Achilles would have defeated him, had it not been for the god Poseidon, who feared for Aeneas's safety and, at a
critical
moment, whisked him away from the battlefield.
Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome_nodrm
?
?
?
?
?
WE ARE OUT OF HERE!
In the earliest days of the Republic (especially the fifth century BCE), Roman society was plagued by disputes between the ruling upper class--the patricians--and the subservient nonruling class--the plebeians. The patri- cians controlled much of the wealth and all of the political offices in those early days; the plebeians fought against this obvious (obvious to them, at any rate) injustice. The inequities seemed particularly acute given the fact that in military emergencies, when some foreign invader was threatening the city's safety, the plebeians were always the ones called upon to serve as soldiers. Because of their sacrifices for the common good, they desired and demanded political and legal equality with the patricians. The patricians, ever contemptuous of those whom they did not consider to be social equals, resisted.
One of the most effective weapons the plebeians employed in what might be called their civil rights struggle was the secessio, a withdrawal from the city, in which all the plebeians would march out of Rome in a group, often to the Aventine Hill, or perhaps the Sacred Mount. There they would remain, refusing to serve as soldiers or cooperate in any other way with the patrician-led government until they gained concessions of one sort or another. There were five known secessions between 494 and 287 BCE (although some scholars doubt the histori- cal authenticity of the earliest ones).
The possibility that such a radical action might be used by the women must have been pure anathema to politicians like Cato. He apparently thought that by referencing plebeian secessions in his anti-repeal speeches, and capitalizing on the fear such a reference could generate, he might be able to sway enough votes in the legis- lative assembly to prevent the repeal effort from succeeding.
? ? 176
A similar "group effort" undertaken by women occurred many years later, in 42 BCE, during the time when civil war had broken out after the assassination of Julius Caesar. The cash-strapped triumvirate in charge of the government had decided to impose a war tax on 1,400 of the richest women in the city. These women were enraged over this decree and ulti- mately marched to the Forum to make known their displeasure. They had chosen as their spokesperson Hortensia, the daughter of one of the foremost orators in Roman history, Quintus Hortensius. She made a very persuasive speech in which she pointed out the injus- tice of requiring women to pay a war tax of any amount, arguing that it was unfair for women to pay such a tax when they had no voice generally in the government or in military affairs, and considering that the women did nothing to initiate hostilities in this instance, and had neither share nor say in how the war was conducted. The triumvirs (Mark Antony, Octavian [the future emperor Augustus], and Lepidus) backed off; they reduced the number of women affected by the decree from 1,400 to 400, and they placed a similar tax on all men of wealth. The first-century CE author and orator Quintilian remarked that Hortensia's speech was still being read and studied in his time.
ASK YOURSELF
1. Why do you suppose Livy uses the words "trivial to relate" to describe the contro- versial events surrounding the repeal of the Oppian Law?
2. What do you think were Cato's strongest arguments for retaining the Oppian Law? What were Valerius's strongest arguments for repealing it?
3. In his biography of Cato, Plutarch states that Cato was a kind and considerate hus- band and father who thought it was nothing short of a sacrilege for a man to beat his wife or his children. The biographer also writes that Cato considered it more impor- tant to be a good husband than a great political leader. Given these attitudes, does there seem to be a disconnect between Cato's love and respect for his wife and the perhaps antifemale slant of his speech? Why or why not?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e Oneoftheenduringproblemsformodernhistoriansstudyingancienttexts involves the analysis and interpretation of speeches. In many cases, an ancient historian who recorded a speech was not present when the speech was made; often, he was not even alive at the time. Livy, for example, was born about 135 years after the debate over the Oppian Law, and some modern historians have questioned the accuracy of his accounts of the speeches of Cato and Valerius. Since there is probably no way to know for certain about the reliability of the information in these speeches, how are we to interpret them? Do we discount them entirely? Take them with the proverbial grain of salt? Assume that the general outline of the speeches is accurate, while acknowledging that Livy has not given us verbatim accounts (since the original, complete texts of the speeches from 195 likely were not available to him)? Or is there some other approach we could take?
e Cato expresses great concern, and even trepidation, about these women "taking it to the street" to express their displeasure over the possible defeat of the repeal. He is fearful that if they are not stopped here and now, there will be no limit to their outrageous behavior in the future. As Livy tells us,
The Women of Rome Refuse to Back Down
? ? ? ? 177
Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
178
the repeal was passed. Did Cato's fears come true? In the subsequent deca-
des and centuries of Roman history, were female uprisings common?
e Catorefersto"allthelawswithwhichyourforefathersrestrainedtheir[i. e. , the women's] licentiousness and made them subject to their husbands. " Unfortunately, he does not cite any specific laws. Research this issue, and see if you can find information about any of these laws. Were they as
restrictive as Cato claims?
e One of the main arguments put forth by Lucius Valerius for the repeal of
the Oppian Law is that laws passed under the duress of wartime conditions are often unneeded once peace has returned. Can you think of any exam- ples of the same situation (i. e. , restrictive wartime legislation, later repealed) in American history, especially during World War II?
Further Information
Bauman, Richard A. Women and Politics in Ancient Rome. New York, 1992.
Pomeroy, Sarah B. Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves: Women in Classical Antiquity.
New York, 1975.
Website
"The Roman Matron of the Late Republic and Early Empire," by Sarah B. Pomeroy: http:// www2. stetson. edu/~psteeves/classes/pomeroy. html
Bibliography for Document
Sage, Evan T. (tr. ). Livy. Volume IX. [LCL. ] London and Cambridge, 1935.
