exhaustion, nor impairment.
The Sambhogakaya is also described from various viewpoints, and most commonly in terms of the Five Certainties. The first of these concerns the form encountered at the Sambhogakaya level. Here, the form of the Teacher has a permanent quality; it has no origin and no end, and therefore differs from all phenomena that are subject to change-differs even from the form in this world of the Buddha Shakyamuni, who took birth, grew old and died. Secondly, although we have a localized perception and speak of par- ticular Buddhas and Buddha-realms, there is, nevertheless, an eter- nal quality to the environment of the Sambhogakaya that is not sub- ject to change, degeneration or impairment. Thirdly, the transmis- sion of teachings at the Sambhogakaya level of Enlightenment is always that of the Mahayana or Vajrayana. The unending continui- ty of this teaching is the third certainty. The fourth certainty con- cerns the retinue or audience of these teachings, which is always composed of beings on the eighth, ninth and tenth Bodhisattva levels, the three highest, purest levels of realization. Finally, there is the certainty of time, the fact that the Sambhogakaya is not subject to normal temporal limitations. These Five Certainties, pertaining to teacher, environment, Doctrine, entourage, and temporal mode, all belong to the level of Pure Form and such form is permanent.
It has been said that the mind is in essence empty and by nature clear, and that there is a third quality, unimpededness, which we experience in our present state as all the emotions, thoughts, con- cepts, experiences of pleasure and pain, and so forth, which arise without obstruction in our minds. All these are the unimpeded manifestation of mind in the unenlightened context. From the enlightened point of view, however. this unimpeded manifestation is termed the Nirmanakaya: the manifestation of Enlightenment in physical form in the physical world. Various levels and aspects of this phenomenon are described. For example, we can speak of supreme Nirmanakayas, such as the completely enlightened Shakyamuni Buddha, and we can speak of what are termed literal- ly, "birth incarnations"-beings who, although not completely enlightened, nevertheless represent some degree of Enlightenment working through physical form or through various arts, crafts,
The Four Noble Truths 37
38 The Dharma
sciences and so forth. The physical manifestation of Enlightenment is not a deliberate undertaking on the part of the Buddha nature; it is not the result of some determination like "Now I will emanate in this particular realm in this particular form;" rather, it is a spon- taneous expression, just as light radiates spontaneously from the sun without the sun issuing directives or giving any conscious thought to the matter. The sun is, and it radiates. Dharmakaya and Sam- bhogakaya simply are; they radiate, and the radiation is the Nir- manakaya.
Hinayana and Mahayana Views of the Path
What has so far been described as the Truth of the Path per- tains equally to Hinayana and Mahayana: At both levels of teaching we find the same concepts of the Five Paths, the Thirty-seven Elements conducive to Enlightenment, and so forth. The difference lies in the scope of the interpretation of these topics. For example, from the Hinayana point of view, generosity involves giving up all one's wealth and, ideally, taking monk's or nun's vows, leading an extremely simple life, with only robes and a begging bowl, and get- ting only what is necessary for the present day, and no more. In short, the Hinayana ideal of generosity involves a complete rejection of acquisition, a total abandonment of one's attachment to wealth, and the pursuit of a very simplified way of life. From the Mahayana point of view, this ideal is extended to include a continual sharing of whatever wealth comes our way; even our own body is considered worthy as an offering. In one way or another, whatever appears is continually dedicated, either to the Dharma or to the benefit of other beings.
From the Hinayana point of view, morality means very much what we might normally think-living a good life by avoiding harm- ful or negative actions. This view of morality is also found in the Mahayana, but it is greatly expanded through the emphasis on developing good qualities and virtuous tendencies in ourselves, and by the dedication of our lives for the benefit of other beings. In this way, the scope is greater.
The Hinayana and Mahayana do share views of the Path to Enlightenment but what has been said here about Enlightenment
itself pertains particularly to the Mahayana and Vajrayana. For the Hinayana, the goal is the cessation of negative factors; only at the Mahayana and Vajrayana levels does one speak of the development of the mind's positive potential.
We can get a clearer idea of the difference between the two views of Enlightenment by examining the words used to describe it in each system. The Hinayana goal is the attainment of the level of an Arhat. This term is translated into Tibetan as dra chom pa [dgra bcom pa], which means "having conquered the enemy. " The enemy here is the emotions and the ignorance which keep us locked in sam? sara, and the intention is to overcome or eliminate those factors. This is where the principle of Cessation-the other term used to describe Enlightenment in the Hinayana-comes in. Cessation refers to stopping the emotions that confuse the mind, and stopping discursive thoughts-fixations on materiality and immateriality, reality and non-reality, and all such conceptual frameworks-that limit awareness. When Cessation is achieved, all of these have been arrested, and the mind is simply absorbed in the experience of Emptiness, without any wavering or distraction. This is the Hinayana ideal, and it will certainly lead to complete Enlighten? ment. However, the length of time it will take to do so is immense, and during this almost interminable period, there is virtually no ability to help others. That is why the term Hinayana, "the lesser vehicle," is applied, because the scope is relatively narrow. Cessation does, however, represent at least a degree of Liberation from sam- sara, because an individual who experiences it has no need to rein- carnate: the power of karma to cause rebirth in the cycle of samsara has been transcended.
Perhaps the understanding of all these concepts-the Five Paths, the Ten Levels of Bodhisattva Realization, the Thirty-seven Elements conducive to their realization, the different qualities of the Three Kayas-is not strictly necessary; if we are diligent in Dharma practice and meditate, we are going to experience them all anyway. They will not fail to arise just because we don't know what to call them, or necessarily arise just because we do. On the other hand, there seems to be something very important in giving guidelines to help people understand more about the elements of Dharma prac? tice and the enlightened state towards which they're working.
The Four Noble Truths 39
40 The Dharma
Reasons to Study the Four Noble Truths
The value of understanding our situation from the point of view of both samsara and Nirvana is this: to understand the cause and result of samsara motivates us to seek an alternative: once we have realized the limitations of our situation, there is the possibility of seeking something else. And if we understand the cause and result aspects of the Path, then this fuels our motivation not simply to re- ject samsara, but to seek Enlightenment. Moreover, to understand the great qualities of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas inspires one with faith in, and awe at, what is possible. Faith, energy, and motivation are very helpful in developing an understanding of the Four Noble Truths.
Having achieved this precious human existence with its oppor? tunities and freedoms, and in having met with the teachings of the Dharma, we are pivotally poised. On one side is the possibility of continuing to wander ignorantly in the cycle of rebirth, and on the other the possibility of transcending samsara and actually achieving Enlightenment. Both possibilities stem from the mind that each and every one of us has and experiences. It is this mind we already have that is essentially empty and illuminating by nature, that can and does experience the different levels of Bodhisattva Realization; it is this same mind that can achieve and experience complete Enlightenment.
3
The Four Dharmas oJGampopa
0 ur precious human birth affords opportunity and leisure for Dharma practice and gives us access to the vast and profound tradition of the teachings of the Buddhadharma. Among these, the Four Dharmas of Gampopa provide a concise survey of the entire
Path, divided into four levels.
