No More Learning

The third class consists of those who inquire at what time and in what
manner births and deaths take place, which is done with a view to tax
(on these occasions), and in order that the deaths and births of persons
both of good and bad character should not be concealed.

The fourth division consists of those who are occupied in sales and
exchanges; they have the charge of measures, and of the sale of the
products in season, by a signal. The same person is not allowed to
exchange various kinds of articles, except he pays a double tax.

The fifth division presides over works of artisans, and disposes of
articles by public notice. The new are sold apart from the old, and
there is a fine imposed for mixing them together. The sixth and last
comprises those who collect the tenth of the price of the articles sold.
Death is the punishment for committing a fraud with regard to the tax.

These are the peculiar duties performed by each class, but in their
collective capacity they have the charge both of their own peculiar
province and of civil affairs, the repairs of public works, prices[389]
of articles, of markets, harbours, and temples.

52. Next to the magistrates of the city is a third body of governors,
who have the care of military affairs. This class also consists of six
divisions, each composed of five persons. One division is associated
with the chief naval superintendent, another with the person who has the
charge of the bullock-teams, by which military engines are transported,
of provisions both for the men and beasts, and other requisites for the
army. They furnish attendants, who beat a drum, and carry gongs;[390]
and besides these, grooms, mechanists, and their assistants. They
despatch by the sound of the gong the foragers for grass, and insure
expedition and security by rewards and punishments. The third division
has the care of the infantry; the fourth, of the horses; the fifth, of
the chariots; the sixth, of the elephants. There are royal stables for
the horses and elephants. There is also a royal magazine of arms; for
the soldier returns his arms to the armoury, and the horse and elephant
to the stables. They use the elephants without bridles. The chariots are
drawn on the march by oxen. The horses are led by a halter, in order
that their legs may not be chafed and inflamed, nor their spirit damped,
by drawing chariots. Besides the charioteer, there are two persons who
fight by his side in the chariot. With the elephant are four persons,
the driver and three bowmen, who discharge arrows from his back.

53. All the Indians are frugal in their mode of life, and especially in
camp. They do not tolerate useless and undisciplined multitudes, and
consequently observe good order. Theft is very rare among them.
Megasthenes, who was in the camp of Sandrocottus, which consisted of
400,000 men, did not witness on any day thefts reported, which exceeded
the sum of two hundred drachmæ, and this among a people who have no
written laws, who are ignorant even of writing, and regulate everything
by memory. They are, however, happy on account of their simple manners
and frugal way of life. They never drink wine, but at sacrifices. Their
beverage is made from rice instead of barley, and their food consists
for the most part of rice pottage. The simplicity of their laws and
contracts appears from their not having many law-suits. They have no
suits respecting pledges and deposits, nor do they require witnesses or
seals, but make their deposits, and confide in one another. Their houses
and property are unguarded. These things denote temperance and sobriety;
others no one would approve, as their eating always alone, and their not
having all of them one common hour for their meals, but each taking it
as he likes. The contrary custom is more agreeable to the habits of
social and civil life.

54. As an exercise of the body they prefer friction in various ways, but
particularly by making use of smooth sticks of ebony, which they pass
over the surface of the body.

[CAS. 709] Their sepulchres are plain, and the tumuli of earth low.

In contrast to their parsimony in other things, they indulge in
ornament. They wear dresses worked with gold and precious stones, and
flowered (variegated) robes, and are attended by persons following them
with umbrellas; for as they highly esteem beauty, everything is attended
to, which can improve their looks.

They respect alike truth and virtue; therefore they do not assign any
privilege to the old, unless they possess superior wisdom.

They marry many wives, who are purchased from their parents, and give in
exchange for them a yoke of oxen. Some marry wives to possess obedient
attendants, others with a view to pleasure and numerous offspring, and
the wives prostitute themselves, unless chastity is enforced by
compulsion.

No one wears a garland when sacrificing, or burning incense, or pouring
out a libation. They do not stab, but strangle the victim, that nothing
mutilated, but that which is entire, may be offered to the Deity.

A person convicted of bearing false testimony suffers a mutilation of
his extremities. He who has maimed another not only undergoes in return
the loss of the same limb, but his hand also is cut off. If he has
caused a workman to lose his hand or his eye, he is put to death.

