More and more clearly was now
manifested
the
leading idea of his life, the foundation of a great
Scandinavian Empire, which should unite under
the blue and yellow flag of Sweden all the
dominions of the Baltic Sea.
leading idea of his life, the foundation of a great
Scandinavian Empire, which should unite under
the blue and yellow flag of Sweden all the
dominions of the Baltic Sea.
Treitschke - 1915 - Germany, France, Russia, and Islam
None among the other
modern nations can boast of a man who was the
mouthpiece of his countrymen in quite the same
way, and who succeeded as fully in giving expres-
sion to the innermost character of his nation. A
stranger may inquire in bewilderment how it was
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? 256 Luther and the German Nation
possible for such striking contrasts to show them-
selves in the same human soul. Men wonder how
it was possible to combine a capacity for towering
anger with a pious and sincere belief, high wisdom
with childlike simplicity, deep mysticism with
heartfelt enjoyment of life, uncouthness and rough-
ness with the tenderest goodness of heart; they
marvel that the tremendous personage who ended
a letter to his un-grace, Duke George of Saxony,
with the words, "Martin Luther, by the grace of
God evangelist at Wittenberg," could then kneel
humbly in the dust before God. We Germans are
not puzzled by these apparent contradictions; all
we say is, " Here speaks our own blood. ' ' From the
deep eyes of this uncouth son of a German farmer
there flashed the ancient and heroic courage of
the Germanic races -- a courage which does not flee
from the world, but rather seeks to dominate it
by the strength of its moral purpose. And just
because he gave utterance to ideas already living
in the soul of his nation, this poor monk, who had
but lately made his humble pilgrimage from the
Augustinian monastery, on Monte Pincio, to the
halls of St. Peter, was able to grow and develop
very rapidly, until he had become as dangerous
to the new Roman universal empire as the assailing
German hordes were to the empire of the Caesars.
One generation after Luther, four fifths of our
people belonged to the evangelical religion. In
most of the districts of Germany, ruled by the
Roman Church to-day, she owes her restoration to
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? Luther and the German Nation 257
the argument of the sword, and almost everywhere
where the Gospel was violently stamped out, the
German spirit languishes even now as if one of its
wings had been broken. In the districts where
German population is in close and unfriendly con-
tact with our alien race, Protestantism has ever
been our safest frontier guard. In our North-
eastern provinces, German and Protestant, Polish
and Roman Catholic have long been regarded as
synonymous terms, and of all the German races
in Austria none has remained as faithful to its
nationality as the Protestant Saxon population
of Siebenburgen.
It would well become us at this festival, when the
reformer stands in person in our midst, to remember
the warning which he once gave to his Germans:
*' God's Word and grace is a driving thunderstorm,
which does not return over ground once covered.
It visited the Jews, but is now past, and they have
nothing of it left. Paul brought it to Greece.
It passed away there too, and now they have
nought but the Turks. Rome and the Latian land
were likewise blessed; now they have lost it, and
the Pope alone remains. And you Germans
must not think that you will keep it for ever, for
ingratitude and contempt will drive it hence. Let
him therefore that can, seize what he can ; slothful
hands will reap a bad harvest. " The same de-
structive powers which once stemmed the natural
progress of the Reformation are still among us
to-day, although their form is changed. Who has
17
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? 258 Luther and the German Nation
not noted the unloving disagreement among
believers, the fleshly gospel of factious spirits,
and the impudent self -righteousness of the epi-
cureans, as Luther called them?
But these blemishes are thrown into the shade by
the more consoling signs which are not wanting
in our age. A sense of deep and organic relation-
ship binds the present to the age of Luther. It
compels the artist to readopt almost unconsciously
the architectural forms of the sixteenth century,
and it drives the scholar to carry his researches
into the heart of that stormy period. Many things,
only dimly divined in Luther's day, have been
developed and completed in ours. The new world,
then discovered, has only lately made its entry
into history, and its most promising and fruitful
countries belong to the evangelical religion. Far
away on the Pacific there are pious hearts full of
the remembrance of the country where once was
rocked the cradle of Martin Luther. The art of
printing has only lately revealed itself as a link
able to bind nation to nation.
The unity of Germany and Italy stands secure,
and the transformation of our German ecclesiasti-
cal princedoms was followed by the destruction of
the last and worst of the ecclesiastical dominations,
the Pontifical State. Freedom of thought and
belief has been assured to all the nations of the
civilized world, and in the Evangelical Church a
vigorous and unbroken continuity of life still
manifests itself. The disunion to be observed in it
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? Luther and the German Nation 259
is but an indication of the fact that religion has a
firmer hold on all hearts to-day than it had in the
days of o\ir first enlightenment. But in the midst
of the dissensions the Evangelical Church has won
two peaceful victories at least : she has united the
contending sister Churches of Protestantism in an
evangelical union, and she is now engaged in the
task of developing in her constitution the almost
vanished idea of a congregational system.
The period is one of great blessing, and no
Protestant must give up hoping that even happier
days will come, when our entire nation will honour
Martin Luther as its hero and its teacher. The
fact that the Reformation was not universal in its
results on our country was, as we know, a very
salutary one. If it had triumphed everywhere and
held undisputed sway, the Evangelical Church
could hardly have given free play to that spirit
of humane and broad-minded tolerance which rules
German life to-day. Still the period when ecclesi-
astical differences brought a blessing is now over.
Since the Roman Church has spoken her last word
in proclaiming the infaUibility of the Pope, we feel
more acutely than ever how great is the gulf which
separates the different members of our race. To
span this gulf, to infuse evangelical Christianity
with sufficient vitaHty to enable it to rule our
entire nation -- this is a task which we recognize
as ours, and which later generations will one
day accomplish. This one purpose can never be
fulfilled if we are faint-hearted and descend the
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? 26o Luther and the German Nation
mountain which our courageous fathers climbed in
the sweat of their brow; for never again shall a
priest-ridden Church assemble Luther's com-
patriots round its altars. They will follow no
Church which does not recognize the evangelical
freedom of the Christian, the independence of the
believing and repentant conscience, and which
seeks to interfere with the just rights and functions
of the moral forces of the world, notably the
State. Protestantism has already victoriously
tided over more difficult periods than ours. How
many of us to-day have ancestors who fought for
the gospel at the White Mountain or at Lutzen, or
who ate the bread of banishment for the sake
of their religion ! On this birthday of the Reformer
let us thankfully and bravely raise our voices in
the words of his high-hearted hymn :
And if grief last until the night,
And then again till dawn,
Yet shall my heart aye trust in God
And His almighty power.
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? GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS AND GERMANY'S
FREEDOM
{A Lecture Delivered at the Sing Academy in
Berlin, December, i8g4)
WHEREVER on German soil the song is heard,
"Eine feste Burg ist Unser Gott,"^ with
pious affection thoughts are turned to the com-
memoration of the day which gave to us the saviour
of our Protestant freedom. Yet it comes as a pain-
ful echo of the civil strife of former days when we
realize that a part only of the nation can co-oper-
ate in this festival, and that many of our valiant
countrymen even detest it as treasonable. For
our own part, we will not allow our joy in the
Northern hero to be disturbed by the fact that he
was a foreigner, nor because it was in the darkest
days of our country's past that his star blazed
in the ascendant. In sharp contrast with the
national narrowness of classical antiquity, we find
in the history of the Christian peoples an unending
give and take, a continuous interlacing of general
European interests, wherein the ideals of human-
ity are harmonized with the separate aims of the
' '* God is to us a tower of strength. "
261
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? 262 Germany's Protestant Freedom
nations. The wealth and beauty of European his-
tory are constituted by this variegated drama,
wherein the free brother peoples of Europe are
seen, now hating, shunning, or fighting one an-
other, now joining hands to work for common
ends. Even the insular kingdom of Britain, more
inclined than all others to reject what is of foreign
origin, has twice in its history owed a decisive
turn of fate to the benevolent hand of a foreigner.
The Frenchman, Simon de Montfort, was the
creator of the British House of Commons, and
was the first of all men to gain the honourable
name of Protector of the English people ; the Dutch-
man, William of Orange, secured for the English
their existing parliamentary government.
Gustavus Adolphus' own home had early
experienced alike the blessings and the curse of
foreign domination. It was by Germany that this
hitherto untouched region of Northern heroes was
won for Christendom, and was incorporated within
the community of the Latin moral world-order.