The First Dharma: The Mind Turns Towards Dharma
This first teaching involves a thorough understanding of our situation in samsara and the different destinies within the cycle, the six states of rebirth: three lower ones-the hell realms, the hungry ghost realm, and the animal realm; and three higher-the human, asura, and god realms. Through this teaching, we learn the conse- quences of virtuous and unvirtuous actions, which tendencies lead to these various rebirths, and the sufferings which the beings in these realms undergo. We come to understand that although a particular karmic process may lead from higher to lower or lower to higher rebirths, samsara itself provides no means of escape, and if we rely
44 The Dharma
on it, we can make no progress towards Enlightenment. At the beginning of the Path, this understanding of samsara is necessary to turn the mind towards the Dharma, and to do this we contemplate the Four Ordinary Preliminaries.
The first of these concerns the unique value of the human life we are now experiencing. Because of the blessing of the Three jewels and their influence in previous lives, we have, at some point, developed a virtuous tendency that has brought about our present human birth, with all its opportunities, leisure and freedom to prac? tice Dharma. Very few beings preserve this virtuous tendency (by avoiding negative actions, thoughts, and speech and encouraging positive ones), and very few achieve the resultant state of a precious human birth. If we think of the stars in the night sky as representing the multitude of beings in samsara, then a star in daytime represents the precious human birth-it is something possible, but most unlikely. Human birth is an extremely rare occurrence.
The second of the Four Preliminaries concerns impermanence. Now that we have the precious opportunity of human birth we should make the best use of it and actually realize the full potential of being human. This can be accomplished through our efforts to transcend completely the cycle of rebirth and achieve Buddhahood. In addition we must understand that mortality and impermanence are part of our existence, and that our human birth, obtained with such difficulty, will pass away. In everything we experience, there is moment-by-moment change and instability. Like a candle flame blown by a strong wind, our human existence may be extinguished at any moment; like a bubble on the surface of water, it may sud- denly burst; like morning dew on the grass, it soon evaporates.
Next, to realize the full potential of being human, we must ex? amine the concept of karma, the process of cause and effect, especially the relationship between our actions and their results. We need to recognize fully the unfailing connection between what we do now and what we experience later.
The fourth contemplation that turns the mind towards Dhar? ma deals with the unsatisfactory and painful nature of samsara. Without an appreciation of impermanence and our own impending death, we are likely to be distracted by the pleasures of the world and indulge ourselves in emotional conflict and confusion. When
The Four Dharmas of Gampopa 45
that happens, we become exhausted by the life we lead and do not get to what really matters. We neither really see what is actually happening in our lives, nor make good use of our situation. Before we know it, our life is finished and it is time to die. If we lack the foundation of a stable practice, we go to death helplessly, in fear and anguish.
By contemplating these preliminaries-the potential of a precious human existence, impermanence and the inevitability of death, the karmic process of cause and effect, and the sufferings and limitations of samsara- we tum our minds to the Dharma, and thus fulfil the first of the Four Teachings of Gampopa.
The Second Dharma: The Dharma Becomes The Path
Once involved in the teachings, we come to the second of the Four Dharmas: the teachings of the Dharma become our way of life, our path. Our attitude towards what is superior to us-the Three
Jewels-begins to change, and so does our attitude towards the be- ings in samsara who are equal or inferior to us. The first attitude is expressed when we take Refuge, with faith, devotion and respect, in the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha. We realize that in Bud- dhahood one is omniscient and omnipresent, endowed with infinite capabilities. We see that the teachings of the Dharma, which pro- ceed from this enlightened state, are the Path that every being can follow to Enlightenment. We recognize that the Sangha, or assembly of practitioners who realize and transmit the teachings, are companions or guides who can show us the Path. In the Vajrayana tradition, we add the Three Roots-Lama, Yidam and Dharma Protector-to the Three Jewels as sources of Refuge.
When the Dharma becomes our Path, we develop a second at- titude, that of compassion. In contemplating the beings who are in samsara with us, we consider that space is infinite, pervading all directions, and that the realm of sentient beings extends as far as space itself. At some point in the past, every one of these numberless beings has been our mother or our father. Through innumerable cycles of lifetimes we have developed an extremely close karmic con- nection with each one of them. When compassion develops we see that all life is the same, and that every single being wishes to be hap-
46 The Dharma
py: in every fonn of life a fundamental search for happiness goes o n - but in a way that contradicts and defeats the aim of this search. Few beings understand that real happiness is the result of virtuous conduct. Many are involved in actually destroying their chances for happiness through confused and harmful actions and thoughts. When we see this we develop real affection and compassion for other beings. This infinite compassion for all forms of life is the second at? titude involved in making the teaching our Path. Through faith and compassion the teaching that has attracted us becomes an entire way of life.
The Development of Compassion
Although we realize the necessity of working not only for our own benefit but for the welfare of all beings, we need to be honest about our own limitations and recognize that we have little power or ability to be truly effective in helping beings to free themselves. The way we become effective in this is through achieving Buddhahood or, at least, by reaching some level of Bodhisattva realization. At these higher levels we gain the ability to manifest for the sake of guiding beings out of their confusion.
The attitude of altruism is called Relative Bodhicitta; the desire to develop it is the foundation of Mahayana practice and the vessel for all virtue.
One method for developing Bodhicitta is called tong len (gtong len], which literally means "sending (and] taking. " The attitude here is that each of us is only one being, while the number of beings in the universe is infinite. Would it not be a worthy goal if this one being could take on all the pain of every other being in the universe and free each and every one of them from suffering? We therefore resolve to take on ourselves all this suffering, to take it away from all other beings, even their incipient or potential suffering, and all of its causes. At the same time we develop the attitude of sending all our virtue, happiness, health, wealth and potential for long life to other beings. Anything that we enjoy, anything noble or worthy, positive or happy in our situation we send selflessly to every other being.
The sixth nidana is termed rek pa [reg pa], which literally means "touch," or "contact," in just the same sense that the hand makes contact with an object it touches. In this case the word means that there is contact between the six sense subjects and the six ob- jects-for example, between the faculty ofseeing and form; in a cer- tain sense, mind touches form with this faculty of sight, it touches sound with the faculty of hearing, and so forth. Even though this is a mental state without any physical basis, it is also accompanied by tactile sensation, a feeling of actually being able to touch and make contact with some kind of embodiment.
Formed upon this initial contact is the seventh nidana, which we term tsor wa [tshor ba], meaning sensation or feeling. T o see is to make contact with the form through the eye; then follows a sense of the attractive or disagreeable nature of what we see, and some value judgment about the experience. Thus the initial experience doesn't remain a simple contact. Physical contact, for example, is accom- panied by the sensation of roughness or smoothness, heat or cold, and so forth. In addition, some thought or value judgment arises: "That's beautiful, I like it," or "That's horrible, I don't like it. " All such feelings, arising from the initial contact, belong to the se~enth nidana, tsor wa.
The eighth nidana is termed se pa [sred pa], which means "craving. " If one is very hungry and sees delicous food, a craving develops for that food; likewise, in the consciousness of a being in the si pa bardo, once there is contact between the sense fields and their objects, there come to be feelings and sensations that lead to a further clinging to and craving for that kind of experience. This
leads to the further state which we term len pa (len pa], the ninth nidana.