Megasthenes says, that none of the Indians employ slaves. But, according
to Onesicritus, this is peculiar to the people in the territory of
Musicanus. He speaks of this as an excellent rule, and mentions many
others to be found in that country, as the effects of a government by
good laws.

55. The care of the king’s person is committed to women, who are also
purchased of their parents. The body-guard, and the rest of the
military, are stationed without the gates. A woman, who puts to death a
king when drunk, is rewarded by becoming the wife of his successor. The
sons succeed the father. The king may not sleep during the day-time, and
at night he is obliged from time to time to change his bed, from dread
of treachery.

The king leaves his palace in time of war; he leaves it also when he
goes to sit in his court as a judge. He remains there all day thus
occupied, not suffering himself to be interrupted even though the time
arrives for attending to his person. This attention to his person
consists of friction with pieces of wood, and he continues to listen to
the cause, while the friction is performed by four attendants who
surround him.

Another occasion of leaving his palace is to offer sacrifice.

The third is a sort of Bacchanalian departure to the chace. Crowds of
women surround him, and on the outside (of these) are spear-men. The
road is set off with ropes; a man, or even a woman, who passes within
the ropes is put to death.

The king is preceded by drums and gongs. He hunts in the enclosures, and
discharges his arrows from a high seat. Near him stand two or three
armed women. When hunting in the open ground, he shoots his arrows from
an elephant; of the women some are in chariots, some on horses, and
others on elephants; they are provided with all kinds of weapons, as if
they were going on a military expedition.

56. These customs when compared with ours are very strange, but the
following are still more extraordinary. According to Megasthenes, the
nations who inhabit the Caucasus have commerce with women in public; and
eat the bodies of their relatives; the monkeys climb precipices, and
roll down large stones upon their pursuers; most of the animals which
are tame in our country are wild in theirs; the horses have a single
horn, with heads like those of deer; reeds which grow to the height of
thirty orguiæ,[391] others which grow on the ground, fifty orguiæ in
length, and in thickness some are three and others six cubits in
diameter.

57. He then deviates into fables, and says that there are men of five,
and even three spans in height, some of whom are without nostrils, with
only two breathing orifices above the mouth. Those of three spans in
height wage war with the cranes (described by Homer) and with the
partridges, which are as large as geese; these people collect and
destroy the eggs of the cranes which lay their eggs there; and nowhere
else are the eggs or the young cranes to be found; frequently a crane
escapes from this country with a brazen point of a weapon in its body,
wounded by these people.

Similar to this is the account of the Enotocoitæ,[392] of the wild men,
and of other monsters. The wild men could not be brought to
Sandrocottus, for they died by abstaining from [CAS. 711] food. Their
heels are in front, the instep and toes are turned backwards. Some have
been taken, which had no mouths, and were tame. They live near the
sources of the Ganges, and are supported by the smell of dressed meat
and the fragrance of fruits and flowers, having instead of mouths
orifices through which they breathe. They are distressed by
strong-smelling substances, and therefore their lives are sustained with
difficulty, particularly in a camp.

With respect to the other singular animals, the philosophers informed
him of a people called Ocypodæ, so swift of foot that they leave horses
behind them; of Enotocoitæ, or persons having ears hanging down to their
feet, so that they lie and sleep upon them, and so strong as to be able
to pluck up trees and to break the sinew string of a bow; of others
(Monommati) who have only one eye, and the ears of a dog, the eye placed
in the middle of the forehead, the hair standing erect, and the breasts
shaggy; of others (Amycteres) without nostrils, devouring everything,
eaters of raw meat, short-lived, and dying before they arrive at old
age; the upper part of their mouths projects far beyond the lower lip.

With respect to the Hyperboreans, who live to the age of a thousand
years, his description is the same as that of Simonides, Pindar, and
other mythological writers.

The story told by Timagenes of a shower of drops of brass, which were
raked together, is a fable. The account of Megasthenes is more probable,
namely, that the rivers bring down gold-dust, a part of which is paid as
a tax to the king; and this is the case in Iberia (of Armenia).