The German Hanseatic League shut off the
Scandinavian coast from world-trade, and with
the overwhelming power due to its command of
capital was able so harshly to oppress the economic
forces of the young nations of the North that the
three Northern capitals, Stockholm, Copenhagen,
and Bergen, became German harbours, and for a
time even the tenure of the crowns in the Scandi-
navian lands became subject to the approval of the
league of German merchants. In the sixteenth
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? Germany's Protestant Freedom 263
century, when the power of the Hanseatic League
declined, there ensued an inevitable reaction
against the foreign German dominion. "All
through God and the Swedish peasantry," thus
was worded the summons to revolt issued to his
Dalecarlians by Gustavus Vasa, the grandfather
of Gustavus Adolphus. Throwing off at once the
Danish yoke, and the yoke of the German mer-
chants, he founded in Sweden a new national
kingdom. Ardent, rejoicing in action, highly
cultured, ever receptive of new ideas, such was the
wild brood of the Vasa; stormy was its passage
through life, often burning its very self in the
flames of its own passions. Undying was the love
of the Swedes for the House of their great Liberator.
At a later date, when there was a failure of the
male line, and when the dynasty was represented
only by the Countesses Palatine and other female
descendants, they refused to allow the name of
the Vasa, and the ears of wheat emblematic of the
line, to be erased from the Swedish coat-of-arms.
At this time, however, when our commercial
supremacy in Scandinavia collapsed, Germany's
thoughts again turned victoriously towards the
North. Gustavus Vasa became a Protestant,
and partitioned the excessive wealth of the old
Church between the Crown and the nobles in such
a manner that the power of the Vasas must hence-
forward stand or fall with the Lutheran Church.
Not here, as in Germany, did the change to Pro-
testantism aiise freely from the conscience of the
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? 264 Germany's Protestant Freedom
people; as in England, it was imposed upon the
nation by a powerful royal house, which, gradually
at first, and then with heart and soul, adopted
the evangelical faith. Thus it came to pass that
Germany, the land ecclesiastically divided by the
Reformation, stood from now onwards between
the Catholic world of the Romans and the strict
Lutheranism of the North. The alliance between
the Swedish Crown and the Lutheran Church be-
came yet more firmly cemented when the grand-
son of Gustavus Vasa, King Sigismund, the elected
King of Poland, reverted to the Roman Church,
and was in consequence driven from the country
after a confused and fiercely contested civil
war. Thereupon the youngest son of Gustavus
Vasa, the father of Gustavus Adolphus, was raised
to the forcibly evacuated throne, under the style
of King Charles IX. He was a severe and rigid
man of affairs, like his father a king of the poor
people, and a protector of Protestantism. Very
soon a threefold war broke out in this unhappy
country, whose enormous area was at this date
populated by barely a million inhabitants, whose
more prosperous southern provinces of Schonen
and Blekingen were still occupied by the Danish
enemies, and which could carry on free intercourse
with the rest of Europe only through a single
North Sea port, alone unhampered by the Danish
Sound-dues. The expelled King in Cracow de-
manded his restoration to the throne; Poland,
Russia, and Denmark were beginning their great
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? Germany's Protestant Freedom 265
struggle for the inheritance of the fallen Hansa
power, and for the dominion of the Baltic. Such
was the stress of events when the old King, whose
end was approaching, pointed to his youthful
successor with the words: '' Ilk faciei; he will deal
with it all! "
To nations, as to men of genius, there comes an
hour in which an inner voice speaks to them,
saying, ''Now or never shalt thou manifest thy
best, thy most individual, qualities to the world. "
From the first moment of the reign of Gustavus
Adolphus the Swedish people was animated by a
clear, joyful, and ever-increasing consciousness of
victory. The introspective Lutheran doctrine,
which elsewhere so often led its adherents to
passive obedience, and to a withdrawal from the
struggles of political life, became here, upon this
Northern soil, contentious, like its more vigorous
sister, Calvinism ; and soon from every pulpit went
forth the prophecy that this Gustavus was to be
the Augustus of the Protestant North. A man
altogether after the people's heart was this lad
of seventeen, blond, with shining blue eyes, over-
topping by half a head his tall fellow-countrymen,
serene-spirited and filled with the joy of life,
simple with the simplicity of the old North-land --
for how often did he wait good-humouredly with
his companions for the frozen wine to thaw in the
goblets! -- a master in the art of speech, and if
need should arise a master also in the moving and
homely eloquence of his grandfather. A careful
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? 266 Germany's Protestant Freedom
education had introduced the boy, precocious in
development and avid of learning, to the whole
range of the culture of his time. And yet, as soon
became manifest to all, his heart was in the pro-
-- % fession of arms. Pictures of battle and of victory
chased one another through his dreams. He
rejoiced to know that in his own veins ran pure
the blood of the Gothic heroes. Inseparably and
indistinguishably interfused in his mind with this
warlike national pride was the serious fervour of
his Lutheran creed. The great memories of the
House of Vasa, the close relationship with the old
Protestant races of Brandenburg, Holstein, Hesse,
and the Palatinate, the campaign against his
Catholic cousin in Poland, the general position
of Sweden in the world -- all forced him into the
Protestant camp. With kingly glance surveying
the religious struggles of the time, he asked only
that the Churches, no longer able to control one
another by force, should rather learn the lesson
of mutual toleration. But he was not one like
Richelieu, or Wallenstein, to regard the Church as
a mere means to political ends; he lived by the
Protestant faith, he knew the power of prayer,
and with full heart he sang, Verzage nicht, du
Hduflein klein. ^ The ardour and sincerity of his
religious belief remind us of the men of a day long
past, of the leaders of the League of Schmalkald,
John Frederick of Saxony and Philip of Hesse,
were it not that in Gustavus Adolphus the might of
^ "Never despair, you little band. "
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? Germany's Protestant Freedom 267
faith awakened, not the patience of the martyr, but
the activity of the hero.
With the aid of his youthful Chancellor, Oxen-
stiern, torn as his country was by civil war, the
King grounded within a few years the best-ordered
hierarchical monarchy of his day. Lagerquist-
Lorbeerzweig, Oernfiycht-Adelfiucht, Erenrot-
Ehrenwurzel -- such were the proud names of the
noble houses which here in Sweden, as throughout
the aristocratic world around the shores of the
Baltic, unwillingly bent their stiff necks before the
power of the Monarchy. With astonishing speed
were the members of this iron-handed aristocracy
won for the service of the Crown by the lure of
renown and booty ; every nobleman who in time of
war remained at home to guard his own kitchen-
midden was deprived of his crown-fief. For this
reason it was possible to impose also upon the
faithful peasantry the heavy burden of military ser-
vice ; every year the clergy announced from their
pulpits the names of the young men who were
summoned for duty. The general administration
of the country was conducted by the King through
the intermediation of five great local boards. Free
deliberation was permitted to the four orders of his
Reichstag, but once the King had made his own
decision he demanded absolute obedience, for, as
he phrased it, "no laurels of war can flourish in an
atmosphere of eternal dispute. " Thus sure of
his own people, he undertook to bring to an end
the three wars left him as a legacy by his father.
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? 268 Germany's Protestant Freedom
and in nineteen years' campaigning built up for
himself an army accustomed to victory. Only
with much labour was he able to enforce a supe-
riority over the Danes. Thereupon, turning to at-
tack the most dangerous enemy of all, he directed
himself against the Muscovites; driving the
Russians from their robbers' nest on the Baltic, he
conquered Ingermanland [now the governmental
area of Petrograd] and Karelia [South-eastern
Finland], the whole bordering country of the Gulf
of Finland, and in the neighbourhood of the
modern Petersburg he erected the column which
announces to the world that here Gustavus Adol-
phus established the boundary of his kingdom.
He then led his devoted followers against the
Poles, and here for the first time encountered
the armed forces of the counter-Reformation. To
the kingdom of Poland, hitherto rejoicing in vic-
tory, he brought the first great defeat of two
centuries, conquering Livonia, securing for the
Protestant Church its threatened possessions, and
establishing his power in the seaports of Prussia.
More and more clearly was now manifested the
leading idea of his life, the foundation of a great
Scandinavian Empire, which should unite under
the blue and yellow flag of Sweden all the
dominions of the Baltic Sea.