Len pa literally means "to take," and the image traditionally used is of someone picking fruit, actually taking fruit in the hand. Among the twelve nidanas, the stage of len pa, or grasping, is the one in which the will to take physical rebirth impels the mind toward incarnation. For a being about to be reborn as a human, this results in a perception of the future mother and father engaged in sexual intercourse. A tremendous attachment, a blind will to incar- nate, draws the mind of the si pa bardo being towards the couple in union.
Becoming, The Tenth Nidana
The process of attraction to physical rebirth finds its comple- tion, for a human being, when conception takes place in the mother's womb. This is the tenth nidana, si pa (srid pa] which means "becoming" or "existence. " At this point there is a physical basis-union of the sperm from the father and the egg from the mother-and, as a third component, the entrance of consciousness. Thereafter, according to the teachings of the Buddha, we are speak- ing of a human individual. A monk or nun, for instance, vows not "to take the life of a human or a conceived entity that will develop into a human being. " T o take the life of even a fetus in the womb is to take the life of a human being. Conception represents the final outcome of the urge possessing the disembodied consciousness of the being in the si pa bardo to inhabit a particular realm. Once concep- tion has taken place, the being has entered the human realm and will, in due course, be born, raised, and fully accepted as a human being among humans.
So when we have a blending of the two physical elements, the sperm and egg, and the one immaterial element, the consciousness of the being in the after-death state, a human individual is con- ceived. The consciousness has taken rebirth and is in a physical realm again. One might ask, "How does this come about, this blend- ing of the material and the immaterial? " The point is that mind is fundamentally empty: mind itself is immaterial and has no solidity or corporeality. But because of fundamental ignorance, there is an
The Four Noble Truths 21
22 The Dharma
inability to experience that immateriality, and a tendency to con? ceive of it in material terms such as "some thing" or "1," "me," and "mine. " This mental tendency to solidify finds its fullest expression in physical rebirth-the conjunction of consciousness and the physical element brought about by fundamental ignorance.
Within the teachings of Buddha, the subsequent stages of fetal development are described in detail. During the first week or two an amorphous mass of cells (described in the traditional texts as being something like a small white blob of yogurt) grows slowly larger in the uterus. During the next stage the various parts of the body begin to differentiate, and the fetus, which now consists of two cellular masses connected by a narrow filament, is said to resemble an ant. Appendages begin to grow, organ systems develop and eventually, at the full term of the pregnancy, we have a fully developed human baby in whom all the complex processes of differentiation are com? plete.
There are definite experiences during the period of fetal development, a period of relentless growth during which the five bodily appendages (two arms, two legs and the head) emerge from the torso, and the five sensory organs and various organ systems are formed. In general, these are experiences of great suffering, and suffering, indeed, characterizes the entire period of gestation. Because growth within the mother's womb continues from concep? tion to birth, and because during this period the embryo generally becomes a complete human individual able to survive outside the womb, the whole period of gestation belongs to the nidana of becoming. The Sutra of Enten'ng the Womb (ngal juk pay do [mngal 'jug pa'i mdo]), which is basically a study in embryology, describes the whole process in considerable detail.
The Eleventh and Twelfth Nidanas
Towards the end of pregnancy the baby begins to become dim- ly aware of the confined, cramped conditions within its mother's womb, and directly before birth experiences a sense of oppression and claustrophobia. The karmic process of human birth entails a force in the mother's body which turns the child's head downwards in preparation for birth, and then labor contractions that force the child into the world. This brings us to the next nidana, the eleventh,
that of actual physical birth, which is termed che wa in Tibetan [skye ba].
The final link in the chain of Dependent Origination is aging and death, ga shi [rga shi]. Aging begins at the moment of birth and continues up to the moment of death, regardless of the age at which one dies. Attendant on this relentless aging process are all the sickness, suffering, sorrow, and pain that a human being ex- periences.
The final ni'dana is this aging and death. The moment of death is followed by the separation of mind and body, and the arising of the fundamental state of unconsciousness- ignorance. So arriving again at the first nidana, this one lifetime has brought us full cycle. Following the state of unconsciousness, the cycle of twelve links con?
tinues with the stirring of the mind, the reawakening of discursive consciousness, and so on. This is one aspect of samsara, which literally means a cycle or wheel: it makes a complete cycle from lifetime to lifetime.
The Five Skandhas and The Three Aspects of Suffering
Having taken physical existence, we have a body composed of flesh and blood, and at a more fundamental level, of atoms. Through this vehicle we experience the world. Whereas in the si pa bardo state we referred to the skandhas of the Four Names as being purely a mental experience, here we have to add a fifth element of physical existence, which we term the skandha of form. In our pres- ent human condition there are five skandhas: the physical existence plus the four purely mental states of sensation, perception, mental formations, and full discursive consciousness which is able to decide-this is a sound, this is a form-and to arrive at value judgments-this is good, this is bad, and so on.
The word skandha literally means "a heap" or "pile," and one understanding of the term is that as long as we have physical ex- istence, we not only have these five aggregates, but also a heap of trouble. On the basis of our physical existence all kinds of suffer- ing-sickness, pain, aging, death, happiness followed by unhap- piness-are possible. This fundamental potential, intrinsic to all compound things, is chap pa du che chi du ngal [khyab pa 'du byed kyi sdug bsngal], meaning "the Pervasive Suffering of Composite
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24 The Dharma
Things. " It is the most subtle kind of suffering because it exists simp- ly in the fact of being alive. It may not be experienced directly as suffering, or be seen as something tangible or threatening, but it is nonetheless inseparable from the five skandhas in physical rebirth.
In traditional texts it is said that the difference between a noble (pak pa ['phags pa]) individual and an ordinary person is that the first perceives and the second does not perceive this subtle aspect of suffering. To illustrate this the following example is used. If you place a hair on the palm of your hand, you have no sensation of it. If, however, the hair is in your eye, it hurts and you are aware of it very promptly. An ordinary person, who has no sensation of the fun- damental aspect of suffering, is like the palm of the hand in response to the hair; the noble person is like the eye-very much aware.
In addition to the Suffering of Composite Things, there is the Suffering of Change (jur way du ngal ['gyur ba'i sdug bsngal]. When a person in perfectly good health suddenly takes a tum for the worse, that change-that loss of something good-is the aspect of suffering called the suffering of change.
When we actually experience pain, suffering, and frustration, or one pain laid upon another, such as death following severe illness, then we speak of a third kind of suffering: actual pain, or, the Suf- fering of Suffering (du ngal ji du ngal [sdug bsngal gyi sdug bsngal]).
This, then, is a general account of the Buddha's teaching of the first two Noble Truths, the truth of the causes of suffering and the truth of the suffering we actually experience.
The first Noble Truth is termed the Truth ofSuffering, and the second the Truth of the Origin [of Suffering]. The origin meant here is the ignorance that gives rise to the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination. The consequence of this cycle is suffering, and a tradi- tional illustration of the samsaric process is a tree whose root represents ignorance and whose fruit is suffering.
