Artifice pushed so far became dan-
gerously obvious and it led finally to a crowding of denouements that
was even bewildering.
gerously obvious and it led finally to a crowding of denouements that
was even bewildering.
Ovid - 1934 - Metamorphoses in European Culture - v1
While coursing through Arcadia,
the Alpheus had a peculiar habit of disappearing underground and
then emerging unimpaired some distance farther on. And so the
Greeks imagined that he could follow Diana even to Ortygia. Instead
of mingling with the Adriatic, they said, he disappeared under Jhe
salt water and rose still fresh by the shores of the Sicilian isle. To
this myth Pindar alluded in a Nemean Ode.
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? ARETHUSA
With the advance of Greek civilization Diana became increasingly
important as a great maiden goddess. The idea of her being hard
pressed by Alpheus was no longer acceptable. But the Eleans were
familiar with such myths about her attendants. Daphne and Syrinx
had both been virgin huntresses who barely escaped the pursuit of a
divine lover. Hence they imagined that another attendant of Diana
had fled Alpheus and taken refuge in Ortygia. At Pisa in Elis there
was a spring called Arethusa, and the Elean colonists had given the
name also to a large spring which rose mysteriously near the shore
of Ortygia. It occurred to them that the huntress, unable to escape
by flight, could have become the Elean spring and then passed under-
ground to their island. And they imagined that Alpheus overtook
Arethusa at the place where the spring overflowed into the sea.
This version of the story became very well known. Callimachus may
have told it briefly in his account of Proserpina. Moschus alluded to
it; and Vergil mentioned it in both the Tenth Eclogue and the Aeneid.
In the Georgics Vergil introduced Arethusa under circumstances both
new and interesting. He said that she was once a fleet huntress but
had laid aside her arrows and become an attendant of Cyrene. When
Aristseus called on his mother, Arethusa was the first to raise her
golden head above the waves and heed the cry of distress.
Callimachus had made it natural to associate Arethusa with the
loss of Proserpina. Vergil had implied that she was quick to heed and
relieve the distressed. Therefore Ovid showed her intervening between
Ceres and the famine stricken people of Sicily. Vergil suggested also
Ovid's two descriptions of the manner in which she raised her head
above the waters. Ovid was able, however, to add further details and
give an even more pleasing effect. Callimachus and Vergil offered a
few hints as to the nature of the story. But Ovid himself had to
supply the animation and brilliant detail.
Profiting by the similar myths of Daphne and Syrinx, he described
Arethusa as beautiful yet averse to love and devoted to the chase. He
showed her hunting in the Stymphalian Wood, a place familiar through
the adventures of Hercules (cf. Bk. 9), and descending at noon to the
clear shady stream of Alpheus. In reality the Stymphalian Wood lay
very far from the river Alpheus; but Ovid could assume that his read-
ers would not inquire so curiously. The young Hermaphroditus, he
remembered, had been tempted to bathe in a similar pleasing body of
water and had won the love of the water spirit (Bk. 4). He imagined
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? METAMORPHOSES -- BOOK V
a similar adventure of Arethusa, giving it appropriately different
details. But Arethusa was able to gain the shore and flee. Alpheus
left the stream and pursued.
Ovid indicated briefly a long, eager chase through Arcadia into Elis
with the pursuer at last on the point of overtaking the terrified nymph.
Daphne had felt the god's breath on her hair and appealed desperately
for aid. Ovid repeated this in the case of Arethusa. Then he imag-
ined the sudden mist shrouding her from the god and her rapid melting
into a stream. This change afforded him not only vivid description
but an interesting contrast with the earlier transformation of Cyane.
Ovid pictured Alpheus as understanding the ruse and himself deli-
quescing in pursuit. Thus it became necessary for Diana to open the
earth and conduct the nymph by way of Hades to Ortygia. Tradition
had allowed Alpheus to follow and overtake Arethusa, and in the
Amores Ovid himself mentioned this event. But in the Metamorphoses
he wisely implied the contrary.
Ovid's brilliant myth attracted a number of later authors. Hilde-
bert of Lavardin, a Latin poet of the twelfth century, gracefully imi-
tated the incident of Arethusa bathing for his account of Susannah.
In the Inferno Dante alluded conspicuously to the transformation of
Arethusa. From her Tasso took the character of Dafne, heroine of
his Aminta. Spenser followed Ovid in part for the tale of a huntress
changed into a spring, which the Palmer recounted to Sir Guyon.
Pope in Windsor Forest borrowed details of the pursuit for his myth
of Lodona. And to Shelley Ovid probably gave at least the subject of
his very original poem Arethusa.
At Rouen Ovid's myth inspired the sculpture of a public fountain.
Triptolemus and Lyncus
It had been usual to suppose that Ceres, comforted by the presence
of her daughter, restored fertility in the famine stricken fields. Ovid
added a further circumstance. Not content, he said, with renewing
agriculture where it had existed already, she extended the knowledge
of grain into new countries. Hitherto this had been told as a separate
event.
The earlier part of the myth grew out of a world-wide fear among
savage tribes that their children might suffer from witchcraft and
evil spells. In almost all countries it was thought an effective remedy
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? TRIPTOLEMUS AND LYNCUS
to pass the newborn child over the fire, bringing him as near as pos-
sible to the flames. Such a rite was dangerous; and a slight error
might be fatal to the child. Hence any sudden noise or interruption
was strictly forbidden. If a deity were to perform the rite, it was
thought possible, and even more beneficial, to lay the child in the fire
itself.
Out of such practices, there grew an important event in the Egyp-
tian myth of Isis. While seeking her lost husband, Isis took the dis-
guise of an old woman and sat mourning by the well of Byblus. Here
the King's daughters took pity on her and persuaded her to return
with them as nurse of their infant brother. Grateful for the kindness,
she planned to give the child supernatural protection. By day she
offered him no food but allowed him to suck her finger. By night she
laid him in the fire. But one night the queen observed the process and
cried out in alarm. This broke the spell and frustrated the divine pur-
pose. Isis revealed herself, however, and taught the king certain other
famous rites.