These manifold successes fell to the arms of
Gustavus Adolphus without any interference
upon the part of the Powers of the West, for no
states-system was yet in existence. The region of
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? Germany's Protestant Freedom 269
Central Europe, this Germany of ours, destined in
a future day to unite the East and the West of
Europe into a Hving Society of States, lay now
prostrate, bleeding from a thousand wounds, torn
asunder by a fierce struggle of factions; and only
when Gustavus Adolphus, in his victorious pro-
gress, approached the German frontiers was he
drawn into the maelstrom of the great German
War. For sixty-three years had Germany, as in
a dream, lived at peace under the ^gis of the
Augsburg Confession -- a false peace, for it gave
no satisfaction to the heart, and left imsolved all
the great contested questions of our imperial law.
Looking on idly, acquiescing in these stormy
quarrels of the Lutheran and Calvinistic theo-
logians, the Protestants of Germany had watched
the Jesuits leading back in time of peace, now
through cunning and now through force, whole
areas of the South and of the West into the Romish
Church; they had looked on whilst in the Burgund-
ian region of the Empire, at the mouth of the
great German river, the Dutch had waged a
desperate war against the world-wide Monarchy of
the Hapsburgs; they had heard the warning of
William of Orange: "If Germany remains an inert
spectator of our tragedy, a war will assuredly
break out on her own soil in comparison with
which all previous wars will seem a trifle! " Now
the prophecy was fulfilled. The most terrible of
all wars began, terrible not merely through the
savagery of the armies engaged in the struggle, but
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? 270 Germany's Protestant Freedom
also through its lack of ideal aims; for in this
unhappy Empire, tossed to and fro among four
factions, religious and political contrasts became
involved in a hopeless confusion, and of the lofty
passions of the early days of the Reformation
there remained hardly anything beyond obscure
and evil-minded ecclesiastical hatred.
The two lines of the House of Hapsburg, the
Austrian and the Spanish, made common cause
against heresy; they allied themselves with Maxi-
milian of Bavaria, the leader of the German Catho-
lic League, with the Italian Princes,, and with the
Crown of Poland. Almost the whole of European
Catholicism, France alone excepted, employed its
mercenary troops in the service of this imperial
policy, which, firm, cool-handed, and favoured by
fortune, advanced towards its goal, arousing the
admiration even of Gustavus Adolphus by the
relentless force of its will. "The Emperor,"
said Gustavus more than once, "is a great states-
man, and does everything that turns to his own
advantage. " As a speedy result, all the heredi-
tary dominions of the Emperor, not excepting
Bohemia, the ancient home of heresy, and the
Protestant peasantry of Upper Austria, returned
to the Roman fold. South Germany was sub-
dued, the Elector Palatine was driven from his
country and his people; the Spaniards occupied
a chain of fortresses along the Rhine, and were
thus enabled to send troops safely from Milan,
by way of the Tyrol and through Germany, to
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? Germany's Protestant Freedom 271
attack the Netherlands. Next, the small armies
of the Protestant leaders of the North were routed,
and at length the Danish Prince was driven out of
Holstein. As in the days ' of the Othos, the
Emperor's troops penetrated even into Jutland.
The imperial flag, bearing the double eagle and the
image of the Virgin, waved victoriously along
the shores of the Baltic and the North Sea. Wal-
lenstein, the Czech Commander-in-Chief of the im-
perial forces, was already laying the foundations of
a sea-power, wishing, by means of a canal between
Wismar and the Elbe, to unite the Baltic with the
North Sea, and proposing to found an imperial
harbour at Jahdebusen, at the very door of the
Dutch rebels, where Wilhelmshaven now stands.
In the year 1629, the imperial policy uttered
its last word. The Restitution Edict excluded
the members of the Reformed Churches from the
toleration of the Augsburg Confession, and decreed
that all the ecclesiastical foundations which since
the date of the Augsburg Confession had belonged
to the Evangelical Church, all the great immediate
bishoprics of the old Germania sacra of the North,
Magdeburg, Halberstadt, Bremen, and Liibeck,
the prince-bishoprics of Meissen, Brandenburg,
and many others, should revert to the Roman
dominion. What a prospect! The peaceful
development of two generations was to be swept
away by this arbitrary decree. The Protestant
inhabitants of these old ecclesiastical areas were
once more to be subjected to the rule of the crosier,
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? 272 Germany's Protestant Freedom
and an Archduke was to reign at Magdeburg as
Catholic Archbishop! Had these measures been
carried out, the very roots of German Protestant-
ism would have been cut away, alike politically and
ecclesiastically; Protestantism would, in fact, have
been completely annihilated; and further, the
Princely Houses of the Empire attached to the
reformed doctrine, those of Brandenburg, of Hesse,
of the Palatinate, and of the Anhalts of Ascania,
would have been deprived of their dominions as
rebels and heretics ; and indeed the Mecklenburgs,
the Brunswicks, and numerous other Protestant
Princes, had already fallen into misery, and had
been forced to surrender their lands to the military
chiefs of the Empire. Never was our Fatherland
so near to the attainment of unity, and Wallenstein
had voiced the threat that there was no longer any
need of Princes and Electors. But the unity that
would thus have been imposed by the Spanish
priests of the Society of Jesus, by condottieri
and mercenary soldiers owning allegiance to no
fatherland of their own, would have destroyed
all freedom of spirit, would have annihilated our
German ego. A cry of horror arose from the entire
Protestant world. But whence could any help
come? The lands of the only two Protestant
Princes who still wore the electoral ermine, those of
Brandenburg and Saxony, were overrun by the
imperial armies. Moreover, both these Electors
were paralyzed, their wills were divided, they were
influenced by the traditional spirit of allegiance to
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? Germany's Protestant Freedom 273
the Emperor, a spirit admirable even if mistaken ;
they were paral^^zed by the undisciplined state
of their principalities, rendering impossible the
eflPective levying of troops. There was no hope
here. Such was the dissension among the German
Protestants, so absolute was their ineffectiveness,
that help could come from a foreign Power alone.
The King of Sweden was left no other choice.
He was well acquainted with the general state of
European affairs ; he had long vainly endeavoured
to induce the Protestant Powers of Northern
Europe that still remained free -- England, Hol-
land, and Denmark -- to form a league against
the Hapsburgs; once already, during his Polish
campaign, he had fought unsuccessfully with
the imperial troops on the heath of Stuhm. If
the power of the licentious imperial soldiery
were to be extended yet farther along the Baltic,
not only would his dream of a great Northern
monarchy be shattered, but even his existing
small kingdom would be endangered, for unques-
tionably in that case the Polish Vasas who were
allied with Austria would endeavour to reconquer
the vSwedish Crown. "It is by the safety of our
neighbours," said Gustavus to his faithful sup-
porters, " that we must secure our own. " In fiery
words he added -- he who had never learned to
play the hypocrite^ -- "I will liberate my oppressed
fellow-believers from the Papal yoke. " Political
duty and religious duty called to him with one
voice. In the outcome, as always when decisions
18
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? 274 Germany*s Protestant Freedom
of world-historical importance are in question, we
note the half -hidden working of genius, the secret
conviction of fateful consequences and of divine
inspiration.
In July, 1630, he landed on Riigen, just one
hundred years after the Protestants of Germany
had made their Confession of Faith. That forlorn
widow, the Augsburg Confession, had at length
found her consoler. Yet almost a whole year
elapsed before the Princes of North Germany could
overcome their fear of the Emperor and their mis-
trust of the foreign helper. A shining figure,
inspired by heroic confidence, did Gustavus appear
among these timorous hesitants. "I tell you that
no middle course is possible," he repeats again
and again in his speeches; **the Rubicon is crossed,
the die is cast; the fight is between God and the
devil, and there is no third side. What sort of
a thing is neutrality? I know not the word! "
Slowly pushing his way forward in a laborious
campaign, which long afterwards aroused the pro-
found admiration of Napoleon, he penetrated with
his little army into Pomerania and the Mark, receiv-
ing secret financial aid from France, but being all
the while extremely careful to keep this dangerous
neighbour from more active intervention in the
German war. A diplomatic turn of events at the
Imperial Court at length brought some clearness
into the confusion. Wallenstein, the worldly
warrior, who wished all priests at the devil, desired
to come to terms with Sweden, to get the German
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? Germany's Protestant Freedom 275
Protestants on his side, by restricting the appli-
cation of the Restitution Edict, and then to use
the combined forces of Austria, Spain, and united
Germany against CathoHc France and the Pro-
testant Netherlands, in order to extend the
Hapsburg dominion over the whole of Latin
Europe. The Catholic League, on the other
hand, and the clerical party at the Viennese Court,
demanded the uprooting of the North German
heresy, and unrelenting warfare against North
Germany's Swedish allies. The Emperor Ferdin-
and was pulled one way by his Commander-in-
Chief and the other by his spiritual director.