58. Speaking of the philosophers, he says, that those who inhabit the
mountains are worshippers of Bacchus, and show as a proof (of the god
having come among them) the wild vine, which grows in their country
only; the ivy, the laurel, the myrtle, the box-tree, and other
evergreens, none of which are found beyond the Euphrates, except a few
in parks, which are only preserved with great care. To wear robes and
turbans, to use perfumes, and to be dressed in dyed and flowered
garments, for their kings to be preceded when they leave their palaces,
and appear abroad, by gongs and drums, are Bacchanalian customs. But the
philosophers who live in the plains worship Hercules.

These are fabulous stories, contradicted by many writers, particularly
what is said of the vine and wine, for a great part of Armenia, the
whole of Mesopotamia and Media, as far as Persia and Carmania, is beyond
the Euphrates, the greater part of which countries is said to have
excellent vines, and to produce good wine.

59. Megasthenes divides the philosophers again into two kinds, the
Brachmanes[393] and the Garmanes. [394] The Brachmanes are held in
greater repute, for they agree more exactly in their opinions. Even from
the time of their conception in the womb they are under the care and
guardianship of learned men, who go to the mother, and seem to perform
some incantation for the happiness and welfare of the mother and the
unborn child, but in reality they suggest prudent advice, and the
mothers who listen to them most willingly are thought to be the most
fortunate in their offspring. After the birth of the children, there is
a succession of persons who have the care of them, and as they advance
in years, masters more able and accomplished succeed.

The philosophers live in a grove in front of the city within a
moderate-sized enclosure. Their diet is frugal, and they lie upon straw
pallets and on skins. They abstain from animal food, and from sexual
intercourse with women; their time is occupied in grave discourse, and
they communicate with those who are inclined to listen to them; but the
hearer is not permitted to speak or cough, or even to spit on the
ground; otherwise, he is expelled that very day from their society, on
the ground of having no control over himself. After living thirty-seven
years in this manner, each individual retires to his own possessions,
and lives with less restraint, wearing robes of fine linen, and rings of
gold, but without profuseness, upon the hands and in the ears. They eat
the flesh of animals, of those particularly which do not assist man in
his labour, and abstain from hot and seasoned food. They have as many
wives as they please with a view to numerous offspring, for from many
wives greater advantages are derived.

As they have no slaves, they require more the services, which are at
hand, of their children.

The Brachmanes do not communicate their philosophy to their wives, for
fear they should divulge to the profane, if [CAS. 712] they became
depraved, anything which ought to be concealed; or lest they should
abandon their husbands in case they became good (philosophers)
themselves. For no one who despises alike pleasure and pain, life and
death, is willing to be subject to the authority of another; and such is
the character of a virtuous man and a virtuous woman.

They discourse much on death, for it is their opinion that the present
life is the state of one conceived in the womb, and that death to
philosophers is birth to a real and a happy life. They therefore
discipline themselves much to prepare for death, and maintain that
nothing which happens to man is bad or good, for otherwise the same
things would not be the occasion of sorrow to some and of joy to others,
opinions being merely dreams, nor that the same persons could be
affected with sorrow and joy by the same things, on different occasions.

With regard to opinions on physical phenomena, they display, says
Megasthenes, great simplicity, their actions being better than their
reasoning, for their belief is chiefly founded on fables. On many
subjects their sentiments are the same as those of the Greeks. According
to the Brachmanes, the world was created, and is liable to corruption;
it is of a spheroïdal figure; the god who made and governs it pervades
the whole of it; the principles of all things are different, but the
principle of the world’s formation was water; in addition to the four
elements there is a fifth nature, of which the heavens and the stars are
composed; the earth is situated in the centre of the universe. Many
other peculiar things they say of the principle of generation and of the
soul. They invent fables also, after the manner of Plato, on the
immortality of the soul, and on the punishments in Hades, and other
things of this kind. This is the account which Megasthenes gives of the
Brachmanes.

60. Of the Garmanes, the most honourable, he says, are the Hylobii, who
live in the forests, and subsist on leaves and wild fruits: they are
clothed with garments made of the bark of trees,[395] and abstain from
commerce with women and from wine. The kings hold communication with
them by messengers, concerning the causes of things, and through them
worship and supplicate the Divinity.