The Suffering of the Different Realms
In the Buddhist tradition another way of looking at the universe is in terms of the three realms (kam sum [khams gsum]):
The Realm of Desire (do pa'i kham ['dod pa'i khams]), the Realm of Form (zuk pay kam [gzugs pa'i khams]), and the Formless Realm (zu me chi kam [gzugs med kyi khams]). The Realm of Desire encom? passes everything from the lowest hell up through the desire gods' realms. The six kinds of beings in the Realm of Desire are hell? beings, hungry ghosts, animals, humans, asuras and gods. Beyond it lie the seventeen levels of gods in the Realm of Form, and beyond that are the four levels of gods in the Formless Realm. But whatever the realm, and however subtle or gross the level of experience, it is included in the cycle of samsara, where no individual being is in any way separate from the three kinds of suffering, where no being finds a complete solution to any one of them.
The fact is that suffering is the fundamental, central ex- perience of all life, in whichever realm of samsara it occurs. In the hell realms, for instance, beings experience intense heat and cold. In the hungry ghost realm, suffering is due to hunger, thirst, and af? fliction by the elements. In the animal realm stupidity and ig? norance lead to blind, instinctive behavior and to the preying of one species upon another.
The situation and sufferings of beings in these three lower realms are mostly invisible to us. There are descriptions of them in the teachings of the Buddha, but we have no personal, direct evidence of them, except for what we can observe in a small part of the animal realm. If we examine animals in the ocean, or domesticated or wild animals, we can see the kinds of body these creatures inhabit and the kind of mentality they have. In this way we can gain a little understanding of what this lower realm of existence is like, and what kinds of suffering the beings in it may experience.
The Buddha once said, if we were really aware of suffering, if we weren't so ignorant, if we even understood the pain and suffering a fetus experiences in its mother's womb, then we would work hard in this lifetime to become enlightened and never experience such suffering again.
For example, if we remembered the pains of fetal development, we would remember that during the development of the different orifices and sensory organs, the pain is as though someone were sticking a finger into a open wound, probing it, and ripping it open. And we would remember that when the various appendages, the
The Four Noble Truths 25
26 The Dharma
arms, legs, head and so forth, are developing, the pain is as though a very strong person were pulling our arms out of their sockets while someone else was beating them with a club. The development of the different organ systems-nerves, bones, muscles, digestive tract and so o n - entailed similar pains, which would also be remembered.
Moreover, the mind of the fetus is very sensitive to the mother's physical condition. If the mother eats food which is very cold, the child feels as though it's being thrown naked onto ice. If the mother drinks or eats something extremely hot, the child feels as though it's being boiled or scalded. If the mother does not eat, the child feels as though it's suspended in space; if the mother eats too much, the im- pression is of being crushed by a mountain. If the mother engages in sexual intercourse, the child feels as though it's being beaten with thorns. If the mother runs or jumps or engages in any violent physical exercise, the child feels as though it's being thrown over a cliff, and bouncing down a mountainside. In addition to all this, there is the suffering of simply being in the womb: of being in a dark, cramped, oppressive space where there is also a sense of uncleanness, and a disagreeable smell arising from waste fluids.
The actual process of birth is extremely painful. In Tibet we have a certain device, a metal disc with a small hole in it, through which a large thread can be drawn to make it smaller and tighter. When a baby is compressed in the narrow space of the vagina and thrust into the world, it feels as though it were being drawn through just such a device. And once the baby has been born, it is extremely sensitive to the touch of anything in the outer world; it feels, as it comes into the world, like a small bird being attacked by wolves or hawks- an immediate, overwhelming experience of being handled, grabbed, and spun around in various ways. When the child is washed, it feels as though it were being flayed; and when it's laid down, however soft the cover that it's put on, it feels as though it were being stretched on a bed of thorns. Children invariably cry when they ar~ born, a sign of suffering and distress; if the birth pro- cess were not painful, one would expect babies to be born smiling and laughing.
We have all experienced the various sufferings of the rebirth process described by the Buddha, but we don't remember. Most of us, though, and more especially doctors and people involved in
medicine, are aware of the suffering of growing up and being alive in the world. We've experienced illness and various physical and mental problems, and we know that these are always followed by the pain and suffering of death. This is where we are sitting now: in the middle of all this suffering.
Within the context of human existence, however, there is a great range of individual experience. Some people experience great pain, suffering and hardship in life, while others live fairly comfort? ably, without much pain or distress. For example, the Third Kar- mapa, Rangjung Dorje, once said that his experience in his mother's womb had been very pleasant: he had felt like a god in one of the high desire realms, enjoying a most pleasant existence throughout the whole term of pregnancy. As for the Buddha himself, his power and realization were so strong that even in the womb of his mother, Q. ueen Mayadevi, he was able to benefit many creatures through a certain kind of transmission of the Dharma.
Although in general we can say that suffering and pain attend all experiences, our own karma must always be taken into account. For those with especially virtuous karma, there will be a preponderance of happiness in any experience, and a lessening of suffering. Such circumstances are the results of the individual aspects of karma, as distinct from the common karma of human ex- istence.
The realm of existence above ours in samsara, that of the asuras, approximates, in terms of splendour, wealth and enjoyment, the state of the gods. There is, however, such a strong element of envy in the minds of these asuras that they live in continual strife, always fighting and quarreling with each other and with the gods in an effort to rob them of their wealth. Strife and quarrel are the dominant characteristics of this realm of existence and attendant on them are constant suffering and pain.
The last of the six realms in the Realm of Desire is that of the gods. From a relative point of view this is the superior realm of ex- istence, since it is marked by the greatest degree of happiness and contentment, and by a level of prosperity and sensual enjoyment we cannot begin to imagine. The most intense feeling of contentment and happiness a human can experience probably amounts to less than one percent of the total physical and mental bliss a god enjoys.
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Nonetheless, the relative state of ease and comfon in the god realm is impermanent, and when the causal factor-the merit that has led to rebirth there-is exhausted, the gods fall to a lower state of existence. This fall is forecast by cenain premonitions that begin seven days before the god will die and pass to a lower state. At first, the gods hear a voice speaking of impending death; then they begin to resemble a withering flower: the garlands of flowers they wear begin to decay and lose their fine scent; the body for the first time begins to sweat and smells disagreeable. Their companions, the gods and goddesses who shared the pleasures of the god realm with them, are utterly repelled by these signs of dying and flee, offering no more help or encouragement than the rain of flowers that they scatter behind them, and a sincere prayer that their future rebirth be used skillfully to regain the godly state and join them again. Beyond that, they simply abandon dying gods, leaving them to spend their last week alone, contemplating, with the limited prescience that gods have, their future state of rebirth. The dying gods feel great distress because that state will inevitably be a lower one. Moreover, this seven day period corresponds to seven hundred of our years, so the gods experience this suffering of change for a very long time.
For these reasons the Buddha, after examining the various realms, said that no place in the cycle of rebinh is free from sorrow: suffering is the central and fundamental experience of unenlight- ened existence.
