But he in-
troduced the rearing of silkworms into Europe, and
the numerous edifices which he raised (mil.
troduced the rearing of silkworms into Europe, and
the numerous edifices which he raised (mil.
Charles - 1867 - Classical Dictionary
tour of Villoison.
) It was
the birthplace of two of the greatest lyric poets of
Greece, Simonides and his nephew Bacchylides; also
of Erasislratus the physician, and Ariston the Peripa-
tetic philosopher. (Strabo, 486. ) It is said that the
laws of this town decreed that every man, on reaching
his sixtieth year, should destroy himself by poison, in
order to leave to others a sufficient maintenance.
This ordinance is said to have been first promulgated
when the town was besieged by the Athenians. (Stra-
bo, I. c. --Hcracl. , Pont. Polit. fragm. , 9. --Mlian. , V.
H. , 3, 37. --Cramer'* Anc. Greece, vol. 3, p. 402. )
Julius, I. Cassar. (Vid. Csesar. )--II. Agricola, a
governor of Britain. (Vid. Agricola. ) -- III. Obse-
quens. (Vid. Obsequens. )-- IV. Solinus, a writer.
(Vid. Solinus. )--V. Titianus, a writer. (Vid. Titia-
nus. )--VI. Africanus, a chronologer. (Vid. Africa-
nus I. ) -- VII. Pollux, a grammarian of Naucratis, in
Egypt. (Vid. Pollux. )
Iulus, I. the name of Ascanius, the son of -Eneas.
(Vid. Ascanius. )--II. A son of Ascanius, born in La-
vinium. In the succession to the kingdom of Alba,
jEncas Sylvius, the son of . rEneas and Lavinia, was
? ? preferred to him. He was, however, made chief priest.
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? Jt PITER.
ta inas imply formed. She ii attired in a tunic and
mantle. --The term 'H/m is evidently the feminine of
'lf,wr, anciently 'H-jnr, and thus they answer to each
other as the Latin Hcria and //era, and the German
Hen and Herrin, and therefore signified master and
miitrcst. --The name JUNO, on the other hand, i<<
evidently derived from the Greek AIU. NH, the female
AI? or ZET2--The quarrels of Jupiter and Juno in
the Homeric mythology are evidently mere physical
xllejones, Jupiter denoting the aether or upper regions
of air, and Juno the lower strata, or our atmosphere.
Hence the discord and strife that so often prevail be-
tween the king and queeu of Olympus, the master and
mistress of the universe, 'are merely so many types of
ihe storms that disturb our atmosphere, and the ever-
varying changes that characterize the latter are plainly
indicated by the capricious and quick-changing tem-
per of the spouse of Jove. At a later period, how-
ever, a new element appears to have entered into the
mythology of Juno. The Earth, as the recipient of
fertilizing showers from the atmosphere, became in a
manner identified with the spouse of Father . . Ether;
and we find Juno, now resembling in many of her at-
tributes both Cybele and Ceres, appearing at one time
as Earth, at another as the passive productive princi-
ple. Hence the consecration of the cow to Juno,
just as, in the religion of the ancient Germans, the
cow was assigned to the service of the goddess Her-
tha or Earth. At Argos, the chariot in which the
priestess of Juno rode was drawn by oxen. (Herod. ,
I, 31. ) Cows were also sacred to the Egyptian Isis,
the goddess of fertility, and who resembles in some
of her attributes the Grecian Ceres (Knight, En-
quiry into the Symt. Lang. , &c. , It 36. --Classical
Joxrn. , vol. 23, p. 227. --Keightley'a Mythology, p.
ffi,ic<ij. --Constant, de la Religion, vol. 1, p. 198. )
Jnsosit, one of the Canary islands, or Insulae For-
um*. It is now Palma. '(Pirn. . 6, 32. )
. ], -. DM-, PROMONTORIUM, a promontory of Spain, on
he Atlantic side of the Straits of Gibraltar. It is now
Cape Trafalgar. (Mela, 2, 6. )
JCPITEK, the supreme Roman deity, identical with
Jie Grecian Zeif (Zeus). --Jupiter was the eldest son
of Saturn and Rbea. He and his brothers, Neptune
ind Pluto, divided the world by lot between them,
uid the portion which fell to him was the " extensive
waven in air and clouds. " (//. , 13, 355. ) All the
H'nal phenomena, such as thunder and lightning, wind,
floods, snow, and rainbows, are therefore ascribed to
liim, and he sends them either as signs and warnings,
or to punish the transgressions of man, especially the
perversions of law and justice, of which he is the
fountain. (//. , 1, 238, seqq. ) Jupiter is called the
"father of men and gods;" his power over both is
represented as supreme, and his will is fate. Earthly
monarchs obtain their authority from him (//. , 2, 197,
JOS); they arc but his vicegerents, and are distin-
guished by epithets derived from his name; such as
JoK-tpntng(&ur/evqt), Jove-reared (Atorpe^f). Jote-
klmcJ. . i. Mji/. r). In his palace on Olympus, Jove
lives like a Grecian prince in the midst of his family:
> tocalions and quarrels occur between him and his
;ni i ii, JUKI, and though, in general, kind and affec-
tionate to his children, he occasionally menaces or
treats them with rigour. --In the Odyssey, the char-
<<cUsr of this god is, agreeably to the more moral
lone of that poem, of a higher and more dignified or-
aer. No indecent altercations occur; both gods and
? ? pien submit to hia power without a murmur, yet he
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? JUPITER.