Second in honour to the Hylobii, are the physicians, for they apply
philosophy to the study of the nature of man. They are of frugal habits,
but do not live in the fields, and subsist upon rice and meal, which
every one gives when asked, and receive them hospitably. They are able
to cause persons to have a numerous offspring, and to have either male
or female children, by means of charms. They cure diseases by diet,
rather than by medicinal remedies. Among the latter, the most in repute
are unguents and cataplasms. All others they suppose partake greatly of
a noxious nature.

Both this and the other class of persons practise fortitude, as well in
supporting active toil as in enduring suffering, so that they will
continue a whole day in the same posture, without motion.

There are enchanters and diviners, versed in the rites and customs
relative to the dead, who go about villages and towns begging. There are
others who are more civilized and better informed than these, who
inculcate the vulgar opinions concerning Hades, which, according to
their ideas, tend to piety and sanctity. Women study philosophy with
some of them, but abstain from sexual intercourse.

61. Aristobulus says, that he saw at Taxila two sophists (wise men),
both Brachmanes, the elder had his head shaved, but the younger wore his
hair; both were attended by disciples. When not otherwise engaged, they
spent their time in the market-place. They are honoured as public
counsellors, and have the liberty of taking away, without payment,
whatever article they like which is exposed for sale; when any one
accosts them, he pours over them oil of jessamine, in such profusion
that it runs down from their eyes. Of honey and sesamum, which is
exposed for sale in large quantity, they take enough to make cakes, and
are fed without expense.

They came up to Alexander’s table and took their meal standing, and they
gave an example of their fortitude by retiring to a neighbouring spot,
where the elder, falling on the ground supine, endured the sun and the
rain, which had now set in, it being the commencement of spring. The
other stood on one leg, with a piece of wood three cubits in length
raised in both hands; when one leg was fatigued he changed the support
to the other, and thus continued the whole day. The younger appeared to
possess much more self-command; for, [CAS. 714] after following the
king a short distance, he soon returned to his home. The king sent after
him, but he bade the king to come to him, if he wanted anything of him.
The other accompanied the king to the last: during his stay he changed
his dress, and altered his mode of life, and when reproached for his
conduct, answered, that he had completed the forty years of discipline
which he had promised to observe: Alexander made presents to his
children.

62. Aristobulus relates also some strange and unusual customs of the
people of Taxila. Those, who through poverty are unable to marry their
daughters, expose them for sale in the market-place, in the flower of
their age, to the sound of shell trumpets and drums, with which the
war-note is given. A crowd is thus assembled. First her back, as far as
the shoulders, is uncovered, then the parts in front, for the
examination of any man who comes for this purpose. If she pleases him,
he marries her on such conditions as may be determined upon.

The dead are thrown out to be devoured by vultures. To have many wives
is a custom common to these and to other nations. He says, that he had
heard, from some persons, of wives burning themselves voluntarily with
their deceased husbands; and that those women who refused to submit to
this custom were disgraced. The same things have been told by other
writers. [396]

63. Onesicritus says, that he himself was sent to converse with these
wise men. For Alexander heard that they went about naked, practised
constancy and fortitude, and were held in the highest honour; that, when
invited, they did not go to other persons, but commanded others to come
to them, if they wished to participate in their exercises or their
conversation. Such being their character, Alexander did not consider it
to be consistent with propriety to go to them, nor to compel them to do
anything contrary to their inclination or against the custom of their
country; he therefore despatched Onesicritus to them.

Onesicritus found, at the distance of 20 stadia from the city, fifteen
men standing in different postures, sitting or lying down naked, who
continued in these positions until the evening, and then returned to the
city. The most difficult thing to endure was the heat of the sun, which
was so powerful, that no one else could endure without pain to walk on
the ground at mid-day with bare feet.

64. He conversed with Calanus, one of these sophists, who accompanied
the king to Persia, and died after the custom of his country, being
placed on a pile of [burning] wood. When Onesicritus came, he was lying
upon stones. Onesicritus approached, accosted him, and told him that he
had been sent by the king, who had heard the fame of his wisdom, and
that he was to give an account of his interview, if there were no
objection, he was ready to listen to his discourse. When Calanus saw his
mantle, head-covering, and shoes, he laughed, and said, “Formerly, there
was abundance everywhere of corn and barley, as there is now of dust;
fountains then flowed with water, milk, honey, wine, and oil, but
mankind by repletion and luxury became proud and insolent. Jupiter,
indignant at this state of things, destroyed all, and appointed for man
a life of toil. On the reäppearance of temperance and other virtues,
there was again an abundance of good things. But at present the
condition of mankind approaches satiety and insolence, and there is
danger lest the things which now exist should disappear. ”