The Greeks related the idea of protection through exposure to fire
with a belief that under certain conditions it was possible to burn
away the perishable elements in a man's nature and leave him a pure
immortal spirit. This belief Ovid was to introduce later in his account
of Hercules (Bk. 9). Probably influenced by the myth of Isis, the
two ideas appeared in a similar adventure of Ceres. It was related at
some length in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter. While in quest of
Proserpina, the goddess took the form of an old woman and sat by
the well of Eleusis. Here the four daughters of King Celeus pitied her
and arranged to have her nurse their infant brother, Demophoon.
Ceres, too, gave the infant supernatural care. Instead of offering him
food, she anointed him with ambrosia and by night she laid him in
the fire, with the idea of giving him immortality. In this case, too,
the mother broke the spell. The goddess predicted, however, that the
child should obtain unusual honor. She then taught the Eleusinian
Mysteries to Celeus and his leading men, among whom was a certain
Triptolemus.
In the fifth century B. C. , Triptolemus had gained a much more
prominent place. He now was regarded as a child of King Celeus.
While he was still a very young man, it was said, the goddess allowed
him to ride in her magic car and caused him to go out from Athens
and teach all peoples the cultivation of grain. Sophocles made
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? METAMORPHOSES -- BOOK V
Triptolemus the theme of his earliest tragedy. In Greek art the myth
was long popular. At Eleusis a beautiful relief showed the youth
standing between Ceres and Proserpina and obtaining from the elder
goddess the ears of grain which he was to distribute through the world.
Other works of art represented him as traveling through the air in
her magic car. Sometimes this was provided with wings. At other
times two dragons were shown drawing it rapidly between earth and
sky.
Following the newer tradition, the Manual declared Triptolemus an
older brother of the infant Demophoon. When the queen interrupted
the purification, it continued, Demophoon perished in the flames. But
the goddess transferred her favor to Triptolemus and sent him forth
as teacher of the art of agriculture.
Callimachus gave the myth a quite different form. He made
Triptolemus himself the infant nursling. Celeus he represented not
as a king but as an old and pious farmer. And he retold the myth
as a tale of humble life. Celeus and his daughter, returning from their
labor in the fields, found Ceres by the well of Eleusis and persuaded her
to pass the night in their simple home. Triptolemus was then lying
sick and at the point of death. The goddess healed him and later
tried to give him immortality by laying him in the fire. Prevented by
the mother's interference, she declared that he should be the first to
teach the raising of grain.
Among Roman poets the myth of Triptolemus was well known.
Lucretius noted that from Athens there first came laws and grain.
Vergil alluded to the mission of Triptolemus in both his Culex and his
Georgics. And in both the Amores^nd the Tristia Ovid longed for
the young man's dragon car. In the Fasti he was to repeat at some
length the version of Callimachus.
For the Metamorphoses this account "would have been unsuitable.
If Triptolemus himself had been the nursling, he must be a mere infant.
Ovid assumed with the Manual that he had been an older brother and
imagined him as the youth well known in works of art. Feeling con-
fident that Triptolemus would be immediately recognized, Ovid intro-
duced him abruptly without attempting any identification. And he
proceeded at once to the mission. After hearing the tale of Arethusa,
he said, Ceres flew to Athens and despatched Triptolemus in her car,
telling him not only to restore the losses of the famine but also to
teach agriculture in lands where hitherto it was unknown.
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? TRIPTOLEMUS AND LYNCUS
The idea of such a mission was picturesque, but Ovid used it chiefly
for the sake of one little known incident. Nicander had given this as
follows: In Scythia Triptolemus visited the court of a certain
King Lyncus. Learning his purpose, the king resolved to kill the
youth while he slept and himself get the credit of introducing grain.
He attempted this and Ceres transformed him into a lynx. This tale
Ovid repeated. Nicander added that the beast had spotted fur as an
emblem of the king's fickle mind. But, since the characteristic was not
evident from the story, Ovid wisely left it out.
The myth of Triptolemus and Lyncus drew little attention in later
times. Yet it was recalled quite interestingly by Scott. In his novel,
The Pirate, Scott had occasion to describe an agent despatched to
improve agriculture in the uncivilized north. And, recalling Ovid, he
named this character Triptolemus Yellowleigh.
While writing the Fifth Book, Ovid used a few tales, such as the
myths of Polydectes and Proserpina, which were of early origin and
often treated in Greek literature. But he took them from compara-
tively late versions. Most of the tales appeared first in Alexandrian
times. Callimachus furnished Ovid several of the best, and Nicander
provided many stories, which were valuable chiefly as incidents. The
Manual gave the mere outline for the material about Perseus and a
few episodes of the later tales. Throughout the book Greek art was of
considerable importance. None of this Greek material was known to
the Middle Ages and much of it perished altogether. And although
the tales were well known at Rome, they received little notice from
previous Roman literature. It was Ovid who preserved and made
them accessible for later times.
In Ovid's hands this earlier material gained very much. He im-
proved it by the example of other great poetry. The Iliad and the
Odyssey contributed frequently to the battle of Perseus and Phineusv
Vergil aided much both in the battle and in the story of Proserpina and
gave most valuable suggestions for Arethusa. Tibullus and Varro of
Atax provided attractive incident. With ideas from his own earlier
tales Ovid enlivened the important stories of Arethusa and Proserpina.
And, even more than usual, he profited by his own experience and in-
vention.