RELIGION
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34. SQUABBLING AMONG THE GODS WAS A MAJOR HEADACHE FOR ZEUS
INTRODUCTION
What percentage of human life is the result of divine intervention, and the plans and will of a god, and what percentage is a consequence of free will, and the choices that humans make? To what degree, if any, are divine beings involved in human events? These are questions that interested the ancient Greeks, and they are questions that still resonate. Homer would prob- ably have come down on the side of "activist" gods, as the document below suggests.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. The document is drawn from Book 20 of Homer's Iliad, his epic poem about the final days of the Trojan War, Greeks against Trojans.
2. Throughout the Iliad, Homer makes it clear that the gods took sides in the war, with a majority favoring the Greeks but some supporting the Trojans. Disputes among the gods over the events of the war were frequent; it was the responsibility of Zeus, king of the gods, to mediate these disputes. Often, Zeus himself was the focus of bitter criticism from the other gods, usually because of his real or perceived bias favoring or opposing the Greeks, or the Trojans, or some of the gods over others.
3. In Book 8 of the Iliad, Zeus had forbidden the gods to engage in direct involvement in the war. But here in Book 20, he is summoning a council of the gods, in which he will retract his former prohibition and allow them once again to interfere as they please.
Document: Disputatious Greek Gods
and Goddesses
Zeus ordered Themis, from the summit of rugged Olympus, to call the gods to Assembly, and she went the rounds and summoned them to his Palace. Excepting Ocean, not a single River stayed away, nor did any of the Nymphs
? ? ? ? ? 181
Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
that haunt delightful woods, the sources of streams, and the grassy water-meadows. They all came to the Cloud-compeller's house and sat down in the marble gallery that Hephaestus the great Architect had made for Father Zeus.
When all had foregathered in the Palace, the Earthshaker Poseidon . . . inquired what purpose Zeus might have in mind. "Lord of the Lightning Flash," he said, "why have you ordered the gods to assemble? Are you con- cerned for the Trojans and Achaeans, who at this moment are about to come to grips once more? "
"Lord of the Earthquake," replied Zeus, "you have read my mind aright and know why I have summoned this gath- ering. They do concern me, even in their destruction. Nevertheless, I propose to stay here and seat myself in some Olympian glen from which I can enjoy the spectacle. The rest of you have my permission to join the Trojans and Achaeans, and to give your help to either side as your sym- pathies dictate. " . . . These words from the Son of Cronos unleashed the dogs of war. The immortals at once set out for the scene of action in two hostile groups. Hera and Pallas Athena made their way to the Achaean fleet. So did Poseidon, the Girdler of the World, and Hermes, the Bringer of Luck and the cleverest wonder-worker of them all. Hephaestus followed them, exulting in his enormous strength, for though he limped he was active enough on his slender legs. To the Trojan side went Ares in his flash- ing helmet, Phoebus of the Flowing Hair, Artemis the Archeress, Leto, the River Xanthus, and laughter-loving Aphrodite.
Up to the moment when the gods came down among the men, the Achaeans carried all before them . . . But the scene changed when the Olympians reached the field and Strife the great Battle-maker rose in all her strength. For though Athena raised the war cry . . . she was answered on the other side by Ares, who raged like a black squall and incited the Trojans by the piercing cries he gave, at one moment from the heights of the citadel, and at the next from the banks of Simois, as he ran along the slopes of Callicolone.
Thus the blessed gods threw the two forces at each other's throats and at the same time opened a grievous breach in their own ranks. Up on high the Father of men and gods [i. e. , Zeus] thundered ominously, and down below, Poseidon caused the wide world and the lofty mountain-tops to quake . . . Thus they went to war, god against god. [Tr. E. V. Rieu. Homer: The Iliad. (Iliad, Book 20. ) Penguin Books, 1950. Page numbers: 366, 367, 368. ]
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Achaeans: Homer never refers to the Greeks as "Greeks" in the Iliad. Instead, he uses the more or less interchangeable terms Achaeans, Argives, and Danaans; Achaeans is the most common.
Aphrodite: Goddess of love and marriage.
Ares: The god of war, disliked by the other divinities.
Artemis: Hunter goddess, and twin sister of Apollo.
Callicolone: A word that literally means "beautiful hill. " References to this hill appear only twice in the entire Iliad, and both in Book 20: here and a few lines later. The exact location of Callicolone is unknown.
Cloud-compeller: One of the many sky- and weather-related epithets associated with Zeus.
from which I can enjoy the spectacle:
There has been some scholarly dis- cussion about Zeus's intent here, but the consensus seems to be that he is referring not to the upcoming battle between Greeks and Trojans, but rather to the inevitable squab- bles among the gods and goddesses.
Hephaestus: The lame, limping black- smith god, and the god of fire. Homer often depicts Hephaestus as a skilled builder and artisan. It was Hephaestus who fabricated Achilles's magnificent shield (see above).
Hera and Pallas Athena: Hera was the wife of Zeus and perhaps the most partisan of the pro-Greek divinities. Athena was a warrior goddess and the patron of the city of Athens.
Hermes: The wing-footed messenger of the gods.
Leto: Mother of Artemis and Apollo. Ocean: According to Greek mythol- ogy, Ocean, or Oceanus, was a
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Squabbling among the Gods Was a Major Headache for Zeus
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? great stream of water that sur- rounded the world. In his famous description of Achilles's shield, in Book 18, Homer portrayed Oceanus as encircling the rim of the shield.
Phoebus: A common epithet for the sun-god, Apollo. Gods and god- desses are sometimes (as here) referenced by their epithets instead of their names.
