This would seem to have been true particularly of Items 12 (Modern church) and 20 (Pro-
gressive
education).
Adorno-T-Authoritarian-Personality-Harper-Bros-1950
37 -1.
18 0.
85 1.
56
(6) (38) (24) (4)
(Things unstable)
(Novels or stories)
(Reports of atrocities) (Homosexuals)
(Essential for learning) 3. 31 (Law in own hands)
1. 29
0. 43
2. 16
1. 67
1. 42 (29) 1. 20 (31) 2. 54 (6)
(Emphasis in college) (Supernatural force)
(For one reason)
(Sciences like chemistry) 4. 35 (Sex orgies)
1. 14 1. 26 0. 59
(Honor)
(Obedience and respect) (Things too intimate) 4. 82 (Leisure) 5. 20 (Crime wave)
(What a man does)
(Always war)
(Important values)
(World catastrophe)
(Books and movies)
(Eye to profit)
(Plots by politicians) (Infection and disease) 4. 79 (Tireless leaders)
(Sex crimes)
2. 11
2. 09
3. 09
1. 99 (17) -0. 23 (36)
70.
73.
74.
75.
77. (No sane person) Mean/Person/Item 3. 71
2. 22 4. 67 4. 44
3. 63
3. 28
3. 62
5. 01 0. 79 3. 02
0. 70 (27) -0. 25 (37) 1. 17 (13) 0. 88 (22) 0. 76 (26) 0. 66 (28) 1. 18 (12) 1. 10 (16)
0. 62 (29. 5)
(15) (9. 5) (31)
4. ~ 3. 22
2. 50 3. 91 3. 97 2. 06
3. 64 3. 00 3. 72
(12. 5) (14) (1)
0. 93 1. 65 1. 55
(20) (3) (5)
4. 60 3. 48 4. 26 4. 17 2. 58 4. 10 3. 71 3. 27
2. 11 1. 16 1. 70 2. 59 1. 60 1. 55 2. 48 2. 21 1. 85 2. 02 1. 66 2. 81
(12. 5) (32) (23) (5)
( 26. 5) ( 28) (7) (8) (20) ( 16) ( 25) (2)
1. 26 0. 62 0. 87 1. 91 0. 31 0. 90 0. 38 0. 78 1. 15 1. 34 0. 94 2. 07 1. 36
0. 89
(9. 5) (29. 5) ( 23) (2)
( 34) ( 21) ( 33) (25) (14)
(8) (19) ( 1) (7)
5. 00 3. 26 4. 12
2. 12 (11)
1. 80
Rank D. P. F
(9)
( 38) (26. 5) (19) (36) ( 33) (4) (35) (30) (37) ( 10) ( 24)
Rank
D. P. AS
F i n a l
1. 05 (34)
2. 79 (3) 0. 97 (18)
~he four groups on which these data are based are: Group A: U. C. Public Speaking Class Women (N = 140); Group B: U. C. Public Speaking Class Men (N =52); Group
C: U. C. Extension Psychology Class Women (N = 40); Group D: Professional Women (N = 63). In obtaining the over-all means, the individual group means were not weighted by N.
bo. P. h is based ori the difference between the high qpartile and the low quartile on t e F scale distribution.
co. P. ~ sis based on the difference between the high quartile and the low quartile on teA-S scale distribution. E. g. , the D. P. A s of 1. 24 on Item 2 indicates that the mean of the low quartile on A-S was 1. 24 points lower than the mean of the high quartile on A-S.
dror each item the sum of D. P. F +D. P. ~~ is obtained. The final rank of an item is the rank of this sum in the distri u ion of sums for the whole scale.
1. 24
1. 05
0. 41 (32)
(17) -0. 08 (35)
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
We may now inquire what it is that distinguishes the items which turned out well statistically from those that turned out poorly. Can any general statements be made about each of these two groups of items that can serve as guides in the formulation of new items? The first question concerns the nine groups of items chosen to represent the variables that entered into the conceptualization of F. Do most of the items with high D. P. 's pertain to a few of the variables? Are there some variables which simply do not belong to the pattern we are considering? Three of the clusters, Sex, Authoritarian Aggression, and Authoritarian Submission, had mean D. P. 's above 2. 0, the remaining clusters having mean D. P. 's in the range 1. 26-I. So. Projectivity ( 1. 70), Destructiveness and Cynicism ( 1. 56), and Conventionalism ( 1. 26)
were the least satisfactory. However, it is to be noted that every cluster has within it at least one item with a D. P. above 2. 0. At this stage, therefore, it seemed best not to eliminate any of the variables but to give attention to improving or replacing the poorer items found in each cluster.