In the latter half of the book, Ovid found an unusually difficult
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? METAMORPHOSES -- BOOK V
problem of adjustment. Several tales had been related to one another
by material which he needed for the Fasti and did not wish to repeat
And many tales were not related to one another at all. Ovid resorted
*o a device which had proved effective in the earlier half of the previous
book. He enclosed one story within another. But here he did this
more elaborately than anywhere else in his poem. In his own person
he told how Pallas visited the Muses. During the visit he allowed the
Muse Urania to narrate first the adventure with Pj'reneus and then
the contest with the Pierids. The latter included both the song of the
Pierid and Calliope's reply. Each of these permitted further en-
closure, for the Pierid recounted the war of the Giants and the flight
from Typhoeus, and Calliope sang of Proserpina, Arethusa, and
Triptolemus. But the process did not end even there, for the myth of
Proserpina comprised four lesser tales, and the mission of
Triptolemus included an adventure with Lyncus. A solution of this
kind must bring disadvantage.
Artifice pushed so far became dan-
gerously obvious and it led finally to a crowding of denouements that
was even bewildering. Thus Ovid made three stories end together with
the transformation of Lyncus: immediately after he closed two more
simultaneously with the metamorphosis of the Pierids; and he avoided
still another termination only by the mechanical trick of concluding
the book. Nevertheless Ovid's boldness was justified by success.
Readers in all subsequent times have forgotten his artifice in wonder
at his skill. And men have been willing to pardon much in a device
which rewarded them with such remarkable tales.
In later periods the Fifth Book had an important effect. It influ-
enced to an unusual degree the Roman poets Lucan and Claudian.
It was popular during the Middle Ages and was much used in
the Renaissance and later times. More than the previous books it
was notable for giving hints which a modern author developed inde-
pendently with great success, as when Ovid's mention of an infernal
garden near Pluto's residence suggested Spenser's great dscription of
the Garden of Proserpina.
Among authors who seldom used Ovid, this book attracted both
Goethe and Scott. It suggested important passages of Tasso and
Spenser and some of the most beautiful poetry of Dante, Shakespeare,
and Milton. Jean de Meun retold more than half the book.
A few tales interested modern painters, and the tales of Proserpina
and Arethusa inspired works of sculpture.
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? CHIEF AUTHORS, ARTISTS, AND MUSICIANS:
Chronological Table
B. C. 900
Ionia
B. C. 800
Ionia and Attica
Boeotia
B. C. 600
Isles of Greece
B. C. 500
Athens and Thebes
B. C. 400
Athens
Alexandria
B. C. 300
Alexandria
Asia Minor
B. C. 200
Rome
B. C. 100
A. D. 1-100
A. D. 200
Greece and Rome
A. D. 500
A. D. 700
France
A. D. 1100
France and England
The Iliad
The Odyssey
Cyclic Epics (Continuing until the 6th century)
Homeric Hymns (Continuing until the 6th century)
Hesiod (The Works and-Days) Hesiodic Poems: The
Theogony, Catalogues, Shield of Hercules, etc.
Sappho
Anacreon Stesichorus Timaeus Bacchylides
Pindar (522-448) Aeschylus (525-456) Sophocles (496-
406) Herodotus Euripides (480-406) Aristophanes
Thucydides
Plato (427-347) Antimachus Praxiteles Menander
Phanocles Hermesianax Philetas
Theocritus Aratus Callimachus Herondas Eratos-
thenes Apollonius The Manual Bion Nicander
Ennius Pacuvius Moschus (Greek, Asia Minor)
Terence Accius
Lucretius Catullus Cicero (106-43) Varro (116-28)
Parthenius (Greek) Vergil (70-19) Gallus Tibullus
Horace (65-8) Propertius Varro of Atax
OVID (B. C. 43-A. D. 18) Elder Seneca Younger Seneca
Lucan Statius Martial
Apollodorus Hyginus Valerius Flaccus
Fulgentius Planciades
Charlemagne's Court (775-800)
Provengal Poets Benoit de St. Maure Joseph of Exeter
Chretien de Troyes (1140-1191) John of Salisbury
211
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? CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
A. D. 1200
France, Germany
and Spain
A. D. 1300
Italy and France
England
A. D. 1400
Italy, England,
and Spain
A. D. 1500
Italy, Spain,
Portugal, France,
and England
A. D. 1600
Italy, Spain,
Flanders, France,
and England
Provengal literature (The Flamenca) Albrecht's transla-
tion (1210) Fabliaux Guillaume Lorris Spanish
Alexander Chretien Legouais (Ovide Moralise)
Jean de Meun
Dante (1265-1321) Bersuires Guillaume de Machaut
Petrarch (1304-1374) Boccaccio
Chaucer (1340-1400) Gower
J. C. Scaliger Filarete
Boiardo Caxton
Bramante Juan de la Mena
A. D. 1700
France, Flanders,
England, and
Germany
A. D. 1800
Italy, France,
Germany,
Denmark, England,
and America . . .
Sannazaro La Celestina Palmerin of England Raphael
(1483-1520) Piombo Peruzzi Marot Ariosto (1474-
1533) Perino del Vaga Correggio Habert (1532)
Michelangelo Castillejo Bustamente (1546) Rosso
and Primaticcio Titian (1477-1576) Cellini Monte-
mayor Golding (1567) Tasso (1544-1595) Guarini
Camoens (1524-1580) Veronese Tintoretto Hertera
Montaigne Du Bartas Giovanni da Bologna Mar-
lowe Spenser (1552-1598) Lodge
Jacopo Peri Lope de Vega Cervantes (1547-1616)
Shakespeare (1564-1616) Marini Salmon de Brosse
Ben Jonson Heywood Guido Reni Monteverde
Rubens (1577-1640) Salvator Rosa Sandys (1632)
Pierre Corneille Jordaens Shirley Poussin
LeNotre Moliere (1623-1673) Milton (1608-1674)
Cowley Claude Lorrain La Fontaine Calderon
Thomas Corneille Dryden (1631-1700)
Fontenelle Lemoyne Addison Pope Swift Thierry and
Fremin (1727) Heinsius-Burmann (1727) Garth
Resne and Lancret (1745) Gliick (1714-1787) The
Enlightenment Boucher Lempriere Johnson
Boswell De St. Ange Schiller (1759-1805) Voss
Bulle
Canova, Goethe (1749-1832) Shelley Byron Scott
(1771-1832) Thorwaldsen Delacroix Landor Haw-
thorne Feuerbach Offenbach Kingsley Rossetti
Moreau W. Morris Arnold Tennyson (1809-1892)
Swinburne
? ? 212
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? BIBLIOGRAPHY
Editor, translator, and date of publication are indicated, when they are
important.