JUPITER.
der ihe greatest diversity of forms. --It was the habit
of the Greeks to appropriate particular plants and an-
imals to the service of their deities. There was gen-
erally some reason for this, founded on physical or
moral grounds, or on both. Nothing could be more
natural than to assign the oak (<j>riyt'K, quercus ascu-
'm), the monarch of trees, to the celestial king, whose
ancient oracle, moreover, was in the oak-woods of Do-
dona. In like manner, the eagle was evidently the
bird best siited to his service. The celebrated Agis,
the shield which sent forth thunder, lightning, and dark-
ness, and struck terror into mortal hearts, was formed
for Jupiter by Vulcan. In Homer we see it sometimes
bome by Apollo (//. , 15, 508) and sometimes by Mi-
nerva (A. , 5, 738--Orf. , 22, 297). --The most famous
temple of Jupiter was at Olympia in Elis, where, every
fourth year, the Olympic Games were celebrated in
nis honour; he had also a splendid fane in the island
of jEgina. But, though there were few deities less
honoured with temples and statues, all the inhabitants
of Hellas conspired in the duty of doing homage to the
sovereign of the gods. His great oracle was at Dodo-
na, where, even in the Pelasgian period, the Selli an-
nounced his will and the secrets of futurity. (/. '. , 16,
233. )--Jupiter was represented by artists as the model
of dignity and majesty of mien; his countenance grave
but mild. He is seated on a throne, and grasping his
sceptre and thunder. The eagle is standing beside
the throne. --An inquiry, of which the object should be
to select and unite all the parts of the Greek mythol-
ogy that have reference to natural phenomena and
the changes of the seasons, although it has never been
regularly undertaken, would doubtless show, that the
earliest religion of the Greeks was founded on the
same notions as the chief part of the religions of the
East, particularly of that part of the East which was
nearest to Greece, namely, Asia Minor. The Greek
mind, however, even in this the earliest of its produc-
tions, appears richer and more various in its forms,
and, at the same time, to take a loftier and wider range,
than is the case in the religion of the Oriental neigh-
oours of the Greeks, the Phrygians, Lydians, and Syr-
ians. In the religion of these nations, the combina-
tion and contrast of two beings (Baal and Astarte), the
one male, representing the productive, and the other
female, representing the passive and nutritive powers
of Nature; and the alternation of two states, namely,
the strength and vigour, and the weakness and death,
of the n. ale personification of Nature, the firs', of which
was celebrated with vehement joy, the latter with ex-
cessive lamentation, recur in a perpetual cycle, that
must have wearied and stupificd the mind. The Gre-
cian worship of Nature, on the other hand, in all the
various forms which it asaumed in different quarters,
places one Deity, as the highest of all, at the head of the
entire system, the God of heaven and light, the Father
JElher of the Latin poets. That this is the true mean-
ing of the name Zeus (Jupiter) is shown by the occur-
rence of the same root (DIU), with the same significa-
tion, even in tho Sanscrit, and by the preservation of
several of its derivatives, which remained in common
use both in Greek and Latin, all containing the no-
tion of Heaven and Day. The root DIU is most clearly
seen in the oblique cases of Zeus, AtFoc, AiFi, in which
theU hn passed into the consonant form F(Digam-
ma); whereas in Zevc, as in other Greek words, the
sound DI has passed into Z, and the vowel has been
? ? lengthened. In the Latin Jmis (late in Umbrian) the
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? JUS
jus
niorphoscs, he is transmuted into the messenger of
Zeus and the servant of the gods. {Mullcr, Hist.
Gr. Lit. , p. 13, seqq. )
Jura, a chain a$ mountains, which, extending from
the Rhodanas or Rhone to the Khenus or Rhine,
separated Helvetia from the territory of the Seqaani.
The name ia said to be in Celtic, Jourag, and to sig-
nify the domain of God or Jupiter. The most ele-
vated parts cf the chain are the Dole, 5082 feet above
the level of the sea; the Mont Tendre, 5170; and the
Reeulet (the summit of the Thotry), 5196. (Plin. , 3,
4 Cos. , B. C. , 1, i. --Plol. , 2, 9. )
JusTiNi. iNus, FlavTos, born near Sardica in Mcesia,
A. D. 482 or 483, of obscure parents, was nephew by
his mother's side to Justinus, afterward emperor. The
elevation of his oncle to the imperial throne, A. D. 518,
decided the fortune of Justinian, who, having been
educated at Constantinople, had given proofs of con-
siderable capacity and application. Justinus was igno-
rant and old, and the advice and exertions of his neph-
ew were of great service to hirn during the nine years
of his reign. He adopted Justinian as his colleague,
and at length, a few months before his death, feeling
that his end was approaching, he crowned him in pres-
ence of the patriarch and senators, and made over the
imperial authority to him, in April, 527. Justinian was
then in his 45th year, and he reigned above 38 years,
(ill November, 565, when he died. His long reign
forms a remarkable epoch in the history of the world.
Although himself unwarlike, yet, by means of his
able generals, Belisarius and Narses, he completely
defeated the Vandals and the Goths, and reunited
Italy and Africa to the empire. Justinian was the last
emperor of Constantinople, who, by his dominion over
the whole of Italy, reunited in some measure the two
principal portions of the ancient empire of the Cassars.
On the side of the East, his arms repelled the inroads
of Chosroes, and conquered Colchis; and the Negus,
or king of Abyssinia, entered into an alliance with
scm On the Danubian frontier, the Gepidrc, Lango-
bardi, Bulgarians, and other hordes, were either kept
in check or repulsed. The wars of his reign are re-
lated by Procopius and Agathias. --Justinian must bo
viewed also as an administrator and legislator of his
vast empire. In the first capacity he did some good
and much harm. He was both profuse and penurious;
personally inclined to justice, he often overlooked,
through weakness, the injustice of subalterns; he es-
tablished monopolies of certain branches of industry
and commerce, and increased the taxes.