The priests naturally won the game. Wallen-
stein was overthrown, and during the three and
a half years which Gustavus Adolphus spent
upon German soil, the confused struggle, though
continually changing its complexion, never ceased
to present the characteristics of a religious war.
It was now indeed a fight for the very existence
of Protestantism. The imperial armies were led
by the Walloon, Tilly, who, though less remorse-
less than the savage Wallenstein, was even more
cordially hated by our Protestant people, who
saw in him the actual embodiment of the churchly
hatred of the Catholic party. To the battle-cry
of the imperial troops, ''Mary, Mother of God,'*
the army of Gustavus Adolphus made answer,
*'God is on our side! "
When Magdeburg had been burned by the
imperial forces, and when the lamentable fall of
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? 276 Germany*s Protestant Freedom
this martyr-town of Protestantism (which had
once defied the armies of Charles V) had been
greeted by the Catholic world with a howl of
derision, Gustavus Adolphus determined to con-
strain his still hesitating brother-in-law of Branden-
burg to join the Protestant alliance. The timorous
Elector of Saxony now also made up his mind.
The King of Sweden crossed the Elbe, and the
Protestants drew breath once more to see how in the
camp at Werben he gave pause to the never yet
defeated Tilly. Thence he was drawn southward
by an appeal for help from the Elector of Saxony,
and in the great battle-ground of Central Ger-
many (twice again to be devastated in the present
war), on the Leipzig plain near Breitenfeld, matters
came to a decisive issue. The imperial knights,
heedlessly pursuing the Saxon troops, the defeated
left wing of the Protestant army, were suddenly
attacked on their own left flank by a rapid
wheeling movement of the Swedish centre; Tilly's
disorganized and closely-packed forces were over-
run by the readily mobile and rapidly firing
lines of the Swedes. The unconquerable Walloon
chief was utterly defeated, and, in a moment,
despair was lifted from the hearts of the Protest-
ants. The faithful town of Stralsund, which had
been victorious over Wallenstein, sent the hero-
King the following greeting :
Der Leu aus Mitternacht, den Gottes Geist ver-
heissen,
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? Germany's Protestant Freedom 277
Der Babels Stolz und Pracht soil brechen und zer-
reissen !
Wo's Fahnen in der Luft, wo's Sturm und Schlachten
gibt,
Das ist ein Freudenspiel, das unser Leu beliebt. '
Now for the first time since the days of Martin
Luther there was displayed before the eyes of our
people the figure of a man towards whom all must
look either in love or in hate. It was the day of
liberation. German Protestantism was rescued;
equality of beliefs was assured. No longer was it
possible to speak of any such uprooting of Protest-
antism as had been planned by the Restitution
Edict; and in view of the character of this war,
carried on in a land without a capital city, con-
ducted by small armies in many different places
at once and under the walls of innumerable fort-
resses it was hardly possible to expect that there
should occur another complete reversal of the
fortunes of war.
Gustavus Adolphus found his truest friends
among the warm-hearted Protestants of South
Germany, who had almost forgotten how to hope.
A shout of exultation, a cry of irrepressible grati-
tude, arose from them, as he turned towards Fran-
conia, in order here also to lift from the people
* "The Lion of the North-land, Saviour by God foretold,
To dust shall bring and ashes the pride of Babel old!
Where wave the flags, where screams the storm, where
rages fierce the fight,
'Tis there, in midmost battle, our Lion finds delight. "
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? 278 Germany's Protestant Freedom
the burden of Catholic oppression. In Nurem-
berg the people crowded round the King, while
celebrating his heroic personality in song, in pic-
ture, and in speech : " If you wish to see him all in
all, you must look the world over! " A retinue of
German Protestant Princes, among whom was
Frederick, the dethroned King of Bohemia, now
surrounded him; the Swedes and Livonians he
had brought with him to Riigen were joined by
auxiliary regiments raised in Germany, and the
two nations made common cause in an unremitting
quest for fighting men. Amid the popular jubi-
lation which rose tumultuously on all sides,
Gustavus Adolphus never forgot that he was amid
foreigners; and on one occasion, when a quarrel
arose among his German associates, he said: "I
would rather herd swine in my own country than
have to do with such a nation of imbeciles. "
After a sojourn in the Rhineland, he turned his
steps towards Bavaria, the Acropolis of the
Catholic League. In a bloody contest on the
Lech, Tilly lost the battle and his life. The
Elector Maximilian took to flight, abandoning
Munich to the conqueror. In the residential
Schloss, the ever-burning lamp, which for so long
had been kept alight before the image of the Virgin,
the Patroness of Bavaria, was now extinguished;
but the service of God became free to all, and
the Jesuits cried angrily to the King: "Yours is
the sin; you were sent to bring peace, and you have
sown war. " Never before had the power of his
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? Germany's Protestant Freedom 279
personality shone forth so radiantly. Even the
Bavarian people, at first profoundly hostile, began
to yield him their affection, as he rode alone
among them through the narrow streets in simple
cloak and slouched hat, throwing gold to the crowd,
and talking confidentially with the common folk.
He stood now at the summit of his fame, and
also at the tragical turning-point of his career.
He could not escape the curse which ever falls
upon the foreign conqueror. But the daily work
of his life, in so far as it could bring salvation to us
Germans, was completed. Undoubtedly he cher-
ished dreams of Cassarism, dreams that must be-
come more persistent as his victories became
more extensive. Not with a small reward could
the hot blood of the Vasas be appeased, nor was it
by chance that upon the trappings of his war-
charger there gleamed the gilded imperial eagles.
Yet in truth the Roman Imperial throne, insepa-
rably associated with the Catholic Church,
and dependent upon the Catholic majority of the
Electors of the Empire, could never seem an object
of desire to one who with all his venturesomeness
never lost the sense of what was possible. He
remained King of Sweden. How then, in this age
of harsh political rationaHsm, when everyone
regarded his neighbour as a possible enemy, could
Gustavus desire the union of Germany? "All
my successes here," he was accustomed to say,
''rest upon my homeland"; always he held fast
to the thought of his Greater Scandinavian Em-
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? 28o Germany's Protestant Freedom
pire. He wished to add to the domains of his own
Crown Pomerania, and whatever else he could of
the German coast lands ; he hoped with the aid of
the granaries of this region to ensure the food
supply of his impoverished native country. It
was thus his aim to cut off the German Empire
from the sea, and to hem in Denmark in such a way
that sooner or later all the confines of the Baltic
should pass under the rule of the Vasas. If, until
further notice, he exacted homage from the con-
quered Franconian bishoprics, this was for two rea-
sons only, in part to give these ecclesiastical lands
in fief to Bernard of Weimar, and his faithful allies
among the Protestant Princes, and in part to retain
them in pledge with a view, when peace should
come, to exchange them for German coast lands.
When he had acquired these extensive possessions
on the Baltic he would be able, he believed, to
enter the German Reichstag as a stateholder, as
director of a Corpus Evangelicorum which should
form a State within the State, an ordered opposi-
tion, to maintain the equality of the creeds. A
portion of these aims was subsequently accom-
plished by the hands of his weaker successors in
the terms of the Treaty of Westphalia -- and who
can now deny that the religious peace of the
Empire was thus ensured, though at a grave, a
destructive cost to the integrity of our political
power? We need not hesitate to proclaim that it
was by the kindness of fate that the saviour of
German Protestantism was called to his account at
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? Germany's Protestant Freedom 281
the very moment when he must otherwise have
become the enemy of our national state.
Terrified by the victories of this Gothic hero, the
Emperor resolved to recall Wallenstein to power,
and to restore him to uncontrolled command
of the imperial forces; and as soon as the
recruiting trumpets of the fortunate Friedlander
began to sound, the fighting men, greedy of fame
and plunder, flocked to his standard in crowds.