ANTHROPOLOGY *
Bible, The Analytical Reference, Funk and Wagnalls 1918
Frazer, J. G. , Folklore in the Old Testament 1927
The Golden Bough 1922
Lang, Andrew, Magic and Religion 1901
McCartney, E. S. , How and Why; Classical Journal, Feb. , 1920
Tylor, E. B. , Primitive Culture 1903
Westermarck, Edward, A Short History of Marriage 1926
GREEK LITERATURE
Aeschylus, The House of Atreus, by E. D. Morshead 1889
The Lyrical Dramas of Aeschylus, by J. S. Blackie 1914
Prometheus Bound, by F. D. Allen 1891
Tragoediae, by Arthur Sedgewick 1902
Anthologia Lyrica, by E. Hiller and O. Crusius 1897
Apollodorus, The Library, by J. G. Frazer 1921
Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica, by R. C. Seaton 1912
Aratus, Phaenomena, by G. R. Mair 1921
Aristophanes, The Birds, by W. W. Merry 1904
The Frogs (The Bacchae, Hippolytus, and the Frogs of Aris-
tophanes), by Gilbert Murray 1902
Bacchylides, The Poems and Fragments, by R. C. Jebb 1905
Bion (Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus), by Andrew Lang 1907
Callimachus, Les Hymnes, les Origines, et la Hecale by Emile Cahen 1922
Hesiod, Callimachus, and Theognis, by J. Banks 1899
Callimachus and Lycophron, by A. W. Mair 1921
Clement of Alexandria, by G. W. Butterworth
Croiset, Alfred and Maurice, Histoire de la Litterature Grecque (Periode Alex-
andrine) 1899
Cyclic Poets (Hesiod, the Homeric Hymns, and Homerica), by H. G. Evelyn-
White 1914
Euripides, Tragedies (Four Volumes), by A. S. Way 1914
Alcestis, by Gilbert Murray 1915
Bacchae, Hippolytus, and the Frogs of Aristophanes, by Gilbert
Murray 1902
Electra, by Gilbert Murray 1906
Hippolytus, by Gilbert Murray 1902
Iphigenia in Tauris, by Gilbert Murray 1915
Medea, by Gilbert Murray 1912
Trojan Women, The, by Gilbert Murray 1915
213
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? BIBLIOGRAPHY
Herodas, The Mimes of, by J. A. Nairn and L. Laloy 1928
Herodotus, History, by George Rawlinson 1928
Hesiod (Hesiod, the Homeric Hymns, and Homerica), by H. G. Evelyn-White
1914
Hesiod, Callimachus, and Theognis by J. Banks 1889
Homer, The Iliad, W. C. Bryant, Alexander Pope, A. T. Murray, 1930
The Odyssey, W. C. Bryant, T. A. Buckley, 1896, G. H. Palmer, 1921
Homerica (see Cyclic Poets)
Homeric Hymns, The (Hesiod, the Homeric Hymns, and Homerica), by H. G.
Evelyn-White 1914
Lempriere, J. , Classical Dictionary 1832
Liddel and Scott, Greek Lexicon 1888
Lucas, F. L. , Euripides and his Influence 1923
Lycophron (Callimachus and Lycophron), by A. W. Mair 1921
Moschus (Theocritus, Bion and Moschus), by Andrew; Lang 1907
Morey, W. O, Outlines of Ancient History (valuable maps) 1906
Parthenius, The Love Romances, by Stephen Gaselee 1916
Pausanias, Description of Greece, by J. G. Frazer 1913
Pindar, Odes and Fragments, by George Sandys 1919
Powell, J. U. , and Barber, E. A. , New Chapters in the History of Greek Litera-
ture 1921
Quintus Smyrnaeus, The Fall of Troy, by A. S. Way 1913
Sheppard, J. T. , Aeschylus and Sophocles and their Influence 1927
Smith, William, Classical Dictionary 1925
Sophocles, Tragedies, by F. Storr 1919
Fragments, by Lewis Campbell 1887
Theocritus, Bucolici Graeci, by Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 1905
Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus, by Andrew Lang 1907
Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, by C. F. Smith 1923
Vollgraff, Wilhelm, Nikander und Ovid 1909
Xenophon, Anabasis, by William Goodwin 1894
ROMAN LITERATURE
Boissier, Gaston, L'Opposition sous les Cesars 1885
Buccino, C, Opere d'Arte nelle Metamorfosi 1913
Castiglioni, Luigi, Studii intorno alle Fonti delle Metamorfosi 1906
Catullus, by F. W. Cornish 1912 ,
Charniaer, Pavel, Traces de Terence dans les Oeuvres d'Ovide, d'Horace, et de
Tite Live 1900
Cicero, In Verrem
Claudian, De Raptu Proserpinae
Dietze, J. , Komposition und Quellenbeniitzung in der Metamorphosen 1905
Enciclopedia Universal Illustrada, La (Article on Ovid) 1920
Encyclopedia Americana, The (Articles on Ovid and Metamorphosis) 1928
Haight, E. H. , Italy Old and New
214
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? i
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Horace, The Odes and Epodes, by E. Bennett 1929
Satires, Epistles, and Ars Poetica, by H.
the Alpheus had a peculiar habit of disappearing underground and
then emerging unimpaired some distance farther on. And so the
Greeks imagined that he could follow Diana even to Ortygia. Instead
of mingling with the Adriatic, they said, he disappeared under Jhe
salt water and rose still fresh by the shores of the Sicilian isle. To
this myth Pindar alluded in a Nemean Ode.