Turning to a consideration of items which proved to be outstandingly good in the statistical sense, we note that Item 75 (Sex crimes) leads all the rest, i. e. , has the highest sum of D. P. F plus D. P. A-S? This item represents rather well the ideal to which we aspired in formulating items for the F scale. Not only is there a wide distribution of responses, with a mean fairly near the neutral point, but the item combines, apparently in a very effective way, several ideas which according to theory have crucial roles in prejudice: the underlying interest in the more primitive aspects of sex, the readiness for all-out physical aggressiveness, the justification of aggression by an appeal to moralistic values. More than this, the item seems to be sufficiently free of any logical or automatic connection with overt prejudice. That the next best item, so (Obedience and respect), should be outstandingly differentiating is not surprising since this kind of authoritarianism is a well-known aspect of the fascist outlook. The device of putting the authoritarianism in a context of child training seems to remove it from the surface of ethnocentrism; but whether or not this is true, the item pertains to an aspect of the fascist philos- ophy that could in no case be left out of account.
Third in the rank order of goodness is Item 59, "Human nature being what it is, there will always be war and conflict. " This item, from the Destructive- ness and Cynicism cluster, expresses several ideas which are particularly important in the F syndrome. In addition to an element of overt antipacifist opinion, there is contempt for men and acceptance of the "survival of the fittest" idea as a rationalization for aggressiveness. The next item, 39 (Super- natural force), seems to express very well the tendency to shift responsibility to outside forces beyond one's own control. This is a manifestation of what has been termed ego weakness; the item has also been placed in the Authori- tarian Submission cluster on the ground that faith in a supernatural force is
related to faith in ingroup authorities. It was not expected that the presence
? MEASUREMENT OF ANTIDEMOCRA TIC TRENDS
247
of religious feeling and bdief would by itself be significant for prejudice; the aim in devising the present item was to compose a statement which was so extreme that not too many subjects would agree with it and which placed enough emphasis upon "total allegiance" and obedience "without question" so that the uncritically submissive person could distinguish himself. The mean of 3? 97 and the D. P. F of 2. 54 indicate that this aim was largely realized. Item 2 3 (Undying love), which ranked fifth in order of goodness, expresses extreme moral conventionality and ingroup feeling related to the family. It has a place in both the Authoritarian Submission and the Authoritarian Ag- gression clusters, because it includes both allegiance to the ingroup and a punishing attitude ("He is indeed contemptible") toward those who violate this value. The statement is so exaggerated, so expressive, as it seems, of the
"protesting too much" attitude that we may wonder if strong agreement with it does not mask underlying but inhibited rebellious hostility against parents and parent figures.
Concerning all five of these items it may be said that they are highly diverse in their surface content, that they pertain to various aspects of the underlying theory-superego, ego, and id are expressed-and that with the possible ex- ception of Item so (Obedience and respect) they are highly indirect in the present sense of the term. Indeed, as one examines further the ranking of the items in terms of their Discriminatory Powers-(Sciences like chemistry), (Honor), (Pearl Harbor Day), (No sane person), (Familiarity), (Leisure), (Infection and disease)-he may note that, in general, items which are best in the statistical sense are those which seem best in their formulation and in terms of our over-all theory and method of approach.
Items which turned out to be poor in the statistical sense are, in retrospect, easy to criticize. In some instances there was a failure in formulation: the statement was so unclear or ambiguous that many of the subjects, apparently, drew from it different implications from those intended.