The Importance of Studying the First Two Noble Truths
These, then, are the ideas the Buddha presented as the first two of the Four Noble Truths: the truth of the suffering we experience in the cycle of rebirth and its origin. The Buddha taught these subjects extensively and in great detail, and it is important for us to under- stand them in order to recognize the limitations of our present situa- tion. We have to understand our circumstances and know that, given the nature of cause and effect, or karmic relationship, we can look forward to nothing but suffering. We have to realize that we are enmeshed in the various factors of cause and effect, which lead first to one state of suffering and on that basis to another, and so on. When we have seen the inherent limitations of this situation, we can begin to consider getting out of it. We can begin to look for the
possibility of transcending samsaric existence and all its attendant sufferings, limitations, and frustrations.
If we have not examined these questions, our basic approach to existence will be naive. As long as we are happy and things are going well we think, "Oh, everything's fine. What's all this talk about suf- fering? Samsara's a nice place to be. " From this attitude comes a general tendency to let things slide. But as soon as something un- toward happens, the minute there is any kind of pain, or suffering, or trouble, we become completely unnerved. We think, "Oh, I'm dying. Oh, I'm sick. Oh, things are falling apart. Everything's going wrong. " We may then make some ineffective and rudimentary at- tempts to remedy the situation, but we have no real recourse to anything that will allow us to transcend our suffering.
? W e are caught in samsara. As long as things go well, we ignore the situation; when they go badly, we are helpless to deal with them. But once we have understood the situation, we will begin to look for a way of dealing with the suffering and frustration we inevitably meet. The techniques and methods of the Buddhadharma provide the means for this positive development.
Ultimately speaking, the causes of samsara are produced by the mind, and mind is what experiences the consequences. Nothing other than mind makes the universe, and nothing other than mind experiences it. Yet, still ultimately speaking, mind is fundamentally empty, no 'thing' in and of itself. T o understand that the mind pro- ducing and experiencing samsara is nothing real in itself can actual- ly be a source of great relief. If the mind is not fundamentally real, neither are the situations it experiences. By finding the empty nature of mind and letting it rest there, we can find much relief and relaxation amidst the turmoil, confusion, and suffering that con- stitute the world.
Moreover, when there is a complete understanding and ex- perience of the mind's Emptiness, we transcend causality: being beyond the cause and effect of karmic tendencies, we are a Buddha. But until this happens, simply thinking "It's all empty" is not going to do any good; we are still entirely subject to the unfailing process of karma.
Therefore, we need to understand not only the concept of the ultimate Emptiness of all experience, but also the conventional
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validity of karmic cause and effect. With this kind of approach, we can achieve Enlightenment. But if we fall into either ex? treme-either naively assuming the ultimate reality of everything (the error of the etemalists) or else denying everything (the error of the nihilists)-then we cannot achieve Enlightenment.
The Third and Fourth Noble Truths:
The Truth of Cessation and The Truth of The Path
After the Buddha had described the Truths of Suffering and the Origin of Suffering, he went on to examine the other side: the factors of cause and result in the context of Nirvana. The cause here is the Fourth Noble Truth, known as the Truth of the Path. The result is the achievement of Enlightenment, and in the context of the Four Noble Truths this is called the Truth of Cessation, the Third Noble Truth. Enlightenment here is seen from the Hinayana viewpoint as the cessation of emotions that confuse and trouble the mind, and the cessation of the sufferings they cause.
The Beginning of the Path
Just as the first two Noble Truths describe samsara as arising from ignorance, from unknowing, so it follows that the enlight. " ened experience arises from awareness (rik pa [rig pa]) instead of ig? norance (ma rik pa [ma rig pa]). But such awareness is not easily ex? perienced; we have to work towards it, and this is what constitutes Dharma practice. We adopt a vinuous and skillful way of life, avoiding actions harmful to ourselves and others, and engaging in actions that are helpful and positive. Then, motivated by the in- clination to establish a connection with the Three Jewels- the Bud? dha, the Dharma (his teaching), and the Sangha (the community of his followers), we take Refuge, and continue to take Refuge, motivated by faith, devotion, and our ongoing experience of the Path. All these aspects of Dharma practice contribute to our ex? perience of that awareness from which Enlightenment develops. The Seed of Enlightenment, this potential for Buddhahood, which we term Tathagatagarbha, is latent in every one of us, though in our present circumstances we cannot perceive it directly.
A rough analogy of our situation can be found in the process of sleep. When we go to sleep there is an initial period of complete un- consciousness, a very deep sleep in which there is no dreaming, no conscious activity at all. This state corresponds to the causal factor offundamental ignorance. During the night, however, there is from time to time a certain reawakening of conscious activity, which pro- duces the many kinds of illusion we call dreams. These can sometimes be very frightening, nightmarish experiences, which cor- respond to the suffering in samsara produced by ignorance. In the dream state, as in the waking experience of samsara, there is mental activity, which arises out of unawareness. In the morning, before we actually wake up, the body begins to stir, and consciousness starts to approach the waking state. For the purpose of our analogy, we can say this period corresponds to the arising of such virtuous tendencies in the mind as faith, compassion, energy, and exertion in Dharma practice. Then follows the actual awakening, when we_stretch in bed, get up, begin to move around, and start our activities for the day. In our analogy, this corresponds to achieving Enlighten- ment-we have completely awakened. We are not just in the dream state, which is our present condition, and not just half awake in Dharma practice, which is instilling and developing these good qualities in us; instead, we are totally awake, able to get up and be effective.
Part of the fundamental process of turning our minds away from samsara and towards Enlightenment is understanding samsara for what it is. Understanding suffering, and recognizing the limita- tions of our present situation, we begin to seek a way out. This initial turning of the mind is the foundation of the Path in its aspect as a causal factor leading to Enlightenment. Our ability to follow the Path by actually undertaking Dharma practice has a twofold basis.
First, because we have fostered virtuous tendencies and rejected un- wholesome ones, we have achieved the basic state of a human being. Second, because of the efficacy and compassion of the Three Jewels, we have established a connection with the Dharma which is bearing fruit in this life: we are not only human beings, but humans who are in contact with the teachings of Dharma, and have developed some certainty or conviction in them that leads to practice. Our actual practice-taking Refuge in the Three jewels, continuing to take
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Refuge, developing Bodhicitta (our concern for the Liberation of each and every living being), developing different meditation techniques-constitutes the real pith or essence of the cause leading us towards the goal of Enlightenment.
Aspects of the Path
There are various aspects of the Path. For instance, we can look at the different levels of ordination starting with the vows of Refuge, then the vows of a layperson, a novice monk or nun, a fully ordained monk or nun, the Bodhisattva vows, and so on. Another aspect of the Path is ngondro practice: the 100,000 recitations of the Refuge prayer accompanied by physical acts of prostration, the 100,000 recitations of the purification mantra of Vajrasattva, the 100,000 mandala offerings and the recitation of 100,000 prayers in the Guru-Yoga meditation. Both aspects-the levels of ordination and the graduations of Ngondro practice-belong to what we term the Path of Accumulation (tsok lam [tshogs lam]), because this first stage of the Complete Path to Enlightenment is the gathering of what we need for the journey.