204
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? ARETHUSA
With the advance of Greek civilization Diana became increasingly
important as a great maiden goddess. The idea of her being hard
pressed by Alpheus was no longer acceptable. But the Eleans were
familiar with such myths about her attendants. Daphne and Syrinx
had both been virgin huntresses who barely escaped the pursuit of a
divine lover. Hence they imagined that another attendant of Diana
had fled Alpheus and taken refuge in Ortygia. At Pisa in Elis there
was a spring called Arethusa, and the Elean colonists had given the
name also to a large spring which rose mysteriously near the shore
of Ortygia. It occurred to them that the huntress, unable to escape
by flight, could have become the Elean spring and then passed under-
ground to their island. And they imagined that Alpheus overtook
Arethusa at the place where the spring overflowed into the sea.
This version of the story became very well known. Callimachus may
have told it briefly in his account of Proserpina. Moschus alluded to
it; and Vergil mentioned it in both the Tenth Eclogue and the Aeneid.
In the Georgics Vergil introduced Arethusa under circumstances both
new and interesting. He said that she was once a fleet huntress but
had laid aside her arrows and become an attendant of Cyrene. When
Aristseus called on his mother, Arethusa was the first to raise her
golden head above the waves and heed the cry of distress.
Callimachus had made it natural to associate Arethusa with the
loss of Proserpina. Vergil had implied that she was quick to heed and
relieve the distressed. Therefore Ovid showed her intervening between
Ceres and the famine stricken people of Sicily. Vergil suggested also
Ovid's two descriptions of the manner in which she raised her head
above the waters. Ovid was able, however, to add further details and
give an even more pleasing effect. Callimachus and Vergil offered a
few hints as to the nature of the story. But Ovid himself had to
supply the animation and brilliant detail.
Profiting by the similar myths of Daphne and Syrinx, he described
Arethusa as beautiful yet averse to love and devoted to the chase. He
showed her hunting in the Stymphalian Wood, a place familiar through
the adventures of Hercules (cf. Bk. 9), and descending at noon to the
clear shady stream of Alpheus. In reality the Stymphalian Wood lay
very far from the river Alpheus; but Ovid could assume that his read-
ers would not inquire so curiously. The young Hermaphroditus, he
remembered, had been tempted to bathe in a similar pleasing body of
water and had won the love of the water spirit (Bk. 4). He imagined
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? METAMORPHOSES -- BOOK V
a similar adventure of Arethusa, giving it appropriately different
details. But Arethusa was able to gain the shore and flee. Alpheus
left the stream and pursued.
Ovid indicated briefly a long, eager chase through Arcadia into Elis
with the pursuer at last on the point of overtaking the terrified nymph.
Daphne had felt the god's breath on her hair and appealed desperately
for aid. Ovid repeated this in the case of Arethusa. Then he imag-
ined the sudden mist shrouding her from the god and her rapid melting
into a stream. This change afforded him not only vivid description
but an interesting contrast with the earlier transformation of Cyane.
Ovid pictured Alpheus as understanding the ruse and himself deli-
quescing in pursuit. Thus it became necessary for Diana to open the
earth and conduct the nymph by way of Hades to Ortygia. Tradition
had allowed Alpheus to follow and overtake Arethusa, and in the
Amores Ovid himself mentioned this event. But in the Metamorphoses
he wisely implied the contrary.
Ovid's brilliant myth attracted a number of later authors. Hilde-
bert of Lavardin, a Latin poet of the twelfth century, gracefully imi-
tated the incident of Arethusa bathing for his account of Susannah.
In the Inferno Dante alluded conspicuously to the transformation of
Arethusa. From her Tasso took the character of Dafne, heroine of
his Aminta. Spenser followed Ovid in part for the tale of a huntress
changed into a spring, which the Palmer recounted to Sir Guyon.
Pope in Windsor Forest borrowed details of the pursuit for his myth
of Lodona. And to Shelley Ovid probably gave at least the subject of
his very original poem Arethusa.
At Rouen Ovid's myth inspired the sculpture of a public fountain.
Triptolemus and Lyncus
It had been usual to suppose that Ceres, comforted by the presence
of her daughter, restored fertility in the famine stricken fields. Ovid
added a further circumstance. Not content, he said, with renewing
agriculture where it had existed already, she extended the knowledge
of grain into new countries. Hitherto this had been told as a separate
event.
The earlier part of the myth grew out of a world-wide fear among
savage tribes that their children might suffer from witchcraft and
evil spells. In almost all countries it was thought an effective remedy
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? TRIPTOLEMUS AND LYNCUS
to pass the newborn child over the fire, bringing him as near as pos-
sible to the flames. Such a rite was dangerous; and a slight error
might be fatal to the child. Hence any sudden noise or interruption
was strictly forbidden. If a deity were to perform the rite, it was
thought possible, and even more beneficial, to lay the child in the fire
itself.
Out of such practices, there grew an important event in the Egyp-
tian myth of Isis. While seeking her lost husband, Isis took the dis-
guise of an old woman and sat mourning by the well of Byblus. Here
the King's daughters took pity on her and persuaded her to return
with them as nurse of their infant brother. Grateful for the kindness,
she planned to give the child supernatural protection. By day she
offered him no food but allowed him to suck her finger. By night she
laid him in the fire. But one night the queen observed the process and
cried out in alarm. This broke the spell and frustrated the divine pur-
pose. Isis revealed herself, however, and taught the king certain other
famous rites.