Poseidon: God of the sea and earth- quakes, and the brother of Zeus.
River Xanthus: The name of the river that flows past Troy. Homer says that the name Xanthus is used by the gods but that mortals refer to it as the Scamander. Xanthus is also the name of the god of this river.
Simois: A river near Troy in whose vicinity many battles were fought. The god of this river was also called Simois.
Strife: The goddess Eris, who rolled the famed Golden Apple, inscribed with the phrase "For The Most Beautiful," in among the wedding guests at the marriage of Peleus and Thetis. This sparked the quar- rel among Aphrodite, Athena, and Hera over which of them was the rightful claimant to the apple.
Themis: Daughter of Zeus and a goddess of prophecy.
? ? ? AFTERMATH
The remainder of Book 20 features successive battles between per- haps the Trojans' two best fighters--Aeneas and Hector--and the "best of the Achaeans," the mighty warrior Achilles. The first con- frontation pitted Aeneas against Achilles.
Achilles would have defeated him, had it not been for the god Poseidon, who feared for Aeneas's safety and, at a critical moment, whisked him away from the battlefield.
Hector next took on the fierce Achilles. Hector's first move was to cast a spear at his adversary, but once more, divine intervention came into play; the goddess Athena blew on the spear in its flight and caused it to boomerang back to Hector and land at his feet! Achilles then took the offensive and charged at Hector, spear in hand, but this time, Apollo was the Olympian who blunted the attack, by hiding Hector in a mist. Four times, Achilles unsuccess- fully attempted to dispatch his Trojan opponent; each time, Apollo's mist prevented a direct hit.
As Book 20 ends, Achilles contented himself by embarking on a violent onrush against the Trojans whom he could see, and killed many of them.
ASK YOURSELF
1. Homer writes that nearly all the gods and goddesses participated in the council. Which ones does he name? Which of these sided with the Greeks? Which with the Trojans?
2. In the council, the first one to speak to Zeus was Poseidon. Is there any significance to this? Many powerful gods and goddesses attended--all of them, in fact--so why did Poseidon have the distinction of speaking first?
3. Note the following epithets: Girdler of the World (for Poseidon); Bringer of Luck (Hermes); Flashing Helmet (Ares); Flowing Hair (Phoebus [Apollo]); Archeress (Artemis); Laughter-loving (Aphrodite). In what way is each epithet appropriate to the god or goddess to whom it applies?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e WhydoyousupposeOceanuswastheonlydeity,outofallofthegodsand goddesses, not to attend the council?
e Homer does not explain, at least in Book 20, why some gods favor the Greeks and others the Trojans. Sometimes, the reason is clear. Aphrodite, for example, is the mother of Aeneas, a Trojan warrior, so it comes as no surprise that she sides with the Trojans. But what about the others? Is there any way to discover the reasons for their loyalties?
? ? ? ? ? 183
Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
184
e What do you make of the idea that even the rivers had gods specifically assigned to them (e. g. , Xanthus and Simois)? What seems to be the primary role(s) of these river gods? It will probably be necessary to read the remain- der of Book 20 in order to formulate an answer to these questions.
e Why do you suppose Zeus is content to simply sit back and "enjoy the spectacle" of battle, without taking part?
e The god Hephaestus has kind of a checkered reputation in Greek mytho- logy. He is certainly respected for his blacksmithing and metal-working skills, and yet, he is often the butt of many a joke, a kind of buffoonish character. How does Homer delineate him in the Iliad, both in the docu- ment and elsewhere, especially in Book 18?
Further Information
Edwards, Mark W. The Iliad: A Commentary. Volume V: Books 17-20. Cambridge, 1991. (A heavy-duty commentary, but worth looking at. )
Fagles, Robert (tr. ). Homer: The Iliad. New York, 1990. (This translation offers a lengthy and informative introduction. )
Wace, A. J. B. and F. H. Stubbings. A Companion to Homer. London, 1962. Website
Summary of Iliad Book 20. http://ancienthistory. about. com/od/trojanwarinlit/a/ IliadXX. htm
Bibliography for Document
Rieu, E. V. (tr. ). Homer: The Iliad. Baltimore, 1950.
35. KING CROESUS CONSULTS--AND BRIBES? --THE DELPHIC ORACLE
INTRODUCTION
Oracles were always an important part of Greek (and Roman) religion. The word "oracle" is related to the Latin word for "mouth" or "speech," and those associations capture the essence of what an oracle was: a god's reply to a question posed by a believer. Oracular shrines, hous- ing priests or priestesses who would assist in the relaying of the divine response to mortal ears, were common throughout the Greco-Roman world and much referenced in ancient literature. The most famous of these oracular shrines was undoubtedly the one located in the remote mountain town of Delphi, in Greece. The Delphic Oracle, sacred to the god Apollo, attracted pilgrims from all over the ancient world over the course of many centuries. The first document in this chapter provides an account of one of these pilgrimages.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. The Greek historian Herodotus (490-425 BCE) is our source for this document.
2. Croesus, the sixth-century BCE proverbially wealthy ruler of the kingdom of Lydia, in Asia Minor, had a problem. His land was facing an onslaught led by the powerful king of the Persians, Cyrus the Great, and Croesus was not quite certain about how to combat the threat. So he sent messengers to the Oracle at Delphi and to five other Greek oracles as well: "to Abae in Phocis, to Dodona, to the oracles of Amphiaraus and Trophonius, and to Branchidae," according to Herodotus, as well
as to the Libyan oracle of Ammon, hoping for help and information.