This would seem to have been true particularly of Items 12 (Modern church) and 20 (Pro- gressive education). In other instances, e. g. , Items 24 (Things unstable), 74 (Tireless leaders), and 58 (Crime wave), the statements contained too large an element of truth or rational justification and so appealed, as shown by the high mean scores, to both high and low scorers. Again, some of the items were too crude or openly aggressive, so that most of the high scorers as well as the low scorers tended to disagree. For example, Items 42 (For one reason) and 35 (Law in own hands) have both low means and low D. P. 's.
3. THE SECOND F SCALE: FORM 60
In preparing the new form of the questionnaire, the E and PEC scales were
shortened so drastically that a comparatively long F scale (34 items) could still be used without allowing the total number of scale items to go above 6o. Since we were still faced with the task of producing a reliable F scale, with-
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
TABLE 4 (VII) THE F ScALE: FoRM 6o
a. Conventionalism: Rigid adherence to conventional, middle-class values. I. Obedience and respect for authority are the most important
virtues children should learn.
6. A person who has bad manners, habits, and breeding can hardly
expect to be liked and accepted by decent people.
53? One main trouble today is that people talk too much and work
too little.
b. Authoritarian Submission: Submissive, uncritical attitude toward idealized moral authorities of the ingroup.
I. Obedience and respect for authority are the most important virtues children should learn.
7? Science has carried man very far, but there are many important things that can never possibly be understood by the human mind. II. Every person should have complete faith in some supernatural
power whose decisions he obeys without question.
23. Young people sometimes get rebellious ideas, but as they grow
up they ought to get over them and settle down.
29. No sane, normal, decent person could ever think of hurting a
close friend or relative.
32? What this country needs most, more than laws and political
programs, is a few courageous, tireless, devoted leaders in whom
the people can put their faith.
44? In order for us to do good work, it is necessary that our bosses
outline carefully what is to be done and exactly how to go about it.
c. Authoritarian Aggression: Tendency to be on the lookout for, and to condemn, reject, and punish people who violate conventional values.
6. A person who has bad manners, habits, and breeding can hardly expect to be liked and accepted by decent people.
I7. An insult to our honor should always be punished.
I9. What the youth needs most is strict discipline, rugged deter- mination, and the will to work and fight for family and country. 22. The trouble with letting everybody have a say in running the government is that so many people are just naturally stupid or
full of wild ideas.
34? Sex crimes, such as rape and attacks on children, deserve more
than mere imprisonment; such criminals ought to be publicly
whipped, or worse.
39? There is hardly anything lower than a person who does not feel
a great love, gratitude, and respect for his parents.
49? Most of our social problems would be solved if we could some- how get rid of the immoral, crooked, and feebleminded people. 53? One main trouble today is that people talk too much and work
too little.
58. Homosexuals are nothing but degenerates and ought to be severely punished.
? d.
Anti-intraception: Opposition to the subjective, the imaginative, the tender-minded.
16. When a person has a problem or worry, it is best for him not to think about it, but to keep busy with more cheerful things.
30. Some cases of feeblemindedness are caused by overstudy.
45? Nowadays more and more people are prying into matters that
should remain personal and private.
53? One main trouble today is that people talk too much and work
too little.
Superstition and Stereotypy: The belief in mystical determinants of the individual's fate; the disposition to think in rigid categories.
e.
f.
Power and "Toughness": Preoccupation with the dominance-submis- sion, strong-weak, leader-follower dimension; identification with power figures; overemphasis upon the conventionalized attributes of the ego; exaggerated assertion of strength and toughness.
2. No weakness or difficulty can hold us back if we have enough will power.
5? Any red-blooded American will fight to defend his property. 17. An insult to our honor should always be punished.
19. What the youth needs most is strict discipline, rugged deter-
mination, and the will to work and fight for family and country. 32. What this country needs most, more than laws and political programs, is a few courageous, tireless, devoted leaders in whom
the people can put their faith.
35? People can be divided into two distinct classes: the weak and
the strong.
57? Most people don't realize how much our lives are controlled by
plots hatched in secret by politicians.
7? 1x. 18.
24. 30. 35?
40. 46.
50.
Science has carried man very far, but there are many important things that can never possibly be understood by the human mind. Every person should have complete faith in some supernatural power whose decisions he obeys without question.
It is more than just chance that Japan had an earthquake on Pearl Harbor Day, December 7, 1944.