The Greeks related the idea of protection through exposure to fire
with a belief that under certain conditions it was possible to burn
away the perishable elements in a man's nature and leave him a pure
immortal spirit. This belief Ovid was to introduce later in his account
of Hercules (Bk. 9). Probably influenced by the myth of Isis, the
two ideas appeared in a similar adventure of Ceres. It was related at
some length in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter. While in quest of
Proserpina, the goddess took the form of an old woman and sat by
the well of Eleusis. Here the four daughters of King Celeus pitied her
and arranged to have her nurse their infant brother, Demophoon.
Ceres, too, gave the infant supernatural care. Instead of offering him
food, she anointed him with ambrosia and by night she laid him in
the fire, with the idea of giving him immortality. In this case, too,
the mother broke the spell. The goddess predicted, however, that the
child should obtain unusual honor. She then taught the Eleusinian
Mysteries to Celeus and his leading men, among whom was a certain
Triptolemus.
In the fifth century B. C. , Triptolemus had gained a much more
prominent place. He now was regarded as a child of King Celeus.
While he was still a very young man, it was said, the goddess allowed
him to ride in her magic car and caused him to go out from Athens
and teach all peoples the cultivation of grain. Sophocles made
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? METAMORPHOSES -- BOOK V
Triptolemus the theme of his earliest tragedy. In Greek art the myth
was long popular. At Eleusis a beautiful relief showed the youth
standing between Ceres and Proserpina and obtaining from the elder
goddess the ears of grain which he was to distribute through the world.
Other works of art represented him as traveling through the air in
her magic car. Sometimes this was provided with wings. At other
times two dragons were shown drawing it rapidly between earth and
sky.
Following the newer tradition, the Manual declared Triptolemus an
older brother of the infant Demophoon. When the queen interrupted
the purification, it continued, Demophoon perished in the flames. But
the goddess transferred her favor to Triptolemus and sent him forth
as teacher of the art of agriculture.
Callimachus gave the myth a quite different form. He made
Triptolemus himself the infant nursling. Celeus he represented not
as a king but as an old and pious farmer. And he retold the myth
as a tale of humble life. Celeus and his daughter, returning from their
labor in the fields, found Ceres by the well of Eleusis and persuaded her
to pass the night in their simple home. Triptolemus was then lying
sick and at the point of death. The goddess healed him and later
tried to give him immortality by laying him in the fire. Prevented by
the mother's interference, she declared that he should be the first to
teach the raising of grain.
Among Roman poets the myth of Triptolemus was well known.
Lucretius noted that from Athens there first came laws and grain.
Vergil alluded to the mission of Triptolemus in both his Culex and his
Georgics. And in both the Amores^nd the Tristia Ovid longed for
the young man's dragon car. In the Fasti he was to repeat at some
length the version of Callimachus.
For the Metamorphoses this account "would have been unsuitable.
If Triptolemus himself had been the nursling, he must be a mere infant.
Ovid assumed with the Manual that he had been an older brother and
imagined him as the youth well known in works of art. Feeling con-
fident that Triptolemus would be immediately recognized, Ovid intro-
duced him abruptly without attempting any identification. And he
proceeded at once to the mission. After hearing the tale of Arethusa,
he said, Ceres flew to Athens and despatched Triptolemus in her car,
telling him not only to restore the losses of the famine but also to
teach agriculture in lands where hitherto it was unknown.
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? TRIPTOLEMUS AND LYNCUS
The idea of such a mission was picturesque, but Ovid used it chiefly
for the sake of one little known incident. Nicander had given this as
follows: In Scythia Triptolemus visited the court of a certain
King Lyncus. Learning his purpose, the king resolved to kill the
youth while he slept and himself get the credit of introducing grain.
He attempted this and Ceres transformed him into a lynx. This tale
Ovid repeated. Nicander added that the beast had spotted fur as an
emblem of the king's fickle mind. But, since the characteristic was not
evident from the story, Ovid wisely left it out.
The myth of Triptolemus and Lyncus drew little attention in later
times. Yet it was recalled quite interestingly by Scott. In his novel,
The Pirate, Scott had occasion to describe an agent despatched to
improve agriculture in the uncivilized north. And, recalling Ovid, he
named this character Triptolemus Yellowleigh.
While writing the Fifth Book, Ovid used a few tales, such as the
myths of Polydectes and Proserpina, which were of early origin and
often treated in Greek literature. But he took them from compara-
tively late versions. Most of the tales appeared first in Alexandrian
times. Callimachus furnished Ovid several of the best, and Nicander
provided many stories, which were valuable chiefly as incidents. The
Manual gave the mere outline for the material about Perseus and a
few episodes of the later tales. Throughout the book Greek art was of
considerable importance. None of this Greek material was known to
the Middle Ages and much of it perished altogether. And although
the tales were well known at Rome, they received little notice from
previous Roman literature. It was Ovid who preserved and made
them accessible for later times.
In Ovid's hands this earlier material gained very much. He im-
proved it by the example of other great poetry. The Iliad and the
Odyssey contributed frequently to the battle of Perseus and Phineusv
Vergil aided much both in the battle and in the story of Proserpina and
gave most valuable suggestions for Arethusa. Tibullus and Varro of
Atax provided attractive incident. With ideas from his own earlier
tales Ovid enlivened the important stories of Arethusa and Proserpina.
And, even more than usual, he profited by his own experience and in-
vention.