When he had finished, he proposed to Onesicritus, if he wished to hear
his discourse, to strip off his clothes, to lie down naked by him on the
same stones, and in that manner to listen to him; while he was
hesitating what to do, Mandanis,[397] who was the oldest and wisest of
the sophists, reproached Calanus for his insolence, although he censured
such insolence himself. Mandanis called Onesicritus to him, and said, I
commend the king, because, although he governs so large an empire, he is
yet desirous of acquiring wisdom, for he is the only philosopher in arms
that I ever saw; it would be of the greatest advantage, if those were
philosophers who have the power of persuading the willing and of
compelling the unwilling to learn temperance; but I am entitled to
indulgence, if, when conversing by means of three interpreters, who,
except the language, know no more than the vulgar, I am not [CAS. 716]
able to demonstrate the utility of philosophy. To attempt it is to
expect water to flow pure through mud.

65. “The tendency of his discourse,” he said, “was this, that the best
philosophy was that which liberated the mind from pleasure and grief;
that grief differed from labour, in that the former was inimical, the
latter friendly to men; for that men exercised their bodies with labour
in order to strengthen the mental powers, by which means they would be
able to put an end to dissensions, and give good counsel to all, to the
public and to individuals; that he certainly should at present advise
Taxiles to receive Alexander as a friend; for if he entertained a person
better than himself, he might be improved; but if a worse person, he
might dispose him to good. ”

After this Mandanis inquired, whether such doctrines were taught among
the Greeks. Onesicritus answered, that Pythagoras taught a similar
doctrine, and enjoined his disciples to abstain from whatever has life;
that Socrates and Diogenes, whose discourses he had heard, held the same
opinions. Mandanis replied, “that in other respects he thought them
wise, but that in one thing they were mistaken, namely, in preferring
custom to nature, for otherwise they would not be ashamed of going
naked, like himself, and of subsisting on frugal fare; for the best
house was that which required least repairs. ” He says also that they
employ themselves much on natural subjects, as prognostics, rain,
drought, and diseases. When they repair to the city, they disperse
themselves in the market-places; if they meet any one carrying figs or
bunches of grapes, they take what is offered gratuitously; if it is oil,
it is poured over them, and they are anointed with it. Every wealthy
house, even to the women’s apartment, is open to them; when they enter
it, they engage in conversation, and partake of the repast. Disease of
the body they regard as most disgraceful, and he who apprehends it,
after preparing a pyre, destroys himself by fire; he (previously)
anoints himself, and sitting down upon it orders it to be lighted,
remaining motionless while he is burning.

66. Nearchus gives the following account of the Sophists. The Brachmanes
engage in public affairs, and attend the kings as counsellors; the rest
are occupied in the study of nature. Calanus belonged to the latter
class. Women study philosophy with them, and all lead an austere life.

Of the customs of the other Indians, he says, that their laws, whether
relating to the community or to individuals, are not committed to
writing, and differ altogether from those of other people. For example,
it is the practice among some tribes, to propose virgins as prizes to
the conquerors in a trial of skill in boxing; wherefore they marry
without portions; among other tribes the ground is cultivated by
families and in common; when the produce is collected, each takes a load
sufficient for his subsistence during the year; the remainder is burnt,
in order to have a reason for renewing their labour, and not remaining
inactive. Their weapons consist of a bow and arrows, which are three
cubits in length, or a javelin, and a shield, and a sword three cubits
long. Instead of bridles, they use muzzles,[398] which differ little
from a halter, and the lips are perforated with spikes.

67. Nearchus, producing proofs of their skill in works of art, says,
that when they saw sponges in use among the Macedonians, they imitated
them by sewing hairs, thin threads, and strings in wool; after the wool
was felted, they drew out the hairs, threads, and strings, and dyed it
with colours. There quickly appeared also manufactures of brushes for
the body, and of vessels for oil (lecythi). They write, he says, letters
upon cloth, smoothed by being well beaten, although other authors affirm
that they have no knowledge of writing. They use brass, which is cast,
and not wrought; he does not give the reason of this, although he
mentions the strange effect, namely, if that vessels of this description
fall to the ground, they break like those made of clay.