Gustavus Adolphus was soon to learn that he
had at length met his equal. He was unable to
prevent a junction between the imperial and the
Bavarian armies.
modern nations can boast of a man who was the
mouthpiece of his countrymen in quite the same
way, and who succeeded as fully in giving expres-
sion to the innermost character of his nation. A
stranger may inquire in bewilderment how it was
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? 256 Luther and the German Nation
possible for such striking contrasts to show them-
selves in the same human soul. Men wonder how
it was possible to combine a capacity for towering
anger with a pious and sincere belief, high wisdom
with childlike simplicity, deep mysticism with
heartfelt enjoyment of life, uncouthness and rough-
ness with the tenderest goodness of heart; they
marvel that the tremendous personage who ended
a letter to his un-grace, Duke George of Saxony,
with the words, "Martin Luther, by the grace of
God evangelist at Wittenberg," could then kneel
humbly in the dust before God. We Germans are
not puzzled by these apparent contradictions; all
we say is, " Here speaks our own blood. ' ' From the
deep eyes of this uncouth son of a German farmer
there flashed the ancient and heroic courage of
the Germanic races -- a courage which does not flee
from the world, but rather seeks to dominate it
by the strength of its moral purpose. And just
because he gave utterance to ideas already living
in the soul of his nation, this poor monk, who had
but lately made his humble pilgrimage from the
Augustinian monastery, on Monte Pincio, to the
halls of St. Peter, was able to grow and develop
very rapidly, until he had become as dangerous
to the new Roman universal empire as the assailing
German hordes were to the empire of the Caesars.
One generation after Luther, four fifths of our
people belonged to the evangelical religion. In
most of the districts of Germany, ruled by the
Roman Church to-day, she owes her restoration to
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? Luther and the German Nation 257
the argument of the sword, and almost everywhere
where the Gospel was violently stamped out, the
German spirit languishes even now as if one of its
wings had been broken. In the districts where
German population is in close and unfriendly con-
tact with our alien race, Protestantism has ever
been our safest frontier guard. In our North-
eastern provinces, German and Protestant, Polish
and Roman Catholic have long been regarded as
synonymous terms, and of all the German races
in Austria none has remained as faithful to its
nationality as the Protestant Saxon population
of Siebenburgen.
It would well become us at this festival, when the
reformer stands in person in our midst, to remember
the warning which he once gave to his Germans:
*' God's Word and grace is a driving thunderstorm,
which does not return over ground once covered.
It visited the Jews, but is now past, and they have
nothing of it left. Paul brought it to Greece.
It passed away there too, and now they have
nought but the Turks. Rome and the Latian land
were likewise blessed; now they have lost it, and
the Pope alone remains. And you Germans
must not think that you will keep it for ever, for
ingratitude and contempt will drive it hence. Let
him therefore that can, seize what he can ; slothful
hands will reap a bad harvest. " The same de-
structive powers which once stemmed the natural
progress of the Reformation are still among us
to-day, although their form is changed. Who has
17
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? 258 Luther and the German Nation
not noted the unloving disagreement among
believers, the fleshly gospel of factious spirits,
and the impudent self -righteousness of the epi-
cureans, as Luther called them?
But these blemishes are thrown into the shade by
the more consoling signs which are not wanting
in our age. A sense of deep and organic relation-
ship binds the present to the age of Luther. It
compels the artist to readopt almost unconsciously
the architectural forms of the sixteenth century,
and it drives the scholar to carry his researches
into the heart of that stormy period. Many things,
only dimly divined in Luther's day, have been
developed and completed in ours. The new world,
then discovered, has only lately made its entry
into history, and its most promising and fruitful
countries belong to the evangelical religion. Far
away on the Pacific there are pious hearts full of
the remembrance of the country where once was
rocked the cradle of Martin Luther. The art of
printing has only lately revealed itself as a link
able to bind nation to nation.
The unity of Germany and Italy stands secure,
and the transformation of our German ecclesiasti-
cal princedoms was followed by the destruction of
the last and worst of the ecclesiastical dominations,
the Pontifical State. Freedom of thought and
belief has been assured to all the nations of the
civilized world, and in the Evangelical Church a
vigorous and unbroken continuity of life still
manifests itself. The disunion to be observed in it
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? Luther and the German Nation 259
is but an indication of the fact that religion has a
firmer hold on all hearts to-day than it had in the
days of o\ir first enlightenment. But in the midst
of the dissensions the Evangelical Church has won
two peaceful victories at least : she has united the
contending sister Churches of Protestantism in an
evangelical union, and she is now engaged in the
task of developing in her constitution the almost
vanished idea of a congregational system.
The period is one of great blessing, and no
Protestant must give up hoping that even happier
days will come, when our entire nation will honour
Martin Luther as its hero and its teacher. The
fact that the Reformation was not universal in its
results on our country was, as we know, a very
salutary one. If it had triumphed everywhere and
held undisputed sway, the Evangelical Church
could hardly have given free play to that spirit
of humane and broad-minded tolerance which rules
German life to-day. Still the period when ecclesi-
astical differences brought a blessing is now over.
Since the Roman Church has spoken her last word
in proclaiming the infaUibility of the Pope, we feel
more acutely than ever how great is the gulf which
separates the different members of our race. To
span this gulf, to infuse evangelical Christianity
with sufficient vitaHty to enable it to rule our
entire nation -- this is a task which we recognize
as ours, and which later generations will one
day accomplish. This one purpose can never be
fulfilled if we are faint-hearted and descend the
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? 26o Luther and the German Nation
mountain which our courageous fathers climbed in
the sweat of their brow; for never again shall a
priest-ridden Church assemble Luther's com-
patriots round its altars. They will follow no
Church which does not recognize the evangelical
freedom of the Christian, the independence of the
believing and repentant conscience, and which
seeks to interfere with the just rights and functions
of the moral forces of the world, notably the
State. Protestantism has already victoriously
tided over more difficult periods than ours. How
many of us to-day have ancestors who fought for
the gospel at the White Mountain or at Lutzen, or
who ate the bread of banishment for the sake
of their religion ! On this birthday of the Reformer
let us thankfully and bravely raise our voices in
the words of his high-hearted hymn :
And if grief last until the night,
And then again till dawn,
Yet shall my heart aye trust in God
And His almighty power.
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? GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS AND GERMANY'S
FREEDOM
{A Lecture Delivered at the Sing Academy in
Berlin, December, i8g4)
WHEREVER on German soil the song is heard,
"Eine feste Burg ist Unser Gott,"^ with
pious affection thoughts are turned to the com-
memoration of the day which gave to us the saviour
of our Protestant freedom. Yet it comes as a pain-
ful echo of the civil strife of former days when we
realize that a part only of the nation can co-oper-
ate in this festival, and that many of our valiant
countrymen even detest it as treasonable. For
our own part, we will not allow our joy in the
Northern hero to be disturbed by the fact that he
was a foreigner, nor because it was in the darkest
days of our country's past that his star blazed
in the ascendant. In sharp contrast with the
national narrowness of classical antiquity, we find
in the history of the Christian peoples an unending
give and take, a continuous interlacing of general
European interests, wherein the ideals of human-
ity are harmonized with the separate aims of the
' '* God is to us a tower of strength. "
261
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? 262 Germany's Protestant Freedom
nations. The wealth and beauty of European his-
tory are constituted by this variegated drama,
wherein the free brother peoples of Europe are
seen, now hating, shunning, or fighting one an-
other, now joining hands to work for common
ends. Even the insular kingdom of Britain, more
inclined than all others to reject what is of foreign
origin, has twice in its history owed a decisive
turn of fate to the benevolent hand of a foreigner.
The Frenchman, Simon de Montfort, was the
creator of the British House of Commons, and
was the first of all men to gain the honourable
name of Protector of the English people ; the Dutch-
man, William of Orange, secured for the English
their existing parliamentary government.
Gustavus Adolphus' own home had early
experienced alike the blessings and the curse of
foreign domination. It was by Germany that this
hitherto untouched region of Northern heroes was
won for Christendom, and was incorporated within
the community of the Latin moral world-order.