In the latter half of the book, Ovid found an unusually difficult
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? METAMORPHOSES -- BOOK V
problem of adjustment. Several tales had been related to one another
by material which he needed for the Fasti and did not wish to repeat
And many tales were not related to one another at all. Ovid resorted
*o a device which had proved effective in the earlier half of the previous
book. He enclosed one story within another. But here he did this
more elaborately than anywhere else in his poem. In his own person
he told how Pallas visited the Muses. During the visit he allowed the
Muse Urania to narrate first the adventure with Pj'reneus and then
the contest with the Pierids. The latter included both the song of the
Pierid and Calliope's reply. Each of these permitted further en-
closure, for the Pierid recounted the war of the Giants and the flight
from Typhoeus, and Calliope sang of Proserpina, Arethusa, and
Triptolemus. But the process did not end even there, for the myth of
Proserpina comprised four lesser tales, and the mission of
Triptolemus included an adventure with Lyncus. A solution of this
kind must bring disadvantage.
Artifice pushed so far became dan-
gerously obvious and it led finally to a crowding of denouements that
was even bewildering. Thus Ovid made three stories end together with
the transformation of Lyncus: immediately after he closed two more
simultaneously with the metamorphosis of the Pierids; and he avoided
still another termination only by the mechanical trick of concluding
the book. Nevertheless Ovid's boldness was justified by success.
Readers in all subsequent times have forgotten his artifice in wonder
at his skill. And men have been willing to pardon much in a device
which rewarded them with such remarkable tales.
In later periods the Fifth Book had an important effect. It influ-
enced to an unusual degree the Roman poets Lucan and Claudian.
It was popular during the Middle Ages and was much used in
the Renaissance and later times. More than the previous books it
was notable for giving hints which a modern author developed inde-
pendently with great success, as when Ovid's mention of an infernal
garden near Pluto's residence suggested Spenser's great dscription of
the Garden of Proserpina.
Among authors who seldom used Ovid, this book attracted both
Goethe and Scott. It suggested important passages of Tasso and
Spenser and some of the most beautiful poetry of Dante, Shakespeare,
and Milton. Jean de Meun retold more than half the book.
A few tales interested modern painters, and the tales of Proserpina
and Arethusa inspired works of sculpture.
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? CHIEF AUTHORS, ARTISTS, AND MUSICIANS:
Chronological Table
B. C. 900
Ionia
B. C. 800
Ionia and Attica
Boeotia
B. C. 600
Isles of Greece
B. C. 500
Athens and Thebes
B. C. 400
Athens
Alexandria
B. C. 300
Alexandria
Asia Minor
B. C. 200
Rome
B. C. 100
A. D. 1-100
A. D. 200
Greece and Rome
A. D. 500
A. D. 700
France
A. D. 1100
France and England
The Iliad
The Odyssey
Cyclic Epics (Continuing until the 6th century)
Homeric Hymns (Continuing until the 6th century)
Hesiod (The Works and-Days) Hesiodic Poems: The
Theogony, Catalogues, Shield of Hercules, etc.
Sappho
Anacreon Stesichorus Timaeus Bacchylides
Pindar (522-448) Aeschylus (525-456) Sophocles (496-
406) Herodotus Euripides (480-406) Aristophanes
Thucydides
Plato (427-347) Antimachus Praxiteles Menander
Phanocles Hermesianax Philetas
Theocritus Aratus Callimachus Herondas Eratos-
thenes Apollonius The Manual Bion Nicander
Ennius Pacuvius Moschus (Greek, Asia Minor)
Terence Accius
Lucretius Catullus Cicero (106-43) Varro (116-28)
Parthenius (Greek) Vergil (70-19) Gallus Tibullus
Horace (65-8) Propertius Varro of Atax
OVID (B. C. 43-A. D. 18) Elder Seneca Younger Seneca
Lucan Statius Martial
Apollodorus Hyginus Valerius Flaccus
Fulgentius Planciades
Charlemagne's Court (775-800)
Provengal Poets Benoit de St. Maure Joseph of Exeter
Chretien de Troyes (1140-1191) John of Salisbury
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? CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
A. D. 1200
France, Germany
and Spain
A. D. 1300
Italy and France
England
A. D. 1400
Italy, England,
and Spain
A. D. 1500
Italy, Spain,
Portugal, France,
and England
A. D. 1600
Italy, Spain,
Flanders, France,
and England
Provengal literature (The Flamenca) Albrecht's transla-
tion (1210) Fabliaux Guillaume Lorris Spanish
Alexander Chretien Legouais (Ovide Moralise)
Jean de Meun
Dante (1265-1321) Bersuires Guillaume de Machaut
Petrarch (1304-1374) Boccaccio
Chaucer (1340-1400) Gower
J. C. Scaliger Filarete
Boiardo Caxton
Bramante Juan de la Mena
A. D. 1700
France, Flanders,
England, and
Germany
A. D. 1800
Italy, France,
Germany,
Denmark, England,
and America . . .
Sannazaro La Celestina Palmerin of England Raphael
(1483-1520) Piombo Peruzzi Marot Ariosto (1474-
1533) Perino del Vaga Correggio Habert (1532)
Michelangelo Castillejo Bustamente (1546) Rosso
and Primaticcio Titian (1477-1576) Cellini Monte-
mayor Golding (1567) Tasso (1544-1595) Guarini
Camoens (1524-1580) Veronese Tintoretto Hertera
Montaigne Du Bartas Giovanni da Bologna Mar-
lowe Spenser (1552-1598) Lodge
Jacopo Peri Lope de Vega Cervantes (1547-1616)
Shakespeare (1564-1616) Marini Salmon de Brosse
Ben Jonson Heywood Guido Reni Monteverde
Rubens (1577-1640) Salvator Rosa Sandys (1632)
Pierre Corneille Jordaens Shirley Poussin
LeNotre Moliere (1623-1673) Milton (1608-1674)
Cowley Claude Lorrain La Fontaine Calderon
Thomas Corneille Dryden (1631-1700)
Fontenelle Lemoyne Addison Pope Swift Thierry and
Fremin (1727) Heinsius-Burmann (1727) Garth
Resne and Lancret (1745) Gliick (1714-1787) The
Enlightenment Boucher Lempriere Johnson
Boswell De St. Ange Schiller (1759-1805) Voss
Bulle
Canova, Goethe (1749-1832) Shelley Byron Scott
(1771-1832) Thorwaldsen Delacroix Landor Haw-
thorne Feuerbach Offenbach Kingsley Rossetti
Moreau W. Morris Arnold Tennyson (1809-1892)
Swinburne
? ? 212
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? BIBLIOGRAPHY
Editor, translator, and date of publication are indicated, when they are
important.