But he in-
troduced the rearing of silkworms into Europe, and
the numerous edifices which he raised (mil. Isidorus
IV. ), and the towns which he repaired or fortified, at-
test his love for the arts, and his anxiety for the secu-
rity and welfare of hi* dominions. Procopiis ("De
adificiis Domini Justiniani") gives a notice of the
towns, churches (St. Sophia among the rest), convents,
bridges, roads, walls, and fortifications constructed or
repaired during his reign. The same Procopius, h w-
ever, wrote a secret history ('Avexdora) of the coort
and reign of Justinian, and his wife Theodora, both
of whom be paints in the darkest colours. Theodora,
indeed, was an unprincipled woman, with some abili-
ties, who exercised, till her death in 548, a great influ-
ence over the mind of Justinian, and many acts of op-
pression and cruelty were committed by her orders.
But yet the Anecdota of Procopius cannot be impli-
? ? citly trusted, as many of his charges are evidently
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? JUSTINUS.
JISTINUS.
fus, fee. --Hist. Bibl, vol. 3. p. 118. --Borkck, Mag-
asin fur Erklarung, d. Gr u. R, vol. 1, p. 180 --
KocX, }'iolcg. ad Thcopomp. Ckium. , Lips. , 1804, p.
13. --Heyne, de Trogi Pompeii tju$que cpitomatoris
Juitini fontibus, etc. , Comment. Soc. Reg. Gotling. ,
vol. 15, p. 183, scqq. ) In order thai the student may
be better enabled to appreciate the eitent of Trogus's
labours, we will now proceed to sketch an outline of
his work, as far as it has been determined by the re-
searches of modern scholars. Book 1. History of the
Asm nan. Median, and Persian empires, down to the
reign of Darius, son of Hystaspca. Book 2. Digression
respecting the Scythians, Amazons, and Athenians;
the kings of Athena, the legislation of Solon, the tyr-
anny of the Pisistratide, the expulsion of this family,
and the war with Persia which ensued, the battle of
Marathon, the history of Xerxes and of his contests
with the Greeks. Book 3. The accession of Arlaxcrx-
es. Digression respecting the Lacedemonians, the
legislation of Lycurgus, and the first Mcsseniau war.
Commencement of the Peloponncsian war. Book 4.
Continuation of the Peloponncsian war, expedition to
Sicily. Digression respecting Sicily. Book 5. Close
of the Pcloponnesian war. The thirty tyrants, and
their expulsion by Thrasybulus. The expedition of
the vounger Cyrus, and the retreat of the Ten Thou-
sand. Book 6. The expeditions of Dercyllidas and
Agesilaus into Asia. The Thehan war. The peace
of Anlalcidas. The exploits of Epaminondas. Philip
of Macedou begins to interfere in the affairs of Greece.
--In these lirst six books, which are to be regarded as
a kind of introduction to the history of the Macedo-
nian Empire, the true object of Tragus, his principal
guide was Theopompus. He has also occasionally
availed himself of the aid of Herodotus and Ctesias,
and even of that of the mythographers. --Book 7. Di-
gression respecting the condition of Macedonia ante-
rior to the reign of Philip. Book 8. History of Philip
and of the Sacred War. Book 9. End of the history
*f Philip. Book 10. Continuation and end of the Per-
lian history, under Artaxerxes Mnemon, Ochus, and
Darius Codomanus--In these four bosks Tragus ap-
pears tc have merely translated Theopompus. --Book
11. History of Alexander the Great, from his acces-
sion tcthe throne until the death of Darius. Book 12.
Occurrences in Greece during the absence of Alexan-
der: expeditions of this prince into Hyrcania and In-
dia. His death. --In these two books, no fact would
tppear to have been stated that is not also contained
in other works which have reached us. -- Books 13,
14, 15. History of the wars between the generals of
Alexander the Great, down to the death of Cassander.
Book 16. Continuation of the history of Macedonia to
the accession of Lysimachus. --This part of Justin's
history is so imperfect, that we find it impossible to
divine the sources whence Trogus derived his mate-
rials. It has been supposed, however, that the digres-
sions on Cyrene (13, 7) and Heraclea (16, 4) are ob-
tained from Theopompus, and that the episode on In-
dia (15, 4) is from Megasthenea. Book 17. History
of Lysimachus. Digression respecting Epirus before
the time of Pyrrhus. --As Justin shows himself, in
this book, very partial towards Seleucus, and the re-
verse towards Lysimachus, it has been conjectured
that Hicronymus of Cardia was the guide of Trogus
in this part of the original work. --Book 18. Wars of
Pyrrhus in Italy and Sicily. Digression respecting
? ? the ancient history of Carthage. Book 19. Wars of
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? JUSTINUS.
Jl'V
hu 'Dialogi. 3 with Tryphon. " On his return to Rome
be bad frequent disputes with Crescens, a Cyn-
ic jjuloeopher, in consequence of whose calumnies
h* published his second apology, which seems to have
been presented to the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, A. D.
162. It produced so little effect, that when Crescens
preferred against him a formal charge of impiety for
neglecting the pagan rites, he was conderrmed to be
scourged and then beheaded, which sentence was put
into execution A. D. 164, in the seventy-fourth or sev-
eniy-ri. 'th year of his age. It was eminently as a mar-
tyr or witness that Justin suffered; for he might have
sired his life had he consented to join in a sacrifice
to the heathen deities. Hence with his name has de-
scended the addition of ''The Martyr," a distinction
which, in a later age, was given to Peter, one of the
Protestant sufferers for the truth. Justin Martyr is
spoken of in high terms of praise by the ancient Chris-
tian writers, and was certainly a zealous and able ad-
vocate of Christianity, but mixed up its doctrines with
too much of his early Platonism. He was the first
father of the church who, regarding philosophy and
revealed religion as having emanated from the same
source, wished to establish between them an intimate
union. Justin was of opinion that Plato had derived
his doctrine, if not from the Sacred Writings of the
Jews, at least from the works of others who were ac-
quainted with these writings, and hence he concluded
that the system and the tenets of Plato could be easily
brought back to, and united with, the principles of
Christianity. All other systems of philosophy, how-
ever, except the Platonic, he utterly rejected, and
more particularly that of the Cynics. Even in the
Platonic scheme he combated one point, which is in
direct opposition to revelation, the doctrine of the
sternal duration of the world. There are several
valuable editions of his works, the best of which are,
that of Maran, Paris, 1742, fol. , and that of Oberlhiir,
VTartzturgh, 1777, 3 vols. 8vo. (Schbll, Hist. Lit.