This following custom also is mentioned in accounts of India, that,
instead of prostrating themselves before their kings, it is usual to
address them, and all persons in authority and high station, with a
prayer.

The country produces precious stones, as crystal, carbuncles of all
kinds, and pearls.

68. As an instance of the disagreement among historians, [CAS. 717] we
may adduce their (different) accounts of Calanus. They all agree that he
accompanied Alexander, and underwent a voluntary death by fire in his
presence, but they differ as to the manner and cause of his death. Some
give the following account. Calanus accompanied the king, as the
rehearser of his praises, beyond the boundaries of India, contrary to
the common Indian custom; for the philosophers attend upon their kings,
and act as instructors in the worship of the gods, in the same manner as
the Magi attend the Persian kings. When he fell sick at Pasargadæ, being
then attacked with disease for the first time in his life, he put
himself to death at the age of seventy-three years, regardless of the
entreaties of the king. A pyre was raised, and a golden couch placed
upon it. He laid down upon it, and covering himself up, was burnt to
death.
Others say, that a chamber was constructed of wood, which was filled
with the leaves of trees, and a pyre being raised upon the roof, he was
shut up in it, according to his directions, after the procession, with
which he had been accompanied, had arrived at the spot. He threw himself
upon the pyre, and was consumed like a log of wood, together with the
chamber.

Megasthenes says, that self-destruction is not a dogma of the
philosophers, and that those who commit this act are accounted
fool-hardy; that some, who are by nature harsh, inflict wounds upon
their bodies, or cast themselves down precipices; those who are
impatient of pain drown themselves; those who can endure pain strangle
themselves; and those of ardent tempers throw themselves into the fire.
Of this last description was Calanus, who had no control over himself,
and was a slave to the table of Alexander. Calanus is censured, while
Mandanis is applauded. When Alexander’s messengers invited the latter to
come to the son of Jove, promising a reward if he would comply, and
threatening punishment if he refused, he answered, “Alexander was not
the son of Jove, for he did not govern even the smallest portion of the
earth; nor did he himself desire a gift of one who[399] was satisfied
with nothing. Neither did he fear his threats, for as long as he lived
India would supply him with food enough; and when he died, he should be
delivered from the flesh wasted by old age, and be translated to a
better and purer state of existence. ” Alexander commended and pardoned
him.

69. Historians also relate that the Indians worship Jupiter Ombrius (or,
the Rainy), the river Ganges, and the indigenous deities of the country;
that when the king washes his hair,[400] a great feast is celebrated,
and large presents are sent, each person displaying his wealth in
competition with his neighbour.

They say, that some of the gold-digging myrmeces (ants) have wings; and
that the rivers, like those of Iberia,[401] bring down gold-dust.

In processions at their festivals, many elephants are in the train,
adorned with gold and silver, numerous carriages drawn by four horses
and by several pairs of oxen; then follows a body of attendants in full
dress, (bearing) vessels of gold, large basins and goblets, an
orguia[402] in breadth, tables, chairs of state, drinking-cups, and
lavers of Indian copper, most of which were set with precious stones, as
emeralds, beryls, and Indian carbuncles; garments embroidered and
interwoven with gold; wild beasts, as buffaloes,[403] panthers, tame
lions, and a multitude of birds of variegated plumage and of fine song.

Cleitarchus speaks of four-wheeled carriages bearing trees with large
leaves, from which were suspended (in cages) different kinds of tame
birds, among which the orion[404] was said to possess the sweetest note,
but the catreus[405] was the most beautiful in appearance, and had the
most variegated plumage. In shape it approached nearest to the peacock,
but the rest of the description must be taken from Cleitarchus.

70. Opposed to the Brachmanes there are philosophers, called Pramnæ,
contentious people, and fond of argument. They ridicule the Brachmanes
as boasters and fools for occupying themselves with physiology and
astronomy. Some of the Pramnæ are called Pramnæ of the mountains, others
Gymnetæ, others again are called Townsmen and Countrymen. [CAS. 719]
The Pramnæ of the mountains wear deer-skins, and carry scrips filled
with roots and drugs; they profess to practise medicine by means of
incantations, charms, and amulets.