3. The Delphic Oracle had something of an international flavor; not only Greeks, but
also other peoples, consulted its priestesses for help and advice.
Document: An Oracular Consultation
Cyrus had destroyed the empire of Astyages, and the power of Persia was steadily increasing. This gave Croesus food for thought, and he wondered if he might be able to check Persian expansion before it had gone too far. [Next comes the account of the oracles he consulted, as described above in "Keep in Mind as
? ? ? ? ? 185
Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
You Read. "] His object was to test the knowledge of the oracles, so that if they should prove to be in possession of the truth he might send a second time and ask if he should undertake a campaign against Persia.
The Lydians whom Croesus sent to make the test were given the following orders: on the hundredth day, reckoning from the day on which they left Sardis, they were to consult the oracles, and inquire what Croesus . . . was doing at that moment. The answer of each oracle was to be taken down in writing and brought back to Sardis. No one has recorded the answer of any of the oracles except that of Delphi; here . . . the Priestess gave them . . . the following reply:
. . . The smell has come to my sense of a hard-shelled tortoise Boiling and bubbling with lamb's flesh in a bronze pot.
The cauldron underneath is of bronze, and of bronze the lid.
The Lydians took down the Priestess' answer and returned with it to Sardis. When the other messengers came back with the answers they had received, Croesus opened all the rolls and read what they contained. None had the least effect on him except the one which contained the answer from Delphi . . . [H]e accepted it with profound reverence, declaring that the oracle at Delphi was the only genuine one in the world, because it had succeeded in finding out what he had been doing. And indeed it had; for after sending off the messengers, Croesus had thought of something which no one would be likely to guess, and with his own hands, keeping carefully to the prearranged date, had cut up a tortoise and a
lamb and boiled them together in a bronze cauldron with a bronze lid . . . Croesus now attempted to win the favor of the Delphian Apollo by a magnificent sacrifice. Of every kind of appropriate animal he slaughtered three thousand; he burnt in a huge pile a number of precious objects--couches overlaid with gold or silver, golden cups, tunics, and other richly colored garments--in the hope of binding the god more closely to his interest. And he issued a command that every Lydian was also to offer a sacrifice according to his means. After this ceremony, he melted down an enormous quantity of gold into one hundred and seventeen ingots [each weighing over 100 pounds. Additionally, he ordered an image of a solid gold lion to
be fabricated; weight: 570 pounds]. . . .
This was by no means all that Croesus sent to Delphi;
there were also two huge mixing-bowls, one of gold which was placed on the right-hand side of the entrance to the tem- ple, the other of silver, on the left . . . In addition, Croesus sent four silver casks . . . and two sprinklers for lustral water, one of gold, the other of silver . . . There were many other gifts of no great importance, including round silver basins, but I must not forget to mention a figure of a woman, in gold, four and a half feet high, said by the Delphians to re- present the woman who baked Croesus' bread. Lastly, he sent his own wife's necklaces and girdles. These, then, were the offerings which Croesus sent to Delphi . . .
The Lydians who were to bring the presents to the tem- ples were instructed by Croesus to ask the oracles if he should
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Astyages: King of the Median Empire, who ruled for 35 years before being dethroned by Cyrus in 550 BCE. He was the grandfather of Cyrus, and had tried to put Cyrus to death when the latter was an infant because of an oracular prophecy. No wonder that many years later, Cyrus wanted to oust him from his kingship!
Priestess' answer: Answers to ques- tions put to the Delphic oracle were delivered via the priestesses who tended the shrine.
Sardis: Capital city of Lydia, famous for the quality of its handcrafted products and also noted for its gold and silver coins, the first city in the ancient world to produce such coinage.
stater: A commonly used gold coin.
? ? ? 186
undertake the campaign against Persia . . . On their arrival, therefore, they offered the gifts with the proper ceremony and put their question in the following words: "Croesus . . . has given you gifts such as your power of divination deserves, and now asks if he should march against Persia . . . " To this question, [the oracle] . . . foretold that if Croesus attacked the Persians, he would destroy a great empire . . .
Croesus was overjoyed when he learned the answer . . . and was fully confi- dent of destroying the power of Cyrus. To express his satisfaction, he sent a fur- ther present to Delphi of two gold staters for every man . . . The Delphians in return granted in perpetuity to Croesus and the people of Lydia the right of cit- izenship for any who wished, together with exemption from dues, front seats at state functions, and priority in consulting the oracle. [Tr. Aubrey de Selincourt. Herodotus: The Histories. (1. 47-54. ). Penguin Books, 1954. Page numbers: 57, 58, 59, 60. ]
AFTERMATH
As Herodotus explains, "Croesus was overjoyed when he learned the answer which the oracles" gave, and so he make plans to attack the Persians, disregarding or forgetting the fact that Apollo's oracular responses were often ambiguous; by attacking the Persians, Croesus did destroy a great empire: his own! For Cyrus and his army ultimately besieged and occupied Sardis; Croesus was taken prisoner. According to the biographer Plutarch, Cyrus was about to have Croesus executed, when Croesus three times cried out the name "Solon," the famous Athenian legislator/philosopher/businessman. Solon had visited Croesus some time before and had tried to teach him that no one can be considered truly happy until death, because only then can an assessment be made of the quality of that person's life. Croesus had thought that that was ridiculous, and that money and possessions, temporal things, equate to happi- ness. But in the end, he had lost all of his fabulous wealth and was about to lose his life; too late, he saw the value of Solon's words. But Cyrus was so impressed with this idea, and with other things that Croesus told him, that he decided to spare the life of the Lydian king.