6? . , vol. 5, p. 212. )--HI. The first, also called the
"Elder," an emperor of the East, born A. D. 450, of
Thracian origin. He abandoned the employment of
a shepherd for the profession of arms, and, passing
through the several military gradations, attained even-
tually to the highest dignities of the empire. On the
death of Anastasius (A D. 516) he held the command
j( the imperial guards, and was commissioned by
Amantius to distribute a sum of money among the
soldiers, in order to secure the elevation of one of the
creatures of the former. Justin did this, but in his
own name, and was in consequence himself proclaim-
ed emperor. Justin was sixty-eight years of age
when he ascended the throne. Being himself unin-
formed in civil affairs, he relied for the despatch of
the business of the state on the quaestor Proclus, a
faithful servant, and on his own nephew Justinian,
who had acquired a great ascendancy over his uncle.
By Justinian's advice, a reconciliation was effected
between the Greek and the Roman churches, A. D.
520. The murder of Vitalianus, who had been raised
to the consulship, but was stabbed at a banquet, casts
a dark shade upon the character of both Justin and
Justinian. In other respects Justin is represented by
historians as honest and equitable, though rude and
irwrustful. After a reign of nine years, being afflict ?
? id by an incurable wound, and having become weak
it mind and body, Justin abdicated in favour of his
? ? rephew, and died soon after, in A. D. 527. --IV. The
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? JCVENALIS.
IX!
mini imong the Latin satirists; although it nas been
supposed that he had him in view in the passage where
he remarks, " we possess at the present day some dis-
tinguished ones, whom we will name hereafter. " {Inst.
Or. , 10, 1. ) It was under Trajan that Juvenal wrote
the greater part of his satires: the thirteenth and fif-
teenth were composed under Hadrian, when the au-
thor wa* in his 79th year. Then for the first time he
recited his works in public, and met with the most
tr. bounded admiration. The seventh satire, however,
i volved him hi trouble. It was the one he had first
composed, and m it the poet had lashed the pantomime
Paris, the favourite of Domitian. Hadrian, who had
suffered a comedian of the day to acquire a great as-
cendancy over him, believed that the poet meant to
reflect upon this weakness of his, and resolved to have
revenge. Under pretext, therefore, of honouring the
old man, he named him prefect of a legion stationed
at Syene, in Egypt; according to others, at Pcntapo-
lis, in Libya; or, according to others again, he was
? ent to one of the Oases, an ordinary abode of exiles.
He died a few years after, in this honourable exile. --
We have sixteen satires from the pen of Juvenal. In
some editions they are divided into five books, of which
'. he first contains five satires; the second one; the
third three; the fourth three; and the fifth four. If
we may judge of the character of a writer from his
works, Juvenal was a man of rigid probity, and wor-
thy of living in a better and purer age. His satires
everywhere >>? sathe a love of virtue and abhorrence
of vice. Differing widely in this respect from Per-
sius, he does not give himself up to the principles of
one particular school of philosophy; he paints, on the
contrary, in strong and glowing colours, the hypocrisy
and the vices of the pretended philosophers of his time,
and especially of the Stoic sect, to whose failings Per-
siua had shut his eyes. He differs, moreover, from
this last-mentioned satirist in hot borrowing from the
schools of philosophy the arms with which he attacked
Ihetr failings: he found these abundantly supplied by
lr. > resources of his own genius, by the experience
m:. ;h a long acquaintance with the world had gained
"or him, and by the indignation which warmed his bo-
som on contemplating the gross corruption of the times.
His genius in some respect resembled that of Horace,
out a long-established habit of familiarity with rhetor-
ical subjects produced an influence on his general man-
ner, which is infinitely graver than that of the friend of
Maecenas. Horace laughs at the follies of his age;
Juvenal glows with indignation at the vices of his own.
The former passes rapidly from one topic to another,
and seems, as it were, led onward by his subject; Ju-
venal, on the contrary, follows a regular and method-
ical plan; he treats his subject according to the rules
of the oratorical art, and is careful never to lose the
thread of his discourse. The distinctive character of
Juvenal's satire is a passionate hatred of, and an inex-
orable severity towards vice, and on this theme he
never indulges in pleasantry; neither does any digres-
sion ever lead him off from the object which he has in
view. It is this manner that gives to the satires of
Juvenal a certain appearance of dryness, which form a
direct contrast lo the agreeable variety that pervades
the satires of Horace. A circumstance extremely fa-
vourable to the literary reputation of Juvenal is to be
found in the fact, of his not having dared to publish his
satires until an advanced period of life. Hence he
? ? was enabled to revise and retouch them, to purify his
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? LAB
L AH
<<. ia:sty on the part of those who, having committed
homicide, were admitted to the house and table of the
prince, who consented to perform the rites by which
the guilt of the offender was supposed to be removed.
The extremest case is given, by making Ixion, that is,
the Suppliant, and the first shedder of kindred blood,
as he is expressly called (the Cain of Greece), act with
such base ingratitude towards the king of the gods him-
self, who, according to the simple earnestness of early
cylhology, is represented, like an earthly prince, re-
ceiving his suppliant into his house or at his board.