Yet practice aimed only at purifying our obscurations and developing merit is unstable because its benefits can be lost. Medita? tion practice provides the stabilizing factor by producing a benefit that will not be lost, but continues as a stable element of our ex- perience. In particular, the practice of shi nay is important because whatever merit we accumulate, whatever virtuous tendencies we reinforce, all gain a degree of stability when the mind has been calmed. Moreover, whatever sort of meditation we attempt to develop is given a firm foundation by this initial phase of shi nay meditation. Therefore, when this stabilizing element has entered the picture, we speak of a superior degree of the Path of Accumula- tion.
There are various ways of examining the Complete Path. For example, we can speak of the Five Paths constituting its different levels: the Path of Accumulation, the Path of Application, the Path of Seeing, the Path of Meditation, and the Path of No More Learn- ing, or Buddhahood. At a more extensive and detailed level are the Thirty-seven Elements which contribute to complete Enlighten-
ment. All of these are different ways of examining the same phenomenon-all detail different aspects of Enlightenment.
Among the Thirty-seven Elements conducive to Enlightenment are four essential recollections, four proper attitudes towards what one should renounce and what one should accept, four bases for the development of supernormal power, five faculties, and five strengths which are developed in one's Dharma practice. All these elements pertain to the first two Paths, those of Accumulation and Applica? tion; they do not include the first level of Bodhisattva Realization, which corresponds to the Path of Seeing, the third of the Five Paths.
At present, when we talk about mind being empty, clear and unimpeded, we are simply expressing an intellectual concept. But as your Dharma practice progresses and develops, there comes a point where you actually have a direct experience of the mind as empty, clear and unimpeded. When this direct experience is stable, we refer to it as the first level of Bodhisattva realization. In Tibetan this is termed rap tu ga wa [rab tu dga' ba), meaning "complete joy. " At this point you enter the Path of Seeing, because now, instead of see- ing things in the ordinary sense, you actually see the nature of mind, and experience it directly. This moment of insight, therefore, lends its name to the Path at this particular stage.
The first level of Bodhisattva realization is termed a state of ut? ter joy because the nature of mind, which is now experienced direct? ly, is supremely blissful, supremely illuminating and, in the sense of not being anything ultimately real in and of itself, supremely empty. Although empty, the experience is one of complete bliss. The term used for this state is de wa chen po [bde ba chen po), "supreme bliss"-"supreme" because there is nothing in our ordinary ex- perience we can compare it to. So, accordingly, direct experience of the nature of mind in its intrinsic purity is known as the state of complete joy.
At this stage of realization since you are no longer concerned with conceptual thought but with direct experience, you have greater freedom of mind. At the first level of Bodhisattva realization there is a freedom from the limitations of clinging to a self (dan dzin [bdag 'dzin]). This is why we can speak of the one hundred emana? tions a first level Bodhisattva can manifest in a single instant, or of the ability to recall a hundred previous existences, or to foresee a
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hundred future ones. These abilities belong to a partial, not a com- plete, freedom of the mind from the limits of ignorance, and we traditionally refer to the twelve aspects of this freedom as the Twelve Hundreds.
Moreover, a first level Bodhisattva has transcended the karmic process, and is no longer completely subject to its obscuring limita- tions. Awareness has replaced ignorance. Since fundamental discur- sive consciousness, kun shi nam she [kun gzhi rnam shes], is based on that ignorance, it too no longer obtains. Kun shi nam she functions as a kind of store-house for the karmic process, which is reinforced (1) by the obscuration of the emotional afflictions (nyon mong pay dri pa [nyon mongs pa'i sgrib pa]) that develop from dualistic cling- ing, and (2) by the physical, verbal and mental activities (lay chi dri pa [las kyi sgrib pa]) based on that obscuration. Without fun- damental ignorance, the karmic process has no basis. Thus a first? level Bodhisattva transcends the obscuring limitation of karma.
In Tibet we use a lunar calendar. On the third day of any month the moon is just a thin sliver, which gradually increases until on the fifteenth day it attains complete fullness. This gradual wax- ing of the moon provides an image for the different levels of Bodhisattva realization. The first glimmering of awareness is like the thin sliver of the moon. It's there, but not fully developed. Where development takes place is in the continued deepening and extend- ing of awareness, and in the increasing freedom of mind experi- enced at the ten different levels of Bodhisattva realization.
In the context of the increasing freedom of mind, the qualities known on the first level as the Twelve Hundreds are increased ten- fold on the second level. So there we speak of the Twelve Thousands, of the ability to manifest a thousand emanations in a single instant, to recall a thousand previous existences, to foretell a thousand future existences, and so forth. This increase in depth and scope of awareness continues as we progress through the different stages of Bodhisattva Realization.
The waxing moon of the eleventh day, when the moon is not quite full but is rapidly approaching fullness, corresponds to the seventh level of Bodhisattva Realization. Here the increase in positive tendencies and the deepening of awareness accompany a diminishing of the negative aspects of one's being. In particular,
emotional afflictions have been mostly eliminated at the seventh Bodhisattva stage.
At the eighth and ninth levels of Bodhisattva realization habitual dualistic clinging (bak chak chi dri pa [bag chags kyi sgrib pa]), which is the next most subtle level of obscuration, is gradually eliminated.
At the tenth Bodhisattva level, fundamental ignorance, the final level of obscuration (she jay dri pa [shes bya'i sgrib pa]), is almost completely removed, and the mind is almost completely without limitation. An enormous capability to express the positive qualities of mind arises. At this point we speak not of a hundred or a thousand emanations, but of one hundred thousand million emana- tions, previous lifetimes, future lifetimes, and so forth.
These ten levels of Bodhisattva Realization constitute the third and fourth Paths, the Path of Seeing and the Path of Meditation. Within this framework further levels are distinguished-the in- ferior, medium and superior levels of the Path of Seeing, and the in- ferior, medium and superior levels of the Path of Meditation- but in sum they coincide with the ten levels of Realization. Among the Thirty-seven Elements conducive to Enlightenment, the seven Branches of Enlightenment- mindfulness, investigation of dharmas (phenomena), diligence, joy, purification, samadhi, and equanimity-and the Noble Eightfold Path are experienced at these levels.
On the tenth level of Bodhisattva Realization, the final step to complete Enlightenment is accomplished by the particular state of meditation known as the Vajra-like samadhi (dor je ta bii ting nge dzin [rdo rje Ita bu'i ting nge 'dzin]), where "vajra" has the sense of something invincible, something that can cut through anything else. And what is being cut through here are the final and most subtle traces of ignorance about the ultimate nature of reality. When this finest veil has been rent asunder by Vajra-like samadhi, we are com- pletely enlightened. We have reached full and complete Bud- dhahood, sometimes called the eleventh Bodhisattva stage.
Our present circumstances are like those of someone who has been bound in chains and locked in a dark prison cell. The cell is samsara, and we are bound up and confined in it by our own ig- norance. On the Paths of Accumulation and Application, up to but
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not including the first level of Bodhisattva Realization, there is a growing sense of freedom, just as if a person in prison were to have these bonds and manacles removed and, though still imprisoned, were free to move about the cell. The experience of first level Bodhisattva Realization, the Path of Seeing, resembles the opening of the prison door, after which we can walk out and go anywhere.