Some people are born with the urge to jump from high places. Some cases of feeblemindedness are caused by overstudy. People can be divided into two distinct classes: the weak and the strong.
Some day it will probably be shown that astrology can explain a lot of things.
It is possible that wars and social troubles will be ended once and for all by an earthquake or flood that will destroy the whole world.
It's a mistake to trust anybody who doesn't look you straight in the eye.
MEASUREMENT OF ANTIDEMOCRA TIC TRENDS
249
g. Destructiveness and Cynicism: Generalized hostility, vilification of the human.
10. Human nature being what it is, there will always be war and conflict.
? h.
z5. Familiarity breeds contempt.
41. The true American way of life is disappearing so fast that force
may be necessary to preserve it.
Projectivity: The disposition to believe that wild and dangerous things go on in the world; the projection outward of unconscious emo- tional impulses.
36. Nowadays when so many different kinds of people move around so much and mix together so freely, a person has to be especially careful to protect himself against infection and disease.
45? Nowadays more and more people are prying into matters that should remain personal and private.
46. It is possible that wars and social troubles will be ended once and for all by an earthquake or flood that will destroy the whole world.
52. The wild sex life of the old Greeks and Romans was tame com- pared to some of the goings-on in this country, even in places where people might least expect it.
57? Most people don't realize how much our lives are controlled by plots hatched in secret by politicians.
Sex: Exaggerated concern with sexual "goings-on. "
1.
34?
52.
58.
Sex crimes, such as rape and attacks on children, deserve more than mere imprisonment; such criminals ought to be publicly whipped or worse.
The wild sex life of the old Greeks and Romans was tame com- pared to some of the goings-on in this country, even in places where people might least expect it.
Homosexuals are nothing but degenerates and ought to be severely punished.
THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
out sacrificing breadth or meaningfulness, it seemed the better part of wis- dom not to undertake much shortening of it at this stage.
The I9 items from the F scale (Form 78) that ranked highest in order of goodness were retained, in the same or slightly revised form, in the new scale. Thus, statistical differentiating power of the item was the main basis of selection. As stated above, however, the items which came out best statis- tically were, in general, those which seemed best from the point of view of theory, so that retaining them required no compromise with the original purpose of the scale. Of these items, 5 were changed in no way; revision of the others involved change in wording but not in essential meaning, the aim being to avoid too much uniformity of agreement or disagreement and, hence, to produce mean scores as close as possible to the neutral point.
Given I 9 items of known dependability, the task was to formulate I 5 additional ones which, singly, met the requirements of good items and which, taken together, covered the ground mapped out according to our theory. Here, criteria other than statistical ones played an important role. In attempt- ing to achieve a maximum of indirectness we not only eliminated items which were too openly aggressive (they had low D. P. 's anyway) but retained, in
? Reliability
Mean (total) Mean (odd half) Mean (even half)
S. D. (total)
S. D. (Odd half) S. D. (even half)
N
Range
86
3. 32 3. 41 3. 24
. 86 . 97 . 75
. 91 . 89
3. 39 3. 82 3. 42 4. 09 3. 36 3. 56
. 96 . 93 1. 03 . 99 . 96 . 97
. 87
3. 74 3. 78 3. 73
. 81 ? 77 . 93
. 81
3. 25 3. 19 3. 28
. 71 . 83 . 76
MEASUREMENT OF ANTIDEMOCRA TIC TRENDS
a slightly revised form, Item 65 (World catastrophe) despite its relatively low D. P. (R. 0. 2 3? 5), because it expressed a theoretically important idea and appeared on the surface to be almost completely removed from "race" prejudice and fascism. In the name of breadth, Item 67 (Eye to profit), whose D. P. was not low (R. 0. 2I), was eliminated because of its too great similarity to the highly discriminating Item 59 (Always war). To cover a great variety of ideas as efficiently as possible, two or more of them were combined in the same statement, e. g. , "Any red-blooded American will fight to defend his property" or ". . . people think too much and work too little. " With attention to these criteria, and to meaningfulness, contribution to the structural unity of the scale, and proper degree of rational justification, 4 items from the F scale (Form 78) whose D. P. rank orders were lower than I 9, were revised and I I new items were formulated to complete the new form.