The punishment inflicted was suited to the offence,
ind calculated to strike with awe the minds of the
hearers.
the birthplace of two of the greatest lyric poets of
Greece, Simonides and his nephew Bacchylides; also
of Erasislratus the physician, and Ariston the Peripa-
tetic philosopher. (Strabo, 486. ) It is said that the
laws of this town decreed that every man, on reaching
his sixtieth year, should destroy himself by poison, in
order to leave to others a sufficient maintenance.
This ordinance is said to have been first promulgated
when the town was besieged by the Athenians. (Stra-
bo, I. c. --Hcracl. , Pont. Polit. fragm. , 9. --Mlian. , V.
H. , 3, 37. --Cramer'* Anc. Greece, vol. 3, p. 402. )
Julius, I. Cassar. (Vid. Csesar. )--II. Agricola, a
governor of Britain. (Vid. Agricola. ) -- III. Obse-
quens. (Vid. Obsequens. )-- IV. Solinus, a writer.
(Vid. Solinus. )--V. Titianus, a writer. (Vid. Titia-
nus. )--VI. Africanus, a chronologer. (Vid. Africa-
nus I. ) -- VII. Pollux, a grammarian of Naucratis, in
Egypt. (Vid. Pollux. )
Iulus, I. the name of Ascanius, the son of -Eneas.
(Vid. Ascanius. )--II. A son of Ascanius, born in La-
vinium. In the succession to the kingdom of Alba,
jEncas Sylvius, the son of . rEneas and Lavinia, was
? ? preferred to him. He was, however, made chief priest.
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? Jt PITER.
ta inas imply formed. She ii attired in a tunic and
mantle. --The term 'H/m is evidently the feminine of
'lf,wr, anciently 'H-jnr, and thus they answer to each
other as the Latin Hcria and //era, and the German
Hen and Herrin, and therefore signified master and
miitrcst. --The name JUNO, on the other hand, i<<
evidently derived from the Greek AIU. NH, the female
AI? or ZET2--The quarrels of Jupiter and Juno in
the Homeric mythology are evidently mere physical
xllejones, Jupiter denoting the aether or upper regions
of air, and Juno the lower strata, or our atmosphere.
Hence the discord and strife that so often prevail be-
tween the king and queeu of Olympus, the master and
mistress of the universe, 'are merely so many types of
ihe storms that disturb our atmosphere, and the ever-
varying changes that characterize the latter are plainly
indicated by the capricious and quick-changing tem-
per of the spouse of Jove. At a later period, how-
ever, a new element appears to have entered into the
mythology of Juno. The Earth, as the recipient of
fertilizing showers from the atmosphere, became in a
manner identified with the spouse of Father . . Ether;
and we find Juno, now resembling in many of her at-
tributes both Cybele and Ceres, appearing at one time
as Earth, at another as the passive productive princi-
ple. Hence the consecration of the cow to Juno,
just as, in the religion of the ancient Germans, the
cow was assigned to the service of the goddess Her-
tha or Earth. At Argos, the chariot in which the
priestess of Juno rode was drawn by oxen. (Herod. ,
I, 31. ) Cows were also sacred to the Egyptian Isis,
the goddess of fertility, and who resembles in some
of her attributes the Grecian Ceres (Knight, En-
quiry into the Symt. Lang. , &c. , It 36. --Classical
Joxrn. , vol. 23, p. 227. --Keightley'a Mythology, p.
ffi,ic<ij. --Constant, de la Religion, vol. 1, p. 198. )
Jnsosit, one of the Canary islands, or Insulae For-
um*. It is now Palma. '(Pirn. . 6, 32. )
. ], -. DM-, PROMONTORIUM, a promontory of Spain, on
he Atlantic side of the Straits of Gibraltar. It is now
Cape Trafalgar. (Mela, 2, 6. )
JCPITEK, the supreme Roman deity, identical with
Jie Grecian Zeif (Zeus). --Jupiter was the eldest son
of Saturn and Rbea. He and his brothers, Neptune
ind Pluto, divided the world by lot between them,
uid the portion which fell to him was the " extensive
waven in air and clouds. " (//. , 13, 355. ) All the
H'nal phenomena, such as thunder and lightning, wind,
floods, snow, and rainbows, are therefore ascribed to
liim, and he sends them either as signs and warnings,
or to punish the transgressions of man, especially the
perversions of law and justice, of which he is the
fountain. (//. , 1, 238, seqq. ) Jupiter is called the
"father of men and gods;" his power over both is
represented as supreme, and his will is fate. Earthly
monarchs obtain their authority from him (//. , 2, 197,
JOS); they arc but his vicegerents, and are distin-
guished by epithets derived from his name; such as
JoK-tpntng(&ur/evqt), Jove-reared (Atorpe^f). Jote-
klmcJ. . i. Mji/. r). In his palace on Olympus, Jove
lives like a Grecian prince in the midst of his family:
> tocalions and quarrels occur between him and his
;ni i ii, JUKI, and though, in general, kind and affec-
tionate to his children, he occasionally menaces or
treats them with rigour. --In the Odyssey, the char-
<<cUsr of this god is, agreeably to the more moral
lone of that poem, of a higher and more dignified or-
aer. No indecent altercations occur; both gods and
? ? pien submit to hia power without a murmur, yet he
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? JUPITER.