The Gymnetæ, as their name imports, are naked and live chiefly in the
open air, practising fortitude for the space of thirty-seven years; this
I have before mentioned; women live in their society, but without
cohabitation. The Gymnetæ are held in singular estimation.

71. The (Pramnæ) Townsmen are occupied in civil affairs, dwell in
cities, and wear fine linen, or (as Countrymen they live) in the fields,
clothed in the skins of fawns or antelopes. In short, the Indians wear
white garments, white linen and muslin, contrary to the accounts of
those who say that they wear garments of a bright colour; all of them
wear long hair and long beards, plait their hair, and bind it with a
fillet.

72. Artemidorus says that the Ganges descends from the Emoda mountains
and proceeds towards the south; when it arrives at the city Ganges,[406]
it turns to the east, and keeps this direction as far as
Palibothra,[407] and the mouth by which it discharges itself into the
sea. He calls one of the rivers which flow into it Œdanes,[408] which
breeds crocodiles and dolphins. Some other circumstances besides are
mentioned by him, but in so confused and negligent a manner that they
are not to be regarded. To these accounts may be added that of Nicolaus
Damascenus.

73. This writer states that at Antioch, near Daphne,[409] he met with
ambassadors from the Indians, who were sent to Augustus Cæsar. It
appeared from the letter that several persons were mentioned in it, but
three only survived, whom he says he saw. The rest had died chiefly in
consequence of the length of the journey. The letter was written in
Greek upon a skin; the import of it was, that Porus was the writer, that
although he was sovereign of six hundred kings, yet that he highly
esteemed the friendship of Cæsar; that he was willing to allow him a
passage through his country, in whatever part he pleased, and to assist
him in any undertaking that was just.

Eight naked servants, with girdles round their waists, and fragrant with
perfumes, presented the gifts which were brought. The presents were a
Hermes (i. e. a man) born without arms, whom I have seen, large snakes,
a serpent ten cubits in length, a river tortoise of three cubits in
length, and a partridge (? ) larger than a vulture. They were accompanied
by the person, it is said, who burnt himself to death at Athens. This is
the practice with persons in distress, who seek escape from existing
calamities, and with others in prosperous circumstances, as was the case
with this man. For as everything hitherto had succeeded with him, he
thought it necessary to depart, lest some unexpected calamity should
happen to him by continuing to live; with a smile, therefore, naked,
anointed, and with the girdle round his waist, he leaped upon the pyre.
On his tomb was this inscription,—ZARMANOCHEGAS,[410] AN INDIAN, A
NATIVE OF BARGOSA,[411] HAVING IMMORTALIZED HIMSELF ACCORDING TO THE
CUSTOM OF HIS COUNTRY, HERE LIES.




CHAPTER II.

ARIANA.


1. Next to India is Ariana, the first portion of the country subject to
the Persians, lying beyond[412] the Indus, and the first [CAS. 720] of
the higher satrapies without the Taurus. [413] On the north it is bounded
by the same mountains as India, on the south by the same sea, and by the
same river Indus, which separates it from India. It stretches thence
towards the west as far as the line drawn from the Caspian Gates[414] to
Carmania,[415] whence its figure is quadrilateral.

The southern side begins from the mouths of the Indus, and from
Patalene, and terminates at Carmania and the mouth of the Persian Gulf,
by a promontory projecting a considerable distance to the south. It then
makes a bend towards the gulf in the direction of Persia.

The Arbies, who have the same name as the river Arbis,[416] are the
first inhabitants we meet with in this country. They are separated by
the Arbis from the next tribe, the Oritæ, and according to Nearchus,
occupy a tract of sea-coast of about 1000 stadia in length; this country
also is a part of India. Next are the Oritæ, a people governed by their
own laws. The voyage along the coast belonging to this people extends
1800 stadia, that along the country of the Ichthyophagi, who follow
next, extends 7400 stadia; that along the country of the Carmani as far
as Persia, 3700 stadia. The whole number of stadia is 13,900.