In this analogy, the prison represents the confining nature of samsara. The manacles and chains represent the limitations im- posed by our own ego-clinging; regardless of which realm of sam? saric existence we experience-regardless of where in the prison we may be-we are still chained by the impression of being a self, by the conviction that this ego ultimately exists. With the experience of the first and subsequent Bodhisattva levels we are freed from the shackles and then freed from the prison.
The Three Kayas
Buddhahood, complete Enlightenment, is described in tenns of the Three Kayas {three bodies) (ku sum [sku gsum]). These three aspects of complete Enlightenment are known as the Dharmakaya, Sambhogakaya and Nirmanakaya. The three are related to the fun? damental nature of mind in the following way. The mind's quality of being in essence empty corresponds to the Dharmakaya. Its clear nature corresponds to the Sambhogakaya, and its quality of unimpeded manifestation corresponds to the Nirmanakaya. These qualities, which express the bask nature of mind, are what we term Buddhahood, which is also canid, "the embodiment of the Three Kayas. "
The Dharmakaya, or ultimate aspect, is described in a number of ways. For example, there are traditional references to the Twenty-one Flawless Aspects of the Dharmakaya that represent a state of mind not subject to change or degenerat~on. There is an om? nipresent aspect, in that the Dharmakaya pe~des both samsara
and Nirvana. There is also the permanent quality, because the Dhar? makaya is beyond form, beyond all limiting characteristics, and has no origination or cessation; being beyond dualistic or conceptual frameworks, it is without highness, lowness, happiness, sadness, or any kind of change. In such ways the texts attempt to describe the
Dharmakaya's unchangeable nature, subject neither to degenera- tion, exhaustion, nor impairment.
The Sambhogakaya is also described from various viewpoints, and most commonly in terms of the Five Certainties. The first of these concerns the form encountered at the Sambhogakaya level. Here, the form of the Teacher has a permanent quality; it has no origin and no end, and therefore differs from all phenomena that are subject to change-differs even from the form in this world of the Buddha Shakyamuni, who took birth, grew old and died. Secondly, although we have a localized perception and speak of par- ticular Buddhas and Buddha-realms, there is, nevertheless, an eter- nal quality to the environment of the Sambhogakaya that is not sub- ject to change, degeneration or impairment. Thirdly, the transmis- sion of teachings at the Sambhogakaya level of Enlightenment is always that of the Mahayana or Vajrayana. The unending continui- ty of this teaching is the third certainty. The fourth certainty con- cerns the retinue or audience of these teachings, which is always composed of beings on the eighth, ninth and tenth Bodhisattva levels, the three highest, purest levels of realization. Finally, there is the certainty of time, the fact that the Sambhogakaya is not subject to normal temporal limitations. These Five Certainties, pertaining to teacher, environment, Doctrine, entourage, and temporal mode, all belong to the level of Pure Form and such form is permanent.
It has been said that the mind is in essence empty and by nature clear, and that there is a third quality, unimpededness, which we experience in our present state as all the emotions, thoughts, con- cepts, experiences of pleasure and pain, and so forth, which arise without obstruction in our minds. All these are the unimpeded manifestation of mind in the unenlightened context. From the enlightened point of view, however. this unimpeded manifestation is termed the Nirmanakaya: the manifestation of Enlightenment in physical form in the physical world. Various levels and aspects of this phenomenon are described. For example, we can speak of supreme Nirmanakayas, such as the completely enlightened Shakyamuni Buddha, and we can speak of what are termed literal- ly, "birth incarnations"-beings who, although not completely enlightened, nevertheless represent some degree of Enlightenment working through physical form or through various arts, crafts,
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sciences and so forth. The physical manifestation of Enlightenment is not a deliberate undertaking on the part of the Buddha nature; it is not the result of some determination like "Now I will emanate in this particular realm in this particular form;" rather, it is a spon- taneous expression, just as light radiates spontaneously from the sun without the sun issuing directives or giving any conscious thought to the matter. The sun is, and it radiates. Dharmakaya and Sam- bhogakaya simply are; they radiate, and the radiation is the Nir- manakaya.
Hinayana and Mahayana Views of the Path
What has so far been described as the Truth of the Path per- tains equally to Hinayana and Mahayana: At both levels of teaching we find the same concepts of the Five Paths, the Thirty-seven Elements conducive to Enlightenment, and so forth. The difference lies in the scope of the interpretation of these topics. For example, from the Hinayana point of view, generosity involves giving up all one's wealth and, ideally, taking monk's or nun's vows, leading an extremely simple life, with only robes and a begging bowl, and get- ting only what is necessary for the present day, and no more. In short, the Hinayana ideal of generosity involves a complete rejection of acquisition, a total abandonment of one's attachment to wealth, and the pursuit of a very simplified way of life. From the Mahayana point of view, this ideal is extended to include a continual sharing of whatever wealth comes our way; even our own body is considered worthy as an offering. In one way or another, whatever appears is continually dedicated, either to the Dharma or to the benefit of other beings.
From the Hinayana point of view, morality means very much what we might normally think-living a good life by avoiding harm- ful or negative actions. This view of morality is also found in the Mahayana, but it is greatly expanded through the emphasis on developing good qualities and virtuous tendencies in ourselves, and by the dedication of our lives for the benefit of other beings. In this way, the scope is greater.
The Hinayana and Mahayana do share views of the Path to Enlightenment but what has been said here about Enlightenment
itself pertains particularly to the Mahayana and Vajrayana. For the Hinayana, the goal is the cessation of negative factors; only at the Mahayana and Vajrayana levels does one speak of the development of the mind's positive potential.
We can get a clearer idea of the difference between the two views of Enlightenment by examining the words used to describe it in each system. The Hinayana goal is the attainment of the level of an Arhat. This term is translated into Tibetan as dra chom pa [dgra bcom pa], which means "having conquered the enemy. " The enemy here is the emotions and the ignorance which keep us locked in sam? sara, and the intention is to overcome or eliminate those factors. This is where the principle of Cessation-the other term used to describe Enlightenment in the Hinayana-comes in. Cessation refers to stopping the emotions that confuse the mind, and stopping discursive thoughts-fixations on materiality and immateriality, reality and non-reality, and all such conceptual frameworks-that limit awareness. When Cessation is achieved, all of these have been arrested, and the mind is simply absorbed in the experience of Emptiness, without any wavering or distraction. This is the Hinayana ideal, and it will certainly lead to complete Enlighten? ment. However, the length of time it will take to do so is immense, and during this almost interminable period, there is virtually no ability to help others. That is why the term Hinayana, "the lesser vehicle," is applied, because the scope is relatively narrow. Cessation does, however, represent at least a degree of Liberation from sam- sara, because an individual who experiences it has no need to rein- carnate: the power of karma to cause rebirth in the cycle of samsara has been transcended.
Perhaps the understanding of all these concepts-the Five Paths, the Ten Levels of Bodhisattva Realization, the Thirty-seven Elements conducive to their realization, the different qualities of the Three Kayas-is not strictly necessary; if we are diligent in Dharma practice and meditate, we are going to experience them all anyway. They will not fail to arise just because we don't know what to call them, or necessarily arise just because we do. On the other hand, there seems to be something very important in giving guidelines to help people understand more about the elements of Dharma prac? tice and the enlightened state towards which they're working.