ASK YOURSELF
1. If the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi was the most prestigious Greek oracle, why do you suppose Croesus bothered also to send messengers to six other oracles?
King Croesus Consults--and Bribes? --the Delphic Oracle
? ? ? ?
In the earliest days of the Republic (especially the fifth century BCE), Roman society was plagued by disputes between the ruling upper class--the patricians--and the subservient nonruling class--the plebeians. The patri- cians controlled much of the wealth and all of the political offices in those early days; the plebeians fought against this obvious (obvious to them, at any rate) injustice. The inequities seemed particularly acute given the fact that in military emergencies, when some foreign invader was threatening the city's safety, the plebeians were always the ones called upon to serve as soldiers. Because of their sacrifices for the common good, they desired and demanded political and legal equality with the patricians. The patricians, ever contemptuous of those whom they did not consider to be social equals, resisted.
One of the most effective weapons the plebeians employed in what might be called their civil rights struggle was the secessio, a withdrawal from the city, in which all the plebeians would march out of Rome in a group, often to the Aventine Hill, or perhaps the Sacred Mount. There they would remain, refusing to serve as soldiers or cooperate in any other way with the patrician-led government until they gained concessions of one sort or another. There were five known secessions between 494 and 287 BCE (although some scholars doubt the histori- cal authenticity of the earliest ones).
The possibility that such a radical action might be used by the women must have been pure anathema to politicians like Cato. He apparently thought that by referencing plebeian secessions in his anti-repeal speeches, and capitalizing on the fear such a reference could generate, he might be able to sway enough votes in the legis- lative assembly to prevent the repeal effort from succeeding.
? ? 176
A similar "group effort" undertaken by women occurred many years later, in 42 BCE, during the time when civil war had broken out after the assassination of Julius Caesar. The cash-strapped triumvirate in charge of the government had decided to impose a war tax on 1,400 of the richest women in the city. These women were enraged over this decree and ulti- mately marched to the Forum to make known their displeasure. They had chosen as their spokesperson Hortensia, the daughter of one of the foremost orators in Roman history, Quintus Hortensius. She made a very persuasive speech in which she pointed out the injus- tice of requiring women to pay a war tax of any amount, arguing that it was unfair for women to pay such a tax when they had no voice generally in the government or in military affairs, and considering that the women did nothing to initiate hostilities in this instance, and had neither share nor say in how the war was conducted. The triumvirs (Mark Antony, Octavian [the future emperor Augustus], and Lepidus) backed off; they reduced the number of women affected by the decree from 1,400 to 400, and they placed a similar tax on all men of wealth. The first-century CE author and orator Quintilian remarked that Hortensia's speech was still being read and studied in his time.
ASK YOURSELF
1. Why do you suppose Livy uses the words "trivial to relate" to describe the contro- versial events surrounding the repeal of the Oppian Law?
2. What do you think were Cato's strongest arguments for retaining the Oppian Law? What were Valerius's strongest arguments for repealing it?
3. In his biography of Cato, Plutarch states that Cato was a kind and considerate hus- band and father who thought it was nothing short of a sacrilege for a man to beat his wife or his children. The biographer also writes that Cato considered it more impor- tant to be a good husband than a great political leader. Given these attitudes, does there seem to be a disconnect between Cato's love and respect for his wife and the perhaps antifemale slant of his speech? Why or why not?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e Oneoftheenduringproblemsformodernhistoriansstudyingancienttexts involves the analysis and interpretation of speeches. In many cases, an ancient historian who recorded a speech was not present when the speech was made; often, he was not even alive at the time. Livy, for example, was born about 135 years after the debate over the Oppian Law, and some modern historians have questioned the accuracy of his accounts of the speeches of Cato and Valerius. Since there is probably no way to know for certain about the reliability of the information in these speeches, how are we to interpret them? Do we discount them entirely? Take them with the proverbial grain of salt? Assume that the general outline of the speeches is accurate, while acknowledging that Livy has not given us verbatim accounts (since the original, complete texts of the speeches from 195 likely were not available to him)? Or is there some other approach we could take?
e Cato expresses great concern, and even trepidation, about these women "taking it to the street" to express their displeasure over the possible defeat of the repeal. He is fearful that if they are not stopped here and now, there will be no limit to their outrageous behavior in the future. As Livy tells us,
The Women of Rome Refuse to Back Down
? ? ? ? 177
Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
178
the repeal was passed. Did Cato's fears come true? In the subsequent deca-
des and centuries of Roman history, were female uprisings common?
e Catorefersto"allthelawswithwhichyourforefathersrestrainedtheir[i. e. , the women's] licentiousness and made them subject to their husbands. " Unfortunately, he does not cite any specific laws. Research this issue, and see if you can find information about any of these laws. Were they as
restrictive as Cato claims?
e One of the main arguments put forth by Lucius Valerius for the repeal of
the Oppian Law is that laws passed under the duress of wartime conditions are often unneeded once peace has returned. Can you think of any exam- ples of the same situation (i. e. , restrictive wartime legislation, later repealed) in American history, especially during World War II?
Further Information
Bauman, Richard A. Women and Politics in Ancient Rome. New York, 1992.
Pomeroy, Sarah B. Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves: Women in Classical Antiquity.
New York, 1975.
Website
"The Roman Matron of the Late Republic and Early Empire," by Sarah B. Pomeroy: http:// www2. stetson. edu/~psteeves/classes/pomeroy. html
Bibliography for Document
Sage, Evan T. (tr. ). Livy. Volume IX. [LCL. ] London and Cambridge, 1935.