JUPITER.
der ihe greatest diversity of forms. --It was the habit
of the Greeks to appropriate particular plants and an-
imals to the service of their deities. There was gen-
erally some reason for this, founded on physical or
moral grounds, or on both. Nothing could be more
natural than to assign the oak (<j>riyt'K, quercus ascu-
'm), the monarch of trees, to the celestial king, whose
ancient oracle, moreover, was in the oak-woods of Do-
dona. In like manner, the eagle was evidently the
bird best siited to his service. The celebrated Agis,
the shield which sent forth thunder, lightning, and dark-
ness, and struck terror into mortal hearts, was formed
for Jupiter by Vulcan. In Homer we see it sometimes
bome by Apollo (//. , 15, 508) and sometimes by Mi-
nerva (A. , 5, 738--Orf. , 22, 297). --The most famous
temple of Jupiter was at Olympia in Elis, where, every
fourth year, the Olympic Games were celebrated in
nis honour; he had also a splendid fane in the island
of jEgina. But, though there were few deities less
honoured with temples and statues, all the inhabitants
of Hellas conspired in the duty of doing homage to the
sovereign of the gods. His great oracle was at Dodo-
na, where, even in the Pelasgian period, the Selli an-
nounced his will and the secrets of futurity. (/. '. , 16,
233. )--Jupiter was represented by artists as the model
of dignity and majesty of mien; his countenance grave
but mild. He is seated on a throne, and grasping his
sceptre and thunder. The eagle is standing beside
the throne. --An inquiry, of which the object should be
to select and unite all the parts of the Greek mythol-
ogy that have reference to natural phenomena and
the changes of the seasons, although it has never been
regularly undertaken, would doubtless show, that the
earliest religion of the Greeks was founded on the
same notions as the chief part of the religions of the
East, particularly of that part of the East which was
nearest to Greece, namely, Asia Minor. The Greek
mind, however, even in this the earliest of its produc-
tions, appears richer and more various in its forms,
and, at the same time, to take a loftier and wider range,
than is the case in the religion of the Oriental neigh-
oours of the Greeks, the Phrygians, Lydians, and Syr-
ians. In the religion of these nations, the combina-
tion and contrast of two beings (Baal and Astarte), the
one male, representing the productive, and the other
female, representing the passive and nutritive powers
of Nature; and the alternation of two states, namely,
the strength and vigour, and the weakness and death,
of the n. ale personification of Nature, the firs', of which
was celebrated with vehement joy, the latter with ex-
cessive lamentation, recur in a perpetual cycle, that
must have wearied and stupificd the mind. The Gre-
cian worship of Nature, on the other hand, in all the
various forms which it asaumed in different quarters,
places one Deity, as the highest of all, at the head of the
entire system, the God of heaven and light, the Father
JElher of the Latin poets. That this is the true mean-
ing of the name Zeus (Jupiter) is shown by the occur-
rence of the same root (DIU), with the same significa-
tion, even in tho Sanscrit, and by the preservation of
several of its derivatives, which remained in common
use both in Greek and Latin, all containing the no-
tion of Heaven and Day. The root DIU is most clearly
seen in the oblique cases of Zeus, AtFoc, AiFi, in which
theU hn passed into the consonant form F(Digam-
ma); whereas in Zevc, as in other Greek words, the
sound DI has passed into Z, and the vowel has been
? ? lengthened. In the Latin Jmis (late in Umbrian) the
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? JUS
jus
niorphoscs, he is transmuted into the messenger of
Zeus and the servant of the gods. {Mullcr, Hist.
Gr. Lit. , p. 13, seqq. )
Jura, a chain a$ mountains, which, extending from
the Rhodanas or Rhone to the Khenus or Rhine,
separated Helvetia from the territory of the Seqaani.
The name ia said to be in Celtic, Jourag, and to sig-
nify the domain of God or Jupiter. The most ele-
vated parts cf the chain are the Dole, 5082 feet above
the level of the sea; the Mont Tendre, 5170; and the
Reeulet (the summit of the Thotry), 5196. (Plin. , 3,
4 Cos. , B. C. , 1, i. --Plol. , 2, 9. )
JusTiNi. iNus, FlavTos, born near Sardica in Mcesia,
A. D. 482 or 483, of obscure parents, was nephew by
his mother's side to Justinus, afterward emperor. The
elevation of his oncle to the imperial throne, A. D. 518,
decided the fortune of Justinian, who, having been
educated at Constantinople, had given proofs of con-
siderable capacity and application. Justinus was igno-
rant and old, and the advice and exertions of his neph-
ew were of great service to hirn during the nine years
of his reign. He adopted Justinian as his colleague,
and at length, a few months before his death, feeling
that his end was approaching, he crowned him in pres-
ence of the patriarch and senators, and made over the
imperial authority to him, in April, 527. Justinian was
then in his 45th year, and he reigned above 38 years,
(ill November, 565, when he died. His long reign
forms a remarkable epoch in the history of the world.
Although himself unwarlike, yet, by means of his
able generals, Belisarius and Narses, he completely
defeated the Vandals and the Goths, and reunited
Italy and Africa to the empire. Justinian was the last
emperor of Constantinople, who, by his dominion over
the whole of Italy, reunited in some measure the two
principal portions of the ancient empire of the Cassars.
On the side of the East, his arms repelled the inroads
of Chosroes, and conquered Colchis; and the Negus,
or king of Abyssinia, entered into an alliance with
scm On the Danubian frontier, the Gepidrc, Lango-
bardi, Bulgarians, and other hordes, were either kept
in check or repulsed. The wars of his reign are re-
lated by Procopius and Agathias. --Justinian must bo
viewed also as an administrator and legislator of his
vast empire. In the first capacity he did some good
and much harm. He was both profuse and penurious;
personally inclined to justice, he often overlooked,
through weakness, the injustice of subalterns; he es-
tablished monopolies of certain branches of industry
and commerce, and increased the taxes.