(6) (38) (24) (4)
(Things unstable)
(Novels or stories)
(Reports of atrocities) (Homosexuals)
(Essential for learning) 3. 31 (Law in own hands)
1. 29
0. 43
2. 16
1. 67
1. 42 (29) 1. 20 (31) 2. 54 (6)
(Emphasis in college) (Supernatural force)
(For one reason)
(Sciences like chemistry) 4. 35 (Sex orgies)
1. 14 1. 26 0. 59
(Honor)
(Obedience and respect) (Things too intimate) 4. 82 (Leisure) 5. 20 (Crime wave)
(What a man does)
(Always war)
(Important values)
(World catastrophe)
(Books and movies)
(Eye to profit)
(Plots by politicians) (Infection and disease) 4. 79 (Tireless leaders)
(Sex crimes)
2. 11
2. 09
3. 09
1. 99 (17) -0. 23 (36)
70.
73.
74.
75.
77. (No sane person) Mean/Person/Item 3. 71
2. 22 4. 67 4. 44
3. 63
3. 28
3. 62
5. 01 0. 79 3. 02
0. 70 (27) -0. 25 (37) 1. 17 (13) 0. 88 (22) 0. 76 (26) 0. 66 (28) 1. 18 (12) 1. 10 (16)
0. 62 (29. 5)
(15) (9. 5) (31)
4. ~ 3. 22
2. 50 3. 91 3. 97 2. 06
3. 64 3. 00 3. 72
(12. 5) (14) (1)
0. 93 1. 65 1. 55
(20) (3) (5)
4. 60 3. 48 4. 26 4. 17 2. 58 4. 10 3. 71 3. 27
2. 11 1. 16 1. 70 2. 59 1. 60 1. 55 2. 48 2. 21 1. 85 2. 02 1. 66 2. 81
(12. 5) (32) (23) (5)
( 26. 5) ( 28) (7) (8) (20) ( 16) ( 25) (2)
1. 26 0. 62 0. 87 1. 91 0. 31 0. 90 0. 38 0. 78 1. 15 1. 34 0. 94 2. 07 1. 36
0. 89
(9. 5) (29. 5) ( 23) (2)
( 34) ( 21) ( 33) (25) (14)
(8) (19) ( 1) (7)
5. 00 3. 26 4. 12
2. 12 (11)
1. 80
Rank D. P. F
(9)
( 38) (26. 5) (19) (36) ( 33) (4) (35) (30) (37) ( 10) ( 24)
Rank
D. P. AS
F i n a l
1. 05 (34)
2. 79 (3) 0. 97 (18)
~he four groups on which these data are based are: Group A: U. C. Public Speaking Class Women (N = 140); Group B: U. C. Public Speaking Class Men (N =52); Group
C: U. C. Extension Psychology Class Women (N = 40); Group D: Professional Women (N = 63). In obtaining the over-all means, the individual group means were not weighted by N.
bo. P. h is based ori the difference between the high qpartile and the low quartile on t e F scale distribution.
co. P. ~ sis based on the difference between the high quartile and the low quartile on teA-S scale distribution. E. g. , the D. P. A s of 1. 24 on Item 2 indicates that the mean of the low quartile on A-S was 1. 24 points lower than the mean of the high quartile on A-S.
dror each item the sum of D. P. F +D. P. ~~ is obtained. The final rank of an item is the rank of this sum in the distri u ion of sums for the whole scale.
1. 24
1. 05
0. 41 (32)
(17) -0. 08 (35)
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
We may now inquire what it is that distinguishes the items which turned out well statistically from those that turned out poorly. Can any general statements be made about each of these two groups of items that can serve as guides in the formulation of new items? The first question concerns the nine groups of items chosen to represent the variables that entered into the conceptualization of F. Do most of the items with high D. P. 's pertain to a few of the variables? Are there some variables which simply do not belong to the pattern we are considering? Three of the clusters, Sex, Authoritarian Aggression, and Authoritarian Submission, had mean D. P. 's above 2. 0, the remaining clusters having mean D. P. 's in the range 1. 26-I. So. Projectivity ( 1. 70), Destructiveness and Cynicism ( 1. 56), and Conventionalism ( 1. 26)
were the least satisfactory. However, it is to be noted that every cluster has within it at least one item with a D. P. above 2. 0. At this stage, therefore, it seemed best not to eliminate any of the variables but to give attention to improving or replacing the poorer items found in each cluster.