The German Hanseatic League shut off the
Scandinavian coast from world-trade, and with
the overwhelming power due to its command of
capital was able so harshly to oppress the economic
forces of the young nations of the North that the
three Northern capitals, Stockholm, Copenhagen,
and Bergen, became German harbours, and for a
time even the tenure of the crowns in the Scandi-
navian lands became subject to the approval of the
league of German merchants. In the sixteenth
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? Germany's Protestant Freedom 263
century, when the power of the Hanseatic League
declined, there ensued an inevitable reaction
against the foreign German dominion. "All
through God and the Swedish peasantry," thus
was worded the summons to revolt issued to his
Dalecarlians by Gustavus Vasa, the grandfather
of Gustavus Adolphus. Throwing off at once the
Danish yoke, and the yoke of the German mer-
chants, he founded in Sweden a new national
kingdom. Ardent, rejoicing in action, highly
cultured, ever receptive of new ideas, such was the
wild brood of the Vasa; stormy was its passage
through life, often burning its very self in the
flames of its own passions. Undying was the love
of the Swedes for the House of their great Liberator.
At a later date, when there was a failure of the
male line, and when the dynasty was represented
only by the Countesses Palatine and other female
descendants, they refused to allow the name of
the Vasa, and the ears of wheat emblematic of the
line, to be erased from the Swedish coat-of-arms.
At this time, however, when our commercial
supremacy in Scandinavia collapsed, Germany's
thoughts again turned victoriously towards the
North. Gustavus Vasa became a Protestant,
and partitioned the excessive wealth of the old
Church between the Crown and the nobles in such
a manner that the power of the Vasas must hence-
forward stand or fall with the Lutheran Church.
Not here, as in Germany, did the change to Pro-
testantism aiise freely from the conscience of the
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? 264 Germany's Protestant Freedom
people; as in England, it was imposed upon the
nation by a powerful royal house, which, gradually
at first, and then with heart and soul, adopted
the evangelical faith. Thus it came to pass that
Germany, the land ecclesiastically divided by the
Reformation, stood from now onwards between
the Catholic world of the Romans and the strict
Lutheranism of the North. The alliance between
the Swedish Crown and the Lutheran Church be-
came yet more firmly cemented when the grand-
son of Gustavus Vasa, King Sigismund, the elected
King of Poland, reverted to the Roman Church,
and was in consequence driven from the country
after a confused and fiercely contested civil
war. Thereupon the youngest son of Gustavus
Vasa, the father of Gustavus Adolphus, was raised
to the forcibly evacuated throne, under the style
of King Charles IX. He was a severe and rigid
man of affairs, like his father a king of the poor
people, and a protector of Protestantism. Very
soon a threefold war broke out in this unhappy
country, whose enormous area was at this date
populated by barely a million inhabitants, whose
more prosperous southern provinces of Schonen
and Blekingen were still occupied by the Danish
enemies, and which could carry on free intercourse
with the rest of Europe only through a single
North Sea port, alone unhampered by the Danish
Sound-dues. The expelled King in Cracow de-
manded his restoration to the throne; Poland,
Russia, and Denmark were beginning their great
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? Germany's Protestant Freedom 265
struggle for the inheritance of the fallen Hansa
power, and for the dominion of the Baltic. Such
was the stress of events when the old King, whose
end was approaching, pointed to his youthful
successor with the words: '' Ilk faciei; he will deal
with it all! "
To nations, as to men of genius, there comes an
hour in which an inner voice speaks to them,
saying, ''Now or never shalt thou manifest thy
best, thy most individual, qualities to the world. "
From the first moment of the reign of Gustavus
Adolphus the Swedish people was animated by a
clear, joyful, and ever-increasing consciousness of
victory. The introspective Lutheran doctrine,
which elsewhere so often led its adherents to
passive obedience, and to a withdrawal from the
struggles of political life, became here, upon this
Northern soil, contentious, like its more vigorous
sister, Calvinism ; and soon from every pulpit went
forth the prophecy that this Gustavus was to be
the Augustus of the Protestant North. A man
altogether after the people's heart was this lad
of seventeen, blond, with shining blue eyes, over-
topping by half a head his tall fellow-countrymen,
serene-spirited and filled with the joy of life,
simple with the simplicity of the old North-land --
for how often did he wait good-humouredly with
his companions for the frozen wine to thaw in the
goblets! -- a master in the art of speech, and if
need should arise a master also in the moving and
homely eloquence of his grandfather. A careful
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? 266 Germany's Protestant Freedom
education had introduced the boy, precocious in
development and avid of learning, to the whole
range of the culture of his time. And yet, as soon
became manifest to all, his heart was in the pro-
-- % fession of arms. Pictures of battle and of victory
chased one another through his dreams. He
rejoiced to know that in his own veins ran pure
the blood of the Gothic heroes. Inseparably and
indistinguishably interfused in his mind with this
warlike national pride was the serious fervour of
his Lutheran creed. The great memories of the
House of Vasa, the close relationship with the old
Protestant races of Brandenburg, Holstein, Hesse,
and the Palatinate, the campaign against his
Catholic cousin in Poland, the general position
of Sweden in the world -- all forced him into the
Protestant camp. With kingly glance surveying
the religious struggles of the time, he asked only
that the Churches, no longer able to control one
another by force, should rather learn the lesson
of mutual toleration. But he was not one like
Richelieu, or Wallenstein, to regard the Church as
a mere means to political ends; he lived by the
Protestant faith, he knew the power of prayer,
and with full heart he sang, Verzage nicht, du
Hduflein klein. ^ The ardour and sincerity of his
religious belief remind us of the men of a day long
past, of the leaders of the League of Schmalkald,
John Frederick of Saxony and Philip of Hesse,
were it not that in Gustavus Adolphus the might of
^ "Never despair, you little band. "
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? Germany's Protestant Freedom 267
faith awakened, not the patience of the martyr, but
the activity of the hero.
With the aid of his youthful Chancellor, Oxen-
stiern, torn as his country was by civil war, the
King grounded within a few years the best-ordered
hierarchical monarchy of his day. Lagerquist-
Lorbeerzweig, Oernfiycht-Adelfiucht, Erenrot-
Ehrenwurzel -- such were the proud names of the
noble houses which here in Sweden, as throughout
the aristocratic world around the shores of the
Baltic, unwillingly bent their stiff necks before the
power of the Monarchy. With astonishing speed
were the members of this iron-handed aristocracy
won for the service of the Crown by the lure of
renown and booty ; every nobleman who in time of
war remained at home to guard his own kitchen-
midden was deprived of his crown-fief. For this
reason it was possible to impose also upon the
faithful peasantry the heavy burden of military ser-
vice ; every year the clergy announced from their
pulpits the names of the young men who were
summoned for duty. The general administration
of the country was conducted by the King through
the intermediation of five great local boards. Free
deliberation was permitted to the four orders of his
Reichstag, but once the King had made his own
decision he demanded absolute obedience, for, as
he phrased it, "no laurels of war can flourish in an
atmosphere of eternal dispute. " Thus sure of
his own people, he undertook to bring to an end
the three wars left him as a legacy by his father.
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? 268 Germany's Protestant Freedom
and in nineteen years' campaigning built up for
himself an army accustomed to victory. Only
with much labour was he able to enforce a supe-
riority over the Danes. Thereupon, turning to at-
tack the most dangerous enemy of all, he directed
himself against the Muscovites; driving the
Russians from their robbers' nest on the Baltic, he
conquered Ingermanland [now the governmental
area of Petrograd] and Karelia [South-eastern
Finland], the whole bordering country of the Gulf
of Finland, and in the neighbourhood of the
modern Petersburg he erected the column which
announces to the world that here Gustavus Adol-
phus established the boundary of his kingdom.
He then led his devoted followers against the
Poles, and here for the first time encountered
the armed forces of the counter-Reformation. To
the kingdom of Poland, hitherto rejoicing in vic-
tory, he brought the first great defeat of two
centuries, conquering Livonia, securing for the
Protestant Church its threatened possessions, and
establishing his power in the seaports of Prussia.
More and more clearly was now manifested the
leading idea of his life, the foundation of a great
Scandinavian Empire, which should unite under
the blue and yellow flag of Sweden all the
dominions of the Baltic Sea.