RELIGION
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34. SQUABBLING AMONG THE GODS WAS A MAJOR HEADACHE FOR ZEUS
INTRODUCTION
What percentage of human life is the result of divine intervention, and the plans and will of a god, and what percentage is a consequence of free will, and the choices that humans make? To what degree, if any, are divine beings involved in human events? These are questions that interested the ancient Greeks, and they are questions that still resonate. Homer would prob- ably have come down on the side of "activist" gods, as the document below suggests.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. The document is drawn from Book 20 of Homer's Iliad, his epic poem about the final days of the Trojan War, Greeks against Trojans.
2. Throughout the Iliad, Homer makes it clear that the gods took sides in the war, with a majority favoring the Greeks but some supporting the Trojans. Disputes among the gods over the events of the war were frequent; it was the responsibility of Zeus, king of the gods, to mediate these disputes. Often, Zeus himself was the focus of bitter criticism from the other gods, usually because of his real or perceived bias favoring or opposing the Greeks, or the Trojans, or some of the gods over others.
3. In Book 8 of the Iliad, Zeus had forbidden the gods to engage in direct involvement in the war. But here in Book 20, he is summoning a council of the gods, in which he will retract his former prohibition and allow them once again to interfere as they please.
Document: Disputatious Greek Gods
and Goddesses
Zeus ordered Themis, from the summit of rugged Olympus, to call the gods to Assembly, and she went the rounds and summoned them to his Palace. Excepting Ocean, not a single River stayed away, nor did any of the Nymphs
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that haunt delightful woods, the sources of streams, and the grassy water-meadows. They all came to the Cloud-compeller's house and sat down in the marble gallery that Hephaestus the great Architect had made for Father Zeus.
When all had foregathered in the Palace, the Earthshaker Poseidon . . . inquired what purpose Zeus might have in mind. "Lord of the Lightning Flash," he said, "why have you ordered the gods to assemble? Are you con- cerned for the Trojans and Achaeans, who at this moment are about to come to grips once more? "
"Lord of the Earthquake," replied Zeus, "you have read my mind aright and know why I have summoned this gath- ering. They do concern me, even in their destruction. Nevertheless, I propose to stay here and seat myself in some Olympian glen from which I can enjoy the spectacle. The rest of you have my permission to join the Trojans and Achaeans, and to give your help to either side as your sym- pathies dictate. " . . . These words from the Son of Cronos unleashed the dogs of war. The immortals at once set out for the scene of action in two hostile groups. Hera and Pallas Athena made their way to the Achaean fleet. So did Poseidon, the Girdler of the World, and Hermes, the Bringer of Luck and the cleverest wonder-worker of them all. Hephaestus followed them, exulting in his enormous strength, for though he limped he was active enough on his slender legs. To the Trojan side went Ares in his flash- ing helmet, Phoebus of the Flowing Hair, Artemis the Archeress, Leto, the River Xanthus, and laughter-loving Aphrodite.
Up to the moment when the gods came down among the men, the Achaeans carried all before them . . . But the scene changed when the Olympians reached the field and Strife the great Battle-maker rose in all her strength. For though Athena raised the war cry . . . she was answered on the other side by Ares, who raged like a black squall and incited the Trojans by the piercing cries he gave, at one moment from the heights of the citadel, and at the next from the banks of Simois, as he ran along the slopes of Callicolone.
Thus the blessed gods threw the two forces at each other's throats and at the same time opened a grievous breach in their own ranks. Up on high the Father of men and gods [i. e. , Zeus] thundered ominously, and down below, Poseidon caused the wide world and the lofty mountain-tops to quake . . . Thus they went to war, god against god. [Tr. E. V. Rieu. Homer: The Iliad. (Iliad, Book 20. ) Penguin Books, 1950. Page numbers: 366, 367, 368. ]
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Achaeans: Homer never refers to the Greeks as "Greeks" in the Iliad. Instead, he uses the more or less interchangeable terms Achaeans, Argives, and Danaans; Achaeans is the most common.
Aphrodite: Goddess of love and marriage.
Ares: The god of war, disliked by the other divinities.
Artemis: Hunter goddess, and twin sister of Apollo.
Callicolone: A word that literally means "beautiful hill. " References to this hill appear only twice in the entire Iliad, and both in Book 20: here and a few lines later. The exact location of Callicolone is unknown.
Cloud-compeller: One of the many sky- and weather-related epithets associated with Zeus.
from which I can enjoy the spectacle:
There has been some scholarly dis- cussion about Zeus's intent here, but the consensus seems to be that he is referring not to the upcoming battle between Greeks and Trojans, but rather to the inevitable squab- bles among the gods and goddesses.
Hephaestus: The lame, limping black- smith god, and the god of fire. Homer often depicts Hephaestus as a skilled builder and artisan. It was Hephaestus who fabricated Achilles's magnificent shield (see above).
Hera and Pallas Athena: Hera was the wife of Zeus and perhaps the most partisan of the pro-Greek divinities. Athena was a warrior goddess and the patron of the city of Athens.
Hermes: The wing-footed messenger of the gods.
Leto: Mother of Artemis and Apollo. Ocean: According to Greek mythol- ogy, Ocean, or Oceanus, was a
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? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? great stream of water that sur- rounded the world. In his famous description of Achilles's shield, in Book 18, Homer portrayed Oceanus as encircling the rim of the shield.
Phoebus: A common epithet for the sun-god, Apollo. Gods and god- desses are sometimes (as here) referenced by their epithets instead of their names.
Poseidon: God of the sea and earth- quakes, and the brother of Zeus.