But he in-
troduced the rearing of silkworms into Europe, and
the numerous edifices which he raised (mil. Isidorus
IV. ), and the towns which he repaired or fortified, at-
test his love for the arts, and his anxiety for the secu-
rity and welfare of hi* dominions. Procopiis ("De
adificiis Domini Justiniani") gives a notice of the
towns, churches (St. Sophia among the rest), convents,
bridges, roads, walls, and fortifications constructed or
repaired during his reign. The same Procopius, h w-
ever, wrote a secret history ('Avexdora) of the coort
and reign of Justinian, and his wife Theodora, both
of whom be paints in the darkest colours. Theodora,
indeed, was an unprincipled woman, with some abili-
ties, who exercised, till her death in 548, a great influ-
ence over the mind of Justinian, and many acts of op-
pression and cruelty were committed by her orders.
But yet the Anecdota of Procopius cannot be impli-
? ? citly trusted, as many of his charges are evidently
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? JUSTINUS.
JISTINUS.
fus, fee. --Hist. Bibl, vol. 3. p. 118. --Borkck, Mag-
asin fur Erklarung, d. Gr u. R, vol. 1, p. 180 --
KocX, }'iolcg. ad Thcopomp. Ckium. , Lips. , 1804, p.
13. --Heyne, de Trogi Pompeii tju$que cpitomatoris
Juitini fontibus, etc. , Comment. Soc. Reg. Gotling. ,
vol. 15, p. 183, scqq. ) In order thai the student may
be better enabled to appreciate the eitent of Trogus's
labours, we will now proceed to sketch an outline of
his work, as far as it has been determined by the re-
searches of modern scholars. Book 1. History of the
Asm nan. Median, and Persian empires, down to the
reign of Darius, son of Hystaspca. Book 2. Digression
respecting the Scythians, Amazons, and Athenians;
the kings of Athena, the legislation of Solon, the tyr-
anny of the Pisistratide, the expulsion of this family,
and the war with Persia which ensued, the battle of
Marathon, the history of Xerxes and of his contests
with the Greeks. Book 3. The accession of Arlaxcrx-
es. Digression respecting the Lacedemonians, the
legislation of Lycurgus, and the first Mcsseniau war.
Commencement of the Peloponncsian war. Book 4.
Continuation of the Peloponncsian war, expedition to
Sicily. Digression respecting Sicily. Book 5. Close
of the Pcloponnesian war. The thirty tyrants, and
their expulsion by Thrasybulus. The expedition of
the vounger Cyrus, and the retreat of the Ten Thou-
sand. Book 6. The expeditions of Dercyllidas and
Agesilaus into Asia. The Thehan war. The peace
of Anlalcidas. The exploits of Epaminondas. Philip
of Macedou begins to interfere in the affairs of Greece.
--In these lirst six books, which are to be regarded as
a kind of introduction to the history of the Macedo-
nian Empire, the true object of Tragus, his principal
guide was Theopompus. He has also occasionally
availed himself of the aid of Herodotus and Ctesias,
and even of that of the mythographers. --Book 7. Di-
gression respecting the condition of Macedonia ante-
rior to the reign of Philip. Book 8. History of Philip
and of the Sacred War. Book 9. End of the history
*f Philip. Book 10. Continuation and end of the Per-
lian history, under Artaxerxes Mnemon, Ochus, and
Darius Codomanus--In these four bosks Tragus ap-
pears tc have merely translated Theopompus. --Book
11. History of Alexander the Great, from his acces-
sion tcthe throne until the death of Darius. Book 12.
Occurrences in Greece during the absence of Alexan-
der: expeditions of this prince into Hyrcania and In-
dia. His death. --In these two books, no fact would
tppear to have been stated that is not also contained
in other works which have reached us. -- Books 13,
14, 15. History of the wars between the generals of
Alexander the Great, down to the death of Cassander.
Book 16. Continuation of the history of Macedonia to
the accession of Lysimachus. --This part of Justin's
history is so imperfect, that we find it impossible to
divine the sources whence Trogus derived his mate-
rials. It has been supposed, however, that the digres-
sions on Cyrene (13, 7) and Heraclea (16, 4) are ob-
tained from Theopompus, and that the episode on In-
dia (15, 4) is from Megasthenea. Book 17. History
of Lysimachus. Digression respecting Epirus before
the time of Pyrrhus. --As Justin shows himself, in
this book, very partial towards Seleucus, and the re-
verse towards Lysimachus, it has been conjectured
that Hicronymus of Cardia was the guide of Trogus
in this part of the original work. --Book 18. Wars of
Pyrrhus in Italy and Sicily. Digression respecting
? ? the ancient history of Carthage. Book 19. Wars of
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? JUSTINUS.
Jl'V
hu 'Dialogi. 3 with Tryphon. " On his return to Rome
be bad frequent disputes with Crescens, a Cyn-
ic jjuloeopher, in consequence of whose calumnies
h* published his second apology, which seems to have
been presented to the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, A. D.
162. It produced so little effect, that when Crescens
preferred against him a formal charge of impiety for
neglecting the pagan rites, he was conderrmed to be
scourged and then beheaded, which sentence was put
into execution A. D. 164, in the seventy-fourth or sev-
eniy-ri. 'th year of his age. It was eminently as a mar-
tyr or witness that Justin suffered; for he might have
sired his life had he consented to join in a sacrifice
to the heathen deities. Hence with his name has de-
scended the addition of ''The Martyr," a distinction
which, in a later age, was given to Peter, one of the
Protestant sufferers for the truth. Justin Martyr is
spoken of in high terms of praise by the ancient Chris-
tian writers, and was certainly a zealous and able ad-
vocate of Christianity, but mixed up its doctrines with
too much of his early Platonism. He was the first
father of the church who, regarding philosophy and
revealed religion as having emanated from the same
source, wished to establish between them an intimate
union. Justin was of opinion that Plato had derived
his doctrine, if not from the Sacred Writings of the
Jews, at least from the works of others who were ac-
quainted with these writings, and hence he concluded
that the system and the tenets of Plato could be easily
brought back to, and united with, the principles of
Christianity. All other systems of philosophy, how-
ever, except the Platonic, he utterly rejected, and
more particularly that of the Cynics. Even in the
Platonic scheme he combated one point, which is in
direct opposition to revelation, the doctrine of the
sternal duration of the world. There are several
valuable editions of his works, the best of which are,
that of Maran, Paris, 1742, fol. , and that of Oberlhiir,
VTartzturgh, 1777, 3 vols. 8vo. (Schbll, Hist. Lit.