ANTHROPOLOGY *
Bible, The Analytical Reference, Funk and Wagnalls 1918
Frazer, J. G. , Folklore in the Old Testament 1927
The Golden Bough 1922
Lang, Andrew, Magic and Religion 1901
McCartney, E. S. , How and Why; Classical Journal, Feb. , 1920
Tylor, E. B. , Primitive Culture 1903
Westermarck, Edward, A Short History of Marriage 1926
GREEK LITERATURE
Aeschylus, The House of Atreus, by E. D. Morshead 1889
The Lyrical Dramas of Aeschylus, by J. S. Blackie 1914
Prometheus Bound, by F. D. Allen 1891
Tragoediae, by Arthur Sedgewick 1902
Anthologia Lyrica, by E. Hiller and O. Crusius 1897
Apollodorus, The Library, by J. G. Frazer 1921
Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica, by R. C. Seaton 1912
Aratus, Phaenomena, by G. R. Mair 1921
Aristophanes, The Birds, by W. W. Merry 1904
The Frogs (The Bacchae, Hippolytus, and the Frogs of Aris-
tophanes), by Gilbert Murray 1902
Bacchylides, The Poems and Fragments, by R. C. Jebb 1905
Bion (Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus), by Andrew Lang 1907
Callimachus, Les Hymnes, les Origines, et la Hecale by Emile Cahen 1922
Hesiod, Callimachus, and Theognis, by J. Banks 1899
Callimachus and Lycophron, by A. W. Mair 1921
Clement of Alexandria, by G. W. Butterworth
Croiset, Alfred and Maurice, Histoire de la Litterature Grecque (Periode Alex-
andrine) 1899
Cyclic Poets (Hesiod, the Homeric Hymns, and Homerica), by H. G. Evelyn-
White 1914
Euripides, Tragedies (Four Volumes), by A. S. Way 1914
Alcestis, by Gilbert Murray 1915
Bacchae, Hippolytus, and the Frogs of Aristophanes, by Gilbert
Murray 1902
Electra, by Gilbert Murray 1906
Hippolytus, by Gilbert Murray 1902
Iphigenia in Tauris, by Gilbert Murray 1915
Medea, by Gilbert Murray 1912
Trojan Women, The, by Gilbert Murray 1915
213
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? BIBLIOGRAPHY
Herodas, The Mimes of, by J. A. Nairn and L. Laloy 1928
Herodotus, History, by George Rawlinson 1928
Hesiod (Hesiod, the Homeric Hymns, and Homerica), by H. G. Evelyn-White
1914
Hesiod, Callimachus, and Theognis by J. Banks 1889
Homer, The Iliad, W. C. Bryant, Alexander Pope, A. T. Murray, 1930
The Odyssey, W. C. Bryant, T. A. Buckley, 1896, G. H. Palmer, 1921
Homerica (see Cyclic Poets)
Homeric Hymns, The (Hesiod, the Homeric Hymns, and Homerica), by H. G.
Evelyn-White 1914
Lempriere, J. , Classical Dictionary 1832
Liddel and Scott, Greek Lexicon 1888
Lucas, F. L. , Euripides and his Influence 1923
Lycophron (Callimachus and Lycophron), by A. W. Mair 1921
Moschus (Theocritus, Bion and Moschus), by Andrew; Lang 1907
Morey, W. O, Outlines of Ancient History (valuable maps) 1906
Parthenius, The Love Romances, by Stephen Gaselee 1916
Pausanias, Description of Greece, by J. G. Frazer 1913
Pindar, Odes and Fragments, by George Sandys 1919
Powell, J. U. , and Barber, E. A. , New Chapters in the History of Greek Litera-
ture 1921
Quintus Smyrnaeus, The Fall of Troy, by A. S. Way 1913
Sheppard, J. T. , Aeschylus and Sophocles and their Influence 1927
Smith, William, Classical Dictionary 1925
Sophocles, Tragedies, by F. Storr 1919
Fragments, by Lewis Campbell 1887
Theocritus, Bucolici Graeci, by Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 1905
Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus, by Andrew Lang 1907
Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, by C. F. Smith 1923
Vollgraff, Wilhelm, Nikander und Ovid 1909
Xenophon, Anabasis, by William Goodwin 1894
ROMAN LITERATURE
Boissier, Gaston, L'Opposition sous les Cesars 1885
Buccino, C, Opere d'Arte nelle Metamorfosi 1913
Castiglioni, Luigi, Studii intorno alle Fonti delle Metamorfosi 1906
Catullus, by F. W. Cornish 1912 ,
Charniaer, Pavel, Traces de Terence dans les Oeuvres d'Ovide, d'Horace, et de
Tite Live 1900
Cicero, In Verrem
Claudian, De Raptu Proserpinae
Dietze, J. , Komposition und Quellenbeniitzung in der Metamorphosen 1905
Enciclopedia Universal Illustrada, La (Article on Ovid) 1920
Encyclopedia Americana, The (Articles on Ovid and Metamorphosis) 1928
Haight, E. H. , Italy Old and New
214
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? i
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Horace, The Odes and Epodes, by E. Bennett 1929
Satires, Epistles, and Ars Poetica, by H.