Turning to a consideration of items which proved to be outstandingly good in the statistical sense, we note that Item 75 (Sex crimes) leads all the rest, i. e. , has the highest sum of D. P. F plus D. P. A-S? This item represents rather well the ideal to which we aspired in formulating items for the F scale. Not only is there a wide distribution of responses, with a mean fairly near the neutral point, but the item combines, apparently in a very effective way, several ideas which according to theory have crucial roles in prejudice: the underlying interest in the more primitive aspects of sex, the readiness for all-out physical aggressiveness, the justification of aggression by an appeal to moralistic values. More than this, the item seems to be sufficiently free of any logical or automatic connection with overt prejudice. That the next best item, so (Obedience and respect), should be outstandingly differentiating is not surprising since this kind of authoritarianism is a well-known aspect of the fascist outlook. The device of putting the authoritarianism in a context of child training seems to remove it from the surface of ethnocentrism; but whether or not this is true, the item pertains to an aspect of the fascist philos- ophy that could in no case be left out of account.
Third in the rank order of goodness is Item 59, "Human nature being what it is, there will always be war and conflict. " This item, from the Destructive- ness and Cynicism cluster, expresses several ideas which are particularly important in the F syndrome. In addition to an element of overt antipacifist opinion, there is contempt for men and acceptance of the "survival of the fittest" idea as a rationalization for aggressiveness. The next item, 39 (Super- natural force), seems to express very well the tendency to shift responsibility to outside forces beyond one's own control. This is a manifestation of what has been termed ego weakness; the item has also been placed in the Authori- tarian Submission cluster on the ground that faith in a supernatural force is
related to faith in ingroup authorities. It was not expected that the presence
? MEASUREMENT OF ANTIDEMOCRA TIC TRENDS
247
of religious feeling and bdief would by itself be significant for prejudice; the aim in devising the present item was to compose a statement which was so extreme that not too many subjects would agree with it and which placed enough emphasis upon "total allegiance" and obedience "without question" so that the uncritically submissive person could distinguish himself. The mean of 3? 97 and the D. P. F of 2. 54 indicate that this aim was largely realized. Item 2 3 (Undying love), which ranked fifth in order of goodness, expresses extreme moral conventionality and ingroup feeling related to the family. It has a place in both the Authoritarian Submission and the Authoritarian Ag- gression clusters, because it includes both allegiance to the ingroup and a punishing attitude ("He is indeed contemptible") toward those who violate this value. The statement is so exaggerated, so expressive, as it seems, of the
"protesting too much" attitude that we may wonder if strong agreement with it does not mask underlying but inhibited rebellious hostility against parents and parent figures.
Concerning all five of these items it may be said that they are highly diverse in their surface content, that they pertain to various aspects of the underlying theory-superego, ego, and id are expressed-and that with the possible ex- ception of Item so (Obedience and respect) they are highly indirect in the present sense of the term. Indeed, as one examines further the ranking of the items in terms of their Discriminatory Powers-(Sciences like chemistry), (Honor), (Pearl Harbor Day), (No sane person), (Familiarity), (Leisure), (Infection and disease)-he may note that, in general, items which are best in the statistical sense are those which seem best in their formulation and in terms of our over-all theory and method of approach.
Items which turned out to be poor in the statistical sense are, in retrospect, easy to criticize. In some instances there was a failure in formulation: the statement was so unclear or ambiguous that many of the subjects, apparently, drew from it different implications from those intended.
This would seem to have been true particularly of Items 12 (Modern church) and 20 (Pro- gressive education). In other instances, e. g. , Items 24 (Things unstable), 74 (Tireless leaders), and 58 (Crime wave), the statements contained too large an element of truth or rational justification and so appealed, as shown by the high mean scores, to both high and low scorers. Again, some of the items were too crude or openly aggressive, so that most of the high scorers as well as the low scorers tended to disagree. For example, Items 42 (For one reason) and 35 (Law in own hands) have both low means and low D. P. 's.