6? . , vol. 5, p. 212. )--HI. The first, also called the
"Elder," an emperor of the East, born A. D. 450, of
Thracian origin. He abandoned the employment of
a shepherd for the profession of arms, and, passing
through the several military gradations, attained even-
tually to the highest dignities of the empire. On the
death of Anastasius (A D. 516) he held the command
j( the imperial guards, and was commissioned by
Amantius to distribute a sum of money among the
soldiers, in order to secure the elevation of one of the
creatures of the former. Justin did this, but in his
own name, and was in consequence himself proclaim-
ed emperor. Justin was sixty-eight years of age
when he ascended the throne. Being himself unin-
formed in civil affairs, he relied for the despatch of
the business of the state on the quaestor Proclus, a
faithful servant, and on his own nephew Justinian,
who had acquired a great ascendancy over his uncle.
By Justinian's advice, a reconciliation was effected
between the Greek and the Roman churches, A. D.
520. The murder of Vitalianus, who had been raised
to the consulship, but was stabbed at a banquet, casts
a dark shade upon the character of both Justin and
Justinian. In other respects Justin is represented by
historians as honest and equitable, though rude and
irwrustful. After a reign of nine years, being afflict ?
? id by an incurable wound, and having become weak
it mind and body, Justin abdicated in favour of his
? ? rephew, and died soon after, in A. D. 527. --IV. The
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? JCVENALIS.
IX!
mini imong the Latin satirists; although it nas been
supposed that he had him in view in the passage where
he remarks, " we possess at the present day some dis-
tinguished ones, whom we will name hereafter. " {Inst.
Or. , 10, 1. ) It was under Trajan that Juvenal wrote
the greater part of his satires: the thirteenth and fif-
teenth were composed under Hadrian, when the au-
thor wa* in his 79th year. Then for the first time he
recited his works in public, and met with the most
tr. bounded admiration. The seventh satire, however,
i volved him hi trouble. It was the one he had first
composed, and m it the poet had lashed the pantomime
Paris, the favourite of Domitian. Hadrian, who had
suffered a comedian of the day to acquire a great as-
cendancy over him, believed that the poet meant to
reflect upon this weakness of his, and resolved to have
revenge. Under pretext, therefore, of honouring the
old man, he named him prefect of a legion stationed
at Syene, in Egypt; according to others, at Pcntapo-
lis, in Libya; or, according to others again, he was
? ent to one of the Oases, an ordinary abode of exiles.
He died a few years after, in this honourable exile. --
We have sixteen satires from the pen of Juvenal. In
some editions they are divided into five books, of which
'. he first contains five satires; the second one; the
third three; the fourth three; and the fifth four. If
we may judge of the character of a writer from his
works, Juvenal was a man of rigid probity, and wor-
thy of living in a better and purer age. His satires
everywhere >>? sathe a love of virtue and abhorrence
of vice. Differing widely in this respect from Per-
sius, he does not give himself up to the principles of
one particular school of philosophy; he paints, on the
contrary, in strong and glowing colours, the hypocrisy
and the vices of the pretended philosophers of his time,
and especially of the Stoic sect, to whose failings Per-
siua had shut his eyes. He differs, moreover, from
this last-mentioned satirist in hot borrowing from the
schools of philosophy the arms with which he attacked
Ihetr failings: he found these abundantly supplied by
lr. > resources of his own genius, by the experience
m:. ;h a long acquaintance with the world had gained
"or him, and by the indignation which warmed his bo-
som on contemplating the gross corruption of the times.
His genius in some respect resembled that of Horace,
out a long-established habit of familiarity with rhetor-
ical subjects produced an influence on his general man-
ner, which is infinitely graver than that of the friend of
Maecenas. Horace laughs at the follies of his age;
Juvenal glows with indignation at the vices of his own.
The former passes rapidly from one topic to another,
and seems, as it were, led onward by his subject; Ju-
venal, on the contrary, follows a regular and method-
ical plan; he treats his subject according to the rules
of the oratorical art, and is careful never to lose the
thread of his discourse. The distinctive character of
Juvenal's satire is a passionate hatred of, and an inex-
orable severity towards vice, and on this theme he
never indulges in pleasantry; neither does any digres-
sion ever lead him off from the object which he has in
view. It is this manner that gives to the satires of
Juvenal a certain appearance of dryness, which form a
direct contrast lo the agreeable variety that pervades
the satires of Horace. A circumstance extremely fa-
vourable to the literary reputation of Juvenal is to be
found in the fact, of his not having dared to publish his
satires until an advanced period of life. Hence he
? ? was enabled to revise and retouch them, to purify his
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? LAB
L AH
<<. ia:sty on the part of those who, having committed
homicide, were admitted to the house and table of the
prince, who consented to perform the rites by which
the guilt of the offender was supposed to be removed.
The extremest case is given, by making Ixion, that is,
the Suppliant, and the first shedder of kindred blood,
as he is expressly called (the Cain of Greece), act with
such base ingratitude towards the king of the gods him-
self, who, according to the simple earnestness of early
cylhology, is represented, like an earthly prince, re-
ceiving his suppliant into his house or at his board.
The punishment inflicted was suited to the offence,
ind calculated to strike with awe the minds of the
hearers.