River Xanthus: The name of the river that flows past Troy. Homer says that the name Xanthus is used by the gods but that mortals refer to it as the Scamander. Xanthus is also the name of the god of this river.
Simois: A river near Troy in whose vicinity many battles were fought. The god of this river was also called Simois.
Strife: The goddess Eris, who rolled the famed Golden Apple, inscribed with the phrase "For The Most Beautiful," in among the wedding guests at the marriage of Peleus and Thetis. This sparked the quar- rel among Aphrodite, Athena, and Hera over which of them was the rightful claimant to the apple.
Themis: Daughter of Zeus and a goddess of prophecy.
? ? ? AFTERMATH
The remainder of Book 20 features successive battles between per- haps the Trojans' two best fighters--Aeneas and Hector--and the "best of the Achaeans," the mighty warrior Achilles. The first con- frontation pitted Aeneas against Achilles.
Achilles would have defeated him, had it not been for the god Poseidon, who feared for Aeneas's safety and, at a critical moment, whisked him away from the battlefield.
Hector next took on the fierce Achilles. Hector's first move was to cast a spear at his adversary, but once more, divine intervention came into play; the goddess Athena blew on the spear in its flight and caused it to boomerang back to Hector and land at his feet! Achilles then took the offensive and charged at Hector, spear in hand, but this time, Apollo was the Olympian who blunted the attack, by hiding Hector in a mist. Four times, Achilles unsuccess- fully attempted to dispatch his Trojan opponent; each time, Apollo's mist prevented a direct hit.
As Book 20 ends, Achilles contented himself by embarking on a violent onrush against the Trojans whom he could see, and killed many of them.
ASK YOURSELF
1. Homer writes that nearly all the gods and goddesses participated in the council. Which ones does he name? Which of these sided with the Greeks? Which with the Trojans?
2. In the council, the first one to speak to Zeus was Poseidon. Is there any significance to this? Many powerful gods and goddesses attended--all of them, in fact--so why did Poseidon have the distinction of speaking first?
3. Note the following epithets: Girdler of the World (for Poseidon); Bringer of Luck (Hermes); Flashing Helmet (Ares); Flowing Hair (Phoebus [Apollo]); Archeress (Artemis); Laughter-loving (Aphrodite). In what way is each epithet appropriate to the god or goddess to whom it applies?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e WhydoyousupposeOceanuswastheonlydeity,outofallofthegodsand goddesses, not to attend the council?
e Homer does not explain, at least in Book 20, why some gods favor the Greeks and others the Trojans. Sometimes, the reason is clear. Aphrodite, for example, is the mother of Aeneas, a Trojan warrior, so it comes as no surprise that she sides with the Trojans. But what about the others? Is there any way to discover the reasons for their loyalties?
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e What do you make of the idea that even the rivers had gods specifically assigned to them (e. g. , Xanthus and Simois)? What seems to be the primary role(s) of these river gods? It will probably be necessary to read the remain- der of Book 20 in order to formulate an answer to these questions.
e Why do you suppose Zeus is content to simply sit back and "enjoy the spectacle" of battle, without taking part?
e The god Hephaestus has kind of a checkered reputation in Greek mytho- logy. He is certainly respected for his blacksmithing and metal-working skills, and yet, he is often the butt of many a joke, a kind of buffoonish character. How does Homer delineate him in the Iliad, both in the docu- ment and elsewhere, especially in Book 18?
Further Information
Edwards, Mark W. The Iliad: A Commentary. Volume V: Books 17-20. Cambridge, 1991. (A heavy-duty commentary, but worth looking at. )
Fagles, Robert (tr. ). Homer: The Iliad. New York, 1990. (This translation offers a lengthy and informative introduction. )
Wace, A. J. B. and F. H. Stubbings. A Companion to Homer. London, 1962. Website
Summary of Iliad Book 20. http://ancienthistory. about. com/od/trojanwarinlit/a/ IliadXX. htm
Bibliography for Document
Rieu, E. V. (tr. ). Homer: The Iliad. Baltimore, 1950.
35. KING CROESUS CONSULTS--AND BRIBES? --THE DELPHIC ORACLE
INTRODUCTION
Oracles were always an important part of Greek (and Roman) religion. The word "oracle" is related to the Latin word for "mouth" or "speech," and those associations capture the essence of what an oracle was: a god's reply to a question posed by a believer. Oracular shrines, hous- ing priests or priestesses who would assist in the relaying of the divine response to mortal ears, were common throughout the Greco-Roman world and much referenced in ancient literature. The most famous of these oracular shrines was undoubtedly the one located in the remote mountain town of Delphi, in Greece. The Delphic Oracle, sacred to the god Apollo, attracted pilgrims from all over the ancient world over the course of many centuries. The first document in this chapter provides an account of one of these pilgrimages.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. The Greek historian Herodotus (490-425 BCE) is our source for this document.
2. Croesus, the sixth-century BCE proverbially wealthy ruler of the kingdom of Lydia, in Asia Minor, had a problem. His land was facing an onslaught led by the powerful king of the Persians, Cyrus the Great, and Croesus was not quite certain about how to combat the threat. So he sent messengers to the Oracle at Delphi and to five other Greek oracles as well: "to Abae in Phocis, to Dodona, to the oracles of Amphiaraus and Trophonius, and to Branchidae," according to Herodotus, as well
as to the Libyan oracle of Ammon, hoping for help and information.
3. The Delphic Oracle had something of an international flavor; not only Greeks, but
also other peoples, consulted its priestesses for help and advice.