These manifold successes fell to the arms of
Gustavus Adolphus without any interference
upon the part of the Powers of the West, for no
states-system was yet in existence. The region of
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? Germany's Protestant Freedom 269
Central Europe, this Germany of ours, destined in
a future day to unite the East and the West of
Europe into a Hving Society of States, lay now
prostrate, bleeding from a thousand wounds, torn
asunder by a fierce struggle of factions; and only
when Gustavus Adolphus, in his victorious pro-
gress, approached the German frontiers was he
drawn into the maelstrom of the great German
War. For sixty-three years had Germany, as in
a dream, lived at peace under the ^gis of the
Augsburg Confession -- a false peace, for it gave
no satisfaction to the heart, and left imsolved all
the great contested questions of our imperial law.
Looking on idly, acquiescing in these stormy
quarrels of the Lutheran and Calvinistic theo-
logians, the Protestants of Germany had watched
the Jesuits leading back in time of peace, now
through cunning and now through force, whole
areas of the South and of the West into the Romish
Church; they had looked on whilst in the Burgund-
ian region of the Empire, at the mouth of the
great German river, the Dutch had waged a
desperate war against the world-wide Monarchy of
the Hapsburgs; they had heard the warning of
William of Orange: "If Germany remains an inert
spectator of our tragedy, a war will assuredly
break out on her own soil in comparison with
which all previous wars will seem a trifle! " Now
the prophecy was fulfilled. The most terrible of
all wars began, terrible not merely through the
savagery of the armies engaged in the struggle, but
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? 270 Germany's Protestant Freedom
also through its lack of ideal aims; for in this
unhappy Empire, tossed to and fro among four
factions, religious and political contrasts became
involved in a hopeless confusion, and of the lofty
passions of the early days of the Reformation
there remained hardly anything beyond obscure
and evil-minded ecclesiastical hatred.
The two lines of the House of Hapsburg, the
Austrian and the Spanish, made common cause
against heresy; they allied themselves with Maxi-
milian of Bavaria, the leader of the German Catho-
lic League, with the Italian Princes,, and with the
Crown of Poland. Almost the whole of European
Catholicism, France alone excepted, employed its
mercenary troops in the service of this imperial
policy, which, firm, cool-handed, and favoured by
fortune, advanced towards its goal, arousing the
admiration even of Gustavus Adolphus by the
relentless force of its will. "The Emperor,"
said Gustavus more than once, "is a great states-
man, and does everything that turns to his own
advantage. " As a speedy result, all the heredi-
tary dominions of the Emperor, not excepting
Bohemia, the ancient home of heresy, and the
Protestant peasantry of Upper Austria, returned
to the Roman fold. South Germany was sub-
dued, the Elector Palatine was driven from his
country and his people; the Spaniards occupied
a chain of fortresses along the Rhine, and were
thus enabled to send troops safely from Milan,
by way of the Tyrol and through Germany, to
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? Germany's Protestant Freedom 271
attack the Netherlands. Next, the small armies
of the Protestant leaders of the North were routed,
and at length the Danish Prince was driven out of
Holstein. As in the days ' of the Othos, the
Emperor's troops penetrated even into Jutland.
The imperial flag, bearing the double eagle and the
image of the Virgin, waved victoriously along
the shores of the Baltic and the North Sea. Wal-
lenstein, the Czech Commander-in-Chief of the im-
perial forces, was already laying the foundations of
a sea-power, wishing, by means of a canal between
Wismar and the Elbe, to unite the Baltic with the
North Sea, and proposing to found an imperial
harbour at Jahdebusen, at the very door of the
Dutch rebels, where Wilhelmshaven now stands.
In the year 1629, the imperial policy uttered
its last word. The Restitution Edict excluded
the members of the Reformed Churches from the
toleration of the Augsburg Confession, and decreed
that all the ecclesiastical foundations which since
the date of the Augsburg Confession had belonged
to the Evangelical Church, all the great immediate
bishoprics of the old Germania sacra of the North,
Magdeburg, Halberstadt, Bremen, and Liibeck,
the prince-bishoprics of Meissen, Brandenburg,
and many others, should revert to the Roman
dominion. What a prospect! The peaceful
development of two generations was to be swept
away by this arbitrary decree. The Protestant
inhabitants of these old ecclesiastical areas were
once more to be subjected to the rule of the crosier,
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? 272 Germany's Protestant Freedom
and an Archduke was to reign at Magdeburg as
Catholic Archbishop! Had these measures been
carried out, the very roots of German Protestant-
ism would have been cut away, alike politically and
ecclesiastically; Protestantism would, in fact, have
been completely annihilated; and further, the
Princely Houses of the Empire attached to the
reformed doctrine, those of Brandenburg, of Hesse,
of the Palatinate, and of the Anhalts of Ascania,
would have been deprived of their dominions as
rebels and heretics ; and indeed the Mecklenburgs,
the Brunswicks, and numerous other Protestant
Princes, had already fallen into misery, and had
been forced to surrender their lands to the military
chiefs of the Empire. Never was our Fatherland
so near to the attainment of unity, and Wallenstein
had voiced the threat that there was no longer any
need of Princes and Electors. But the unity that
would thus have been imposed by the Spanish
priests of the Society of Jesus, by condottieri
and mercenary soldiers owning allegiance to no
fatherland of their own, would have destroyed
all freedom of spirit, would have annihilated our
German ego. A cry of horror arose from the entire
Protestant world. But whence could any help
come? The lands of the only two Protestant
Princes who still wore the electoral ermine, those of
Brandenburg and Saxony, were overrun by the
imperial armies. Moreover, both these Electors
were paralyzed, their wills were divided, they were
influenced by the traditional spirit of allegiance to
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? Germany's Protestant Freedom 273
the Emperor, a spirit admirable even if mistaken ;
they were paral^^zed by the undisciplined state
of their principalities, rendering impossible the
eflPective levying of troops. There was no hope
here. Such was the dissension among the German
Protestants, so absolute was their ineffectiveness,
that help could come from a foreign Power alone.
The King of Sweden was left no other choice.
He was well acquainted with the general state of
European affairs ; he had long vainly endeavoured
to induce the Protestant Powers of Northern
Europe that still remained free -- England, Hol-
land, and Denmark -- to form a league against
the Hapsburgs; once already, during his Polish
campaign, he had fought unsuccessfully with
the imperial troops on the heath of Stuhm. If
the power of the licentious imperial soldiery
were to be extended yet farther along the Baltic,
not only would his dream of a great Northern
monarchy be shattered, but even his existing
small kingdom would be endangered, for unques-
tionably in that case the Polish Vasas who were
allied with Austria would endeavour to reconquer
the vSwedish Crown. "It is by the safety of our
neighbours," said Gustavus to his faithful sup-
porters, " that we must secure our own. " In fiery
words he added -- he who had never learned to
play the hypocrite^ -- "I will liberate my oppressed
fellow-believers from the Papal yoke. " Political
duty and religious duty called to him with one
voice. In the outcome, as always when decisions
18
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? 274 Germany*s Protestant Freedom
of world-historical importance are in question, we
note the half -hidden working of genius, the secret
conviction of fateful consequences and of divine
inspiration.
In July, 1630, he landed on Riigen, just one
hundred years after the Protestants of Germany
had made their Confession of Faith. That forlorn
widow, the Augsburg Confession, had at length
found her consoler. Yet almost a whole year
elapsed before the Princes of North Germany could
overcome their fear of the Emperor and their mis-
trust of the foreign helper. A shining figure,
inspired by heroic confidence, did Gustavus appear
among these timorous hesitants. "I tell you that
no middle course is possible," he repeats again
and again in his speeches; **the Rubicon is crossed,
the die is cast; the fight is between God and the
devil, and there is no third side. What sort of
a thing is neutrality? I know not the word! "
Slowly pushing his way forward in a laborious
campaign, which long afterwards aroused the pro-
found admiration of Napoleon, he penetrated with
his little army into Pomerania and the Mark, receiv-
ing secret financial aid from France, but being all
the while extremely careful to keep this dangerous
neighbour from more active intervention in the
German war. A diplomatic turn of events at the
Imperial Court at length brought some clearness
into the confusion. Wallenstein, the worldly
warrior, who wished all priests at the devil, desired
to come to terms with Sweden, to get the German
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? Germany's Protestant Freedom 275
Protestants on his side, by restricting the appli-
cation of the Restitution Edict, and then to use
the combined forces of Austria, Spain, and united
Germany against CathoHc France and the Pro-
testant Netherlands, in order to extend the
Hapsburg dominion over the whole of Latin
Europe. The Catholic League, on the other
hand, and the clerical party at the Viennese Court,
demanded the uprooting of the North German
heresy, and unrelenting warfare against North
Germany's Swedish allies. The Emperor Ferdin-
and was pulled one way by his Commander-in-
Chief and the other by his spiritual director.