3. THE SECOND F SCALE: FORM 60
In preparing the new form of the questionnaire, the E and PEC scales were
shortened so drastically that a comparatively long F scale (34 items) could still be used without allowing the total number of scale items to go above 6o. Since we were still faced with the task of producing a reliable F scale, with-
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
TABLE 4 (VII) THE F ScALE: FoRM 6o
a. Conventionalism: Rigid adherence to conventional, middle-class values. I. Obedience and respect for authority are the most important
virtues children should learn.
6. A person who has bad manners, habits, and breeding can hardly
expect to be liked and accepted by decent people.
53? One main trouble today is that people talk too much and work
too little.
b. Authoritarian Submission: Submissive, uncritical attitude toward idealized moral authorities of the ingroup.
I. Obedience and respect for authority are the most important virtues children should learn.
7? Science has carried man very far, but there are many important things that can never possibly be understood by the human mind. II. Every person should have complete faith in some supernatural
power whose decisions he obeys without question.
23. Young people sometimes get rebellious ideas, but as they grow
up they ought to get over them and settle down.
29. No sane, normal, decent person could ever think of hurting a
close friend or relative.
32? What this country needs most, more than laws and political
programs, is a few courageous, tireless, devoted leaders in whom
the people can put their faith.
44? In order for us to do good work, it is necessary that our bosses
outline carefully what is to be done and exactly how to go about it.
c. Authoritarian Aggression: Tendency to be on the lookout for, and to condemn, reject, and punish people who violate conventional values.
6. A person who has bad manners, habits, and breeding can hardly expect to be liked and accepted by decent people.
I7. An insult to our honor should always be punished.
I9. What the youth needs most is strict discipline, rugged deter- mination, and the will to work and fight for family and country. 22. The trouble with letting everybody have a say in running the government is that so many people are just naturally stupid or
full of wild ideas.
34? Sex crimes, such as rape and attacks on children, deserve more
than mere imprisonment; such criminals ought to be publicly
whipped, or worse.
39? There is hardly anything lower than a person who does not feel
a great love, gratitude, and respect for his parents.
49? Most of our social problems would be solved if we could some- how get rid of the immoral, crooked, and feebleminded people. 53? One main trouble today is that people talk too much and work
too little.
58. Homosexuals are nothing but degenerates and ought to be severely punished.
? d.
Anti-intraception: Opposition to the subjective, the imaginative, the tender-minded.
16. When a person has a problem or worry, it is best for him not to think about it, but to keep busy with more cheerful things.
30. Some cases of feeblemindedness are caused by overstudy.
45? Nowadays more and more people are prying into matters that
should remain personal and private.
53? One main trouble today is that people talk too much and work
too little.
Superstition and Stereotypy: The belief in mystical determinants of the individual's fate; the disposition to think in rigid categories.
e.
f.
Power and "Toughness": Preoccupation with the dominance-submis- sion, strong-weak, leader-follower dimension; identification with power figures; overemphasis upon the conventionalized attributes of the ego; exaggerated assertion of strength and toughness.
2. No weakness or difficulty can hold us back if we have enough will power.
5? Any red-blooded American will fight to defend his property. 17. An insult to our honor should always be punished.
19. What the youth needs most is strict discipline, rugged deter-
mination, and the will to work and fight for family and country. 32. What this country needs most, more than laws and political programs, is a few courageous, tireless, devoted leaders in whom
the people can put their faith.
35? People can be divided into two distinct classes: the weak and
the strong.
57? Most people don't realize how much our lives are controlled by
plots hatched in secret by politicians.
7? 1x. 18.
24. 30. 35?
40. 46.
50.
Science has carried man very far, but there are many important things that can never possibly be understood by the human mind. Every person should have complete faith in some supernatural power whose decisions he obeys without question.
It is more than just chance that Japan had an earthquake on Pearl Harbor Day, December 7, 1944.