Document: An Oracular Consultation
Cyrus had destroyed the empire of Astyages, and the power of Persia was steadily increasing. This gave Croesus food for thought, and he wondered if he might be able to check Persian expansion before it had gone too far. [Next comes the account of the oracles he consulted, as described above in "Keep in Mind as
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You Read. "] His object was to test the knowledge of the oracles, so that if they should prove to be in possession of the truth he might send a second time and ask if he should undertake a campaign against Persia.
The Lydians whom Croesus sent to make the test were given the following orders: on the hundredth day, reckoning from the day on which they left Sardis, they were to consult the oracles, and inquire what Croesus . . . was doing at that moment. The answer of each oracle was to be taken down in writing and brought back to Sardis. No one has recorded the answer of any of the oracles except that of Delphi; here . . . the Priestess gave them . . . the following reply:
. . . The smell has come to my sense of a hard-shelled tortoise Boiling and bubbling with lamb's flesh in a bronze pot.
The cauldron underneath is of bronze, and of bronze the lid.
The Lydians took down the Priestess' answer and returned with it to Sardis. When the other messengers came back with the answers they had received, Croesus opened all the rolls and read what they contained. None had the least effect on him except the one which contained the answer from Delphi . . . [H]e accepted it with profound reverence, declaring that the oracle at Delphi was the only genuine one in the world, because it had succeeded in finding out what he had been doing. And indeed it had; for after sending off the messengers, Croesus had thought of something which no one would be likely to guess, and with his own hands, keeping carefully to the prearranged date, had cut up a tortoise and a
lamb and boiled them together in a bronze cauldron with a bronze lid . . . Croesus now attempted to win the favor of the Delphian Apollo by a magnificent sacrifice. Of every kind of appropriate animal he slaughtered three thousand; he burnt in a huge pile a number of precious objects--couches overlaid with gold or silver, golden cups, tunics, and other richly colored garments--in the hope of binding the god more closely to his interest. And he issued a command that every Lydian was also to offer a sacrifice according to his means. After this ceremony, he melted down an enormous quantity of gold into one hundred and seventeen ingots [each weighing over 100 pounds. Additionally, he ordered an image of a solid gold lion to
be fabricated; weight: 570 pounds]. . . .
This was by no means all that Croesus sent to Delphi;
there were also two huge mixing-bowls, one of gold which was placed on the right-hand side of the entrance to the tem- ple, the other of silver, on the left . . . In addition, Croesus sent four silver casks . . . and two sprinklers for lustral water, one of gold, the other of silver . . . There were many other gifts of no great importance, including round silver basins, but I must not forget to mention a figure of a woman, in gold, four and a half feet high, said by the Delphians to re- present the woman who baked Croesus' bread. Lastly, he sent his own wife's necklaces and girdles. These, then, were the offerings which Croesus sent to Delphi . . .
The Lydians who were to bring the presents to the tem- ples were instructed by Croesus to ask the oracles if he should
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Astyages: King of the Median Empire, who ruled for 35 years before being dethroned by Cyrus in 550 BCE. He was the grandfather of Cyrus, and had tried to put Cyrus to death when the latter was an infant because of an oracular prophecy. No wonder that many years later, Cyrus wanted to oust him from his kingship!
Priestess' answer: Answers to ques- tions put to the Delphic oracle were delivered via the priestesses who tended the shrine.
Sardis: Capital city of Lydia, famous for the quality of its handcrafted products and also noted for its gold and silver coins, the first city in the ancient world to produce such coinage.
stater: A commonly used gold coin.
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undertake the campaign against Persia . . . On their arrival, therefore, they offered the gifts with the proper ceremony and put their question in the following words: "Croesus . . . has given you gifts such as your power of divination deserves, and now asks if he should march against Persia . . . " To this question, [the oracle] . . . foretold that if Croesus attacked the Persians, he would destroy a great empire . . .
Croesus was overjoyed when he learned the answer . . . and was fully confi- dent of destroying the power of Cyrus. To express his satisfaction, he sent a fur- ther present to Delphi of two gold staters for every man . . . The Delphians in return granted in perpetuity to Croesus and the people of Lydia the right of cit- izenship for any who wished, together with exemption from dues, front seats at state functions, and priority in consulting the oracle. [Tr. Aubrey de Selincourt. Herodotus: The Histories. (1. 47-54. ). Penguin Books, 1954. Page numbers: 57, 58, 59, 60. ]
AFTERMATH
As Herodotus explains, "Croesus was overjoyed when he learned the answer which the oracles" gave, and so he make plans to attack the Persians, disregarding or forgetting the fact that Apollo's oracular responses were often ambiguous; by attacking the Persians, Croesus did destroy a great empire: his own! For Cyrus and his army ultimately besieged and occupied Sardis; Croesus was taken prisoner. According to the biographer Plutarch, Cyrus was about to have Croesus executed, when Croesus three times cried out the name "Solon," the famous Athenian legislator/philosopher/businessman. Solon had visited Croesus some time before and had tried to teach him that no one can be considered truly happy until death, because only then can an assessment be made of the quality of that person's life. Croesus had thought that that was ridiculous, and that money and possessions, temporal things, equate to happi- ness. But in the end, he had lost all of his fabulous wealth and was about to lose his life; too late, he saw the value of Solon's words. But Cyrus was so impressed with this idea, and with other things that Croesus told him, that he decided to spare the life of the Lydian king.
ASK YOURSELF
1. If the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi was the most prestigious Greek oracle, why do you suppose Croesus bothered also to send messengers to six other oracles?
King Croesus Consults--and Bribes? --the Delphic Oracle
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