The priests naturally won the game. Wallen-
stein was overthrown, and during the three and
a half years which Gustavus Adolphus spent
upon German soil, the confused struggle, though
continually changing its complexion, never ceased
to present the characteristics of a religious war.
It was now indeed a fight for the very existence
of Protestantism. The imperial armies were led
by the Walloon, Tilly, who, though less remorse-
less than the savage Wallenstein, was even more
cordially hated by our Protestant people, who
saw in him the actual embodiment of the churchly
hatred of the Catholic party. To the battle-cry
of the imperial troops, ''Mary, Mother of God,'*
the army of Gustavus Adolphus made answer,
*'God is on our side! "
When Magdeburg had been burned by the
imperial forces, and when the lamentable fall of
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? 276 Germany*s Protestant Freedom
this martyr-town of Protestantism (which had
once defied the armies of Charles V) had been
greeted by the Catholic world with a howl of
derision, Gustavus Adolphus determined to con-
strain his still hesitating brother-in-law of Branden-
burg to join the Protestant alliance. The timorous
Elector of Saxony now also made up his mind.
The King of Sweden crossed the Elbe, and the
Protestants drew breath once more to see how in the
camp at Werben he gave pause to the never yet
defeated Tilly. Thence he was drawn southward
by an appeal for help from the Elector of Saxony,
and in the great battle-ground of Central Ger-
many (twice again to be devastated in the present
war), on the Leipzig plain near Breitenfeld, matters
came to a decisive issue. The imperial knights,
heedlessly pursuing the Saxon troops, the defeated
left wing of the Protestant army, were suddenly
attacked on their own left flank by a rapid
wheeling movement of the Swedish centre; Tilly's
disorganized and closely-packed forces were over-
run by the readily mobile and rapidly firing
lines of the Swedes. The unconquerable Walloon
chief was utterly defeated, and, in a moment,
despair was lifted from the hearts of the Protest-
ants. The faithful town of Stralsund, which had
been victorious over Wallenstein, sent the hero-
King the following greeting :
Der Leu aus Mitternacht, den Gottes Geist ver-
heissen,
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? Germany's Protestant Freedom 277
Der Babels Stolz und Pracht soil brechen und zer-
reissen !
Wo's Fahnen in der Luft, wo's Sturm und Schlachten
gibt,
Das ist ein Freudenspiel, das unser Leu beliebt. '
Now for the first time since the days of Martin
Luther there was displayed before the eyes of our
people the figure of a man towards whom all must
look either in love or in hate. It was the day of
liberation. German Protestantism was rescued;
equality of beliefs was assured. No longer was it
possible to speak of any such uprooting of Protest-
antism as had been planned by the Restitution
Edict; and in view of the character of this war,
carried on in a land without a capital city, con-
ducted by small armies in many different places
at once and under the walls of innumerable fort-
resses it was hardly possible to expect that there
should occur another complete reversal of the
fortunes of war.
Gustavus Adolphus found his truest friends
among the warm-hearted Protestants of South
Germany, who had almost forgotten how to hope.
A shout of exultation, a cry of irrepressible grati-
tude, arose from them, as he turned towards Fran-
conia, in order here also to lift from the people
* "The Lion of the North-land, Saviour by God foretold,
To dust shall bring and ashes the pride of Babel old!
Where wave the flags, where screams the storm, where
rages fierce the fight,
'Tis there, in midmost battle, our Lion finds delight. "
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? 278 Germany's Protestant Freedom
the burden of Catholic oppression. In Nurem-
berg the people crowded round the King, while
celebrating his heroic personality in song, in pic-
ture, and in speech : " If you wish to see him all in
all, you must look the world over! " A retinue of
German Protestant Princes, among whom was
Frederick, the dethroned King of Bohemia, now
surrounded him; the Swedes and Livonians he
had brought with him to Riigen were joined by
auxiliary regiments raised in Germany, and the
two nations made common cause in an unremitting
quest for fighting men. Amid the popular jubi-
lation which rose tumultuously on all sides,
Gustavus Adolphus never forgot that he was amid
foreigners; and on one occasion, when a quarrel
arose among his German associates, he said: "I
would rather herd swine in my own country than
have to do with such a nation of imbeciles. "
After a sojourn in the Rhineland, he turned his
steps towards Bavaria, the Acropolis of the
Catholic League. In a bloody contest on the
Lech, Tilly lost the battle and his life. The
Elector Maximilian took to flight, abandoning
Munich to the conqueror. In the residential
Schloss, the ever-burning lamp, which for so long
had been kept alight before the image of the Virgin,
the Patroness of Bavaria, was now extinguished;
but the service of God became free to all, and
the Jesuits cried angrily to the King: "Yours is
the sin; you were sent to bring peace, and you have
sown war. " Never before had the power of his
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? Germany's Protestant Freedom 279
personality shone forth so radiantly. Even the
Bavarian people, at first profoundly hostile, began
to yield him their affection, as he rode alone
among them through the narrow streets in simple
cloak and slouched hat, throwing gold to the crowd,
and talking confidentially with the common folk.
He stood now at the summit of his fame, and
also at the tragical turning-point of his career.
He could not escape the curse which ever falls
upon the foreign conqueror. But the daily work
of his life, in so far as it could bring salvation to us
Germans, was completed. Undoubtedly he cher-
ished dreams of Cassarism, dreams that must be-
come more persistent as his victories became
more extensive. Not with a small reward could
the hot blood of the Vasas be appeased, nor was it
by chance that upon the trappings of his war-
charger there gleamed the gilded imperial eagles.
Yet in truth the Roman Imperial throne, insepa-
rably associated with the Catholic Church,
and dependent upon the Catholic majority of the
Electors of the Empire, could never seem an object
of desire to one who with all his venturesomeness
never lost the sense of what was possible. He
remained King of Sweden. How then, in this age
of harsh political rationaHsm, when everyone
regarded his neighbour as a possible enemy, could
Gustavus desire the union of Germany? "All
my successes here," he was accustomed to say,
''rest upon my homeland"; always he held fast
to the thought of his Greater Scandinavian Em-
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? 28o Germany's Protestant Freedom
pire. He wished to add to the domains of his own
Crown Pomerania, and whatever else he could of
the German coast lands ; he hoped with the aid of
the granaries of this region to ensure the food
supply of his impoverished native country. It
was thus his aim to cut off the German Empire
from the sea, and to hem in Denmark in such a way
that sooner or later all the confines of the Baltic
should pass under the rule of the Vasas. If, until
further notice, he exacted homage from the con-
quered Franconian bishoprics, this was for two rea-
sons only, in part to give these ecclesiastical lands
in fief to Bernard of Weimar, and his faithful allies
among the Protestant Princes, and in part to retain
them in pledge with a view, when peace should
come, to exchange them for German coast lands.
When he had acquired these extensive possessions
on the Baltic he would be able, he believed, to
enter the German Reichstag as a stateholder, as
director of a Corpus Evangelicorum which should
form a State within the State, an ordered opposi-
tion, to maintain the equality of the creeds. A
portion of these aims was subsequently accom-
plished by the hands of his weaker successors in
the terms of the Treaty of Westphalia -- and who
can now deny that the religious peace of the
Empire was thus ensured, though at a grave, a
destructive cost to the integrity of our political
power? We need not hesitate to proclaim that it
was by the kindness of fate that the saviour of
German Protestantism was called to his account at
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? Germany's Protestant Freedom 281
the very moment when he must otherwise have
become the enemy of our national state.
Terrified by the victories of this Gothic hero, the
Emperor resolved to recall Wallenstein to power,
and to restore him to uncontrolled command
of the imperial forces; and as soon as the
recruiting trumpets of the fortunate Friedlander
began to sound, the fighting men, greedy of fame
and plunder, flocked to his standard in crowds.
Gustavus Adolphus was soon to learn that he
had at length met his equal. He was unable to
prevent a junction between the imperial and the
Bavarian armies.