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Reasons to Study the Four Noble Truths
The value of understanding our situation from the point of view of both samsara and Nirvana is this: to understand the cause and result of samsara motivates us to seek an alternative: once we have realized the limitations of our situation, there is the possibility of seeking something else. And if we understand the cause and result aspects of the Path, then this fuels our motivation not simply to re- ject samsara, but to seek Enlightenment. Moreover, to understand the great qualities of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas inspires one with faith in, and awe at, what is possible. Faith, energy, and motivation are very helpful in developing an understanding of the Four Noble Truths.
Having achieved this precious human existence with its oppor? tunities and freedoms, and in having met with the teachings of the Dharma, we are pivotally poised. On one side is the possibility of continuing to wander ignorantly in the cycle of rebirth, and on the other the possibility of transcending samsara and actually achieving Enlightenment. Both possibilities stem from the mind that each and every one of us has and experiences. It is this mind we already have that is essentially empty and illuminating by nature, that can and does experience the different levels of Bodhisattva Realization; it is this same mind that can achieve and experience complete Enlightenment.
3
The Four Dharmas oJGampopa
0 ur precious human birth affords opportunity and leisure for Dharma practice and gives us access to the vast and profound tradition of the teachings of the Buddhadharma. Among these, the Four Dharmas of Gampopa provide a concise survey of the entire
Path, divided into four levels.
The First Dharma: The Mind Turns Towards Dharma
This first teaching involves a thorough understanding of our situation in samsara and the different destinies within the cycle, the six states of rebirth: three lower ones-the hell realms, the hungry ghost realm, and the animal realm; and three higher-the human, asura, and god realms. Through this teaching, we learn the conse- quences of virtuous and unvirtuous actions, which tendencies lead to these various rebirths, and the sufferings which the beings in these realms undergo. We come to understand that although a particular karmic process may lead from higher to lower or lower to higher rebirths, samsara itself provides no means of escape, and if we rely
44 The Dharma
on it, we can make no progress towards Enlightenment. At the beginning of the Path, this understanding of samsara is necessary to turn the mind towards the Dharma, and to do this we contemplate the Four Ordinary Preliminaries.
The first of these concerns the unique value of the human life we are now experiencing. Because of the blessing of the Three jewels and their influence in previous lives, we have, at some point, developed a virtuous tendency that has brought about our present human birth, with all its opportunities, leisure and freedom to prac? tice Dharma. Very few beings preserve this virtuous tendency (by avoiding negative actions, thoughts, and speech and encouraging positive ones), and very few achieve the resultant state of a precious human birth. If we think of the stars in the night sky as representing the multitude of beings in samsara, then a star in daytime represents the precious human birth-it is something possible, but most unlikely. Human birth is an extremely rare occurrence.
The second of the Four Preliminaries concerns impermanence. Now that we have the precious opportunity of human birth we should make the best use of it and actually realize the full potential of being human. This can be accomplished through our efforts to transcend completely the cycle of rebirth and achieve Buddhahood. In addition we must understand that mortality and impermanence are part of our existence, and that our human birth, obtained with such difficulty, will pass away. In everything we experience, there is moment-by-moment change and instability. Like a candle flame blown by a strong wind, our human existence may be extinguished at any moment; like a bubble on the surface of water, it may sud- denly burst; like morning dew on the grass, it soon evaporates.
Next, to realize the full potential of being human, we must ex? amine the concept of karma, the process of cause and effect, especially the relationship between our actions and their results. We need to recognize fully the unfailing connection between what we do now and what we experience later.
The fourth contemplation that turns the mind towards Dhar? ma deals with the unsatisfactory and painful nature of samsara. Without an appreciation of impermanence and our own impending death, we are likely to be distracted by the pleasures of the world and indulge ourselves in emotional conflict and confusion. When
The Four Dharmas of Gampopa 45
that happens, we become exhausted by the life we lead and do not get to what really matters. We neither really see what is actually happening in our lives, nor make good use of our situation. Before we know it, our life is finished and it is time to die. If we lack the foundation of a stable practice, we go to death helplessly, in fear and anguish.
By contemplating these preliminaries-the potential of a precious human existence, impermanence and the inevitability of death, the karmic process of cause and effect, and the sufferings and limitations of samsara- we tum our minds to the Dharma, and thus fulfil the first of the Four Teachings of Gampopa.
The Second Dharma: The Dharma Becomes The Path
Once involved in the teachings, we come to the second of the Four Dharmas: the teachings of the Dharma become our way of life, our path. Our attitude towards what is superior to us-the Three
Jewels-begins to change, and so does our attitude towards the be- ings in samsara who are equal or inferior to us. The first attitude is expressed when we take Refuge, with faith, devotion and respect, in the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha. We realize that in Bud- dhahood one is omniscient and omnipresent, endowed with infinite capabilities. We see that the teachings of the Dharma, which pro- ceed from this enlightened state, are the Path that every being can follow to Enlightenment. We recognize that the Sangha, or assembly of practitioners who realize and transmit the teachings, are companions or guides who can show us the Path. In the Vajrayana tradition, we add the Three Roots-Lama, Yidam and Dharma Protector-to the Three Jewels as sources of Refuge.
When the Dharma becomes our Path, we develop a second at- titude, that of compassion. In contemplating the beings who are in samsara with us, we consider that space is infinite, pervading all directions, and that the realm of sentient beings extends as far as space itself. At some point in the past, every one of these numberless beings has been our mother or our father. Through innumerable cycles of lifetimes we have developed an extremely close karmic con- nection with each one of them. When compassion develops we see that all life is the same, and that every single being wishes to be hap-
46 The Dharma
py: in every fonn of life a fundamental search for happiness goes o n - but in a way that contradicts and defeats the aim of this search. Few beings understand that real happiness is the result of virtuous conduct. Many are involved in actually destroying their chances for happiness through confused and harmful actions and thoughts. When we see this we develop real affection and compassion for other beings. This infinite compassion for all forms of life is the second at? titude involved in making the teaching our Path. Through faith and compassion the teaching that has attracted us becomes an entire way of life.
The Development of Compassion
Although we realize the necessity of working not only for our own benefit but for the welfare of all beings, we need to be honest about our own limitations and recognize that we have little power or ability to be truly effective in helping beings to free themselves. The way we become effective in this is through achieving Buddhahood or, at least, by reaching some level of Bodhisattva realization. At these higher levels we gain the ability to manifest for the sake of guiding beings out of their confusion.
The attitude of altruism is called Relative Bodhicitta; the desire to develop it is the foundation of Mahayana practice and the vessel for all virtue.
One method for developing Bodhicitta is called tong len (gtong len], which literally means "sending (and] taking. " The attitude here is that each of us is only one being, while the number of beings in the universe is infinite. Would it not be a worthy goal if this one being could take on all the pain of every other being in the universe and free each and every one of them from suffering? We therefore resolve to take on ourselves all this suffering, to take it away from all other beings, even their incipient or potential suffering, and all of its causes. At the same time we develop the attitude of sending all our virtue, happiness, health, wealth and potential for long life to other beings. Anything that we enjoy, anything noble or worthy, positive or happy in our situation we send selflessly to every other being.