Some people are born with the urge to jump from high places. Some cases of feeblemindedness are caused by overstudy. People can be divided into two distinct classes: the weak and the strong.
Some day it will probably be shown that astrology can explain a lot of things.
It is possible that wars and social troubles will be ended once and for all by an earthquake or flood that will destroy the whole world.
It's a mistake to trust anybody who doesn't look you straight in the eye.
MEASUREMENT OF ANTIDEMOCRA TIC TRENDS
249
g. Destructiveness and Cynicism: Generalized hostility, vilification of the human.
10. Human nature being what it is, there will always be war and conflict.
? h.
z5. Familiarity breeds contempt.
41. The true American way of life is disappearing so fast that force
may be necessary to preserve it.
Projectivity: The disposition to believe that wild and dangerous things go on in the world; the projection outward of unconscious emo- tional impulses.
36. Nowadays when so many different kinds of people move around so much and mix together so freely, a person has to be especially careful to protect himself against infection and disease.
45? Nowadays more and more people are prying into matters that should remain personal and private.
46. It is possible that wars and social troubles will be ended once and for all by an earthquake or flood that will destroy the whole world.
52. The wild sex life of the old Greeks and Romans was tame com- pared to some of the goings-on in this country, even in places where people might least expect it.
57? Most people don't realize how much our lives are controlled by plots hatched in secret by politicians.
Sex: Exaggerated concern with sexual "goings-on. "
1.
34?
52.
58.
Sex crimes, such as rape and attacks on children, deserve more than mere imprisonment; such criminals ought to be publicly whipped or worse.
The wild sex life of the old Greeks and Romans was tame com- pared to some of the goings-on in this country, even in places where people might least expect it.
Homosexuals are nothing but degenerates and ought to be severely punished.
THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
out sacrificing breadth or meaningfulness, it seemed the better part of wis- dom not to undertake much shortening of it at this stage.
The I9 items from the F scale (Form 78) that ranked highest in order of goodness were retained, in the same or slightly revised form, in the new scale. Thus, statistical differentiating power of the item was the main basis of selection. As stated above, however, the items which came out best statis- tically were, in general, those which seemed best from the point of view of theory, so that retaining them required no compromise with the original purpose of the scale. Of these items, 5 were changed in no way; revision of the others involved change in wording but not in essential meaning, the aim being to avoid too much uniformity of agreement or disagreement and, hence, to produce mean scores as close as possible to the neutral point.
Given I 9 items of known dependability, the task was to formulate I 5 additional ones which, singly, met the requirements of good items and which, taken together, covered the ground mapped out according to our theory. Here, criteria other than statistical ones played an important role. In attempt- ing to achieve a maximum of indirectness we not only eliminated items which were too openly aggressive (they had low D. P. 's anyway) but retained, in
? Reliability
Mean (total) Mean (odd half) Mean (even half)
S. D. (total)
S. D. (Odd half) S. D. (even half)
N
Range
86
3. 32 3. 41 3. 24
. 86 . 97 . 75
. 91 . 89
3. 39 3. 82 3. 42 4. 09 3. 36 3. 56
. 96 . 93 1. 03 . 99 . 96 . 97
. 87
3. 74 3. 78 3. 73
. 81 ? 77 . 93
. 81
3. 25 3. 19 3. 28
. 71 . 83 . 76
MEASUREMENT OF ANTIDEMOCRA TIC TRENDS
a slightly revised form, Item 65 (World catastrophe) despite its relatively low D. P. (R. 0. 2 3? 5), because it expressed a theoretically important idea and appeared on the surface to be almost completely removed from "race" prejudice and fascism. In the name of breadth, Item 67 (Eye to profit), whose D. P. was not low (R. 0. 2I), was eliminated because of its too great similarity to the highly discriminating Item 59 (Always war). To cover a great variety of ideas as efficiently as possible, two or more of them were combined in the same statement, e. g. , "Any red-blooded American will fight to defend his property" or ". . . people think too much and work too little. " With attention to these criteria, and to meaningfulness, contribution to the structural unity of the scale, and proper degree of rational justification, 4 items from the F scale (Form 78) whose D. P. rank orders were lower than I 9, were revised and I I new items were formulated to complete the new form.