2. The greater part of the country inhabited by the Ichthyophagi is on a
level with the sea. No trees, except palms and a kind of thorn, and the
tamarisk, grow there. There is also a scarcity of water, and of food
produced by cultivation. Both they and their cattle subsist upon fish,
and are supplied by rain water and wells. The flesh of the animals has
the smell of fish. Their dwellings are built with the bones of large
whales and shells, the ribs furnishing beams and supports, and the
jaw-bones, door-ways. The vertebral bones serve as mortars in which
fish, which have been previously dried in the sun, are pounded. Of this,
with the addition of flour, cakes are made; for they have grinding mills
(for corn), although they have no iron. This however is not so
surprising, because it is possible for them to import it from other
parts. But how do they hollow out the mills again, when worn away? with
the same stones, they say, with which their arrows and javelins, which
are hardened in the fire, are sharpened. Some fish are dressed in ovens,
but the greater part is eaten raw. The fish are taken in nets made of
the bark of the palm.

3. Above the Ichthyophagi is situated Gedrosia,[417] a country less
exposed to the heat of the sun than India, but more so than the rest of
Asia. As it is without fruits and water, except in summer, it is not
much better than the country of the Ichthyophagi. But it produces
aromatics, particularly nard and myrrh, in such quantity, that the army
of Alexander used them on the march for tent coverings and beds; they
thus breathed an air full of odours, and at the same time more
salubrious.

The summer was purposely chosen for leaving India, for at that season it
rains in Gedrosia, and the rivers and wells are filled, but in winter
they fail. The rain falls in the higher parts to the north, and near the
mountains: when the rivers swell, the plains near the sea are watered,
and the wells are also filled. Alexander sent persons before him into
the desert country to dig wells and to prepare stations for himself and
his fleet.

4. Having separated his forces into three divisions, he set out with one
division through Gedrosia, keeping at the utmost from the sea not more
than 500 stadia, in order to secure the coast for his fleet; but he
frequently approached the sea-side, although the beach was impracticable
and rugged. The second division he sent forward under the command of
Craterus through the interior, with a view of reducing Ariana, and of
proceeding to the same places to which he himself was directing his
march. (The third division), the fleet he intrusted to Nearchus and
Onesicritus, his master pilot, giving them orders to [CAS. 721] take up
convenient positions in following him, and to sail along the coast
parallel to his line of march.

5. Nearchus says, that while Alexander was on his march, he himself
commenced his voyage, in the autumn, about the achronical rising of the
Pleiades,[418] the wind not being before favourable. The Barbarians
however, taking courage at the departure of the king, became daring, and
attempted to throw off their subjection, attacked them, and endeavoured
to drive them out of the country. But Craterus set out from the
Hydaspes, and proceeded through the country of the Arachoti and of the
Drangæ into Carmania.

Alexander was greatly distressed throughout the whole march, as his road
lay through a barren country. The supplies of provisions which he
obtained came from a distance, and were scanty and unfrequent, so much
so that the army suffered greatly from hunger, the beasts of burden
dropped down, and the baggage was abandoned, both on the march and in
the camp. The army was saved by eating dates and the marrow of the
palm-tree. [419]

Alexander however (says Nearchus), although acquainted with the
hardships of the enterprise, was ambitious of conducting this large army
in safety, as a conqueror, through the same country where, according to
the prevailing report, Semiramis escaped by flight from India with about
twenty, and Cyrus with about seven men.

6. Besides the want of provisions, the scorching heat was distressing,
as also the deep and burning sand. In some places there were sand-hills,
so that in addition to the difficulty of lifting the legs, as out of a
pit, there were ascents and descents. It was necessary also, on account
of the watering places, to make long marches of two, four, and sometimes
even of six hundred stadia, for the most part during the night.
Frequently the encampment was at a distance of 30 stadia from the
watering places, in order that the soldiers might not be induced by
thirst to drink to excess. For many of them plunged into the water in
their armour, and continued drinking until they were drowned; when
swollen after death they floated, and corrupted the shallow water of the
cisterns. Others, exhausted by thirst, lay exposed to the sun, in the
middle of the road. They then became tremulous, their hands and their
feet shook, and they died like persons seized with cold and shivering.
Some turned out of the road to indulge in sleep, overcome with
drowsiness and fatigue; some were left behind, and perished, being
ignorant of the road, destitute of everything, and overpowered by heat.
Others escaped after great sufferings. A torrent of water, which fell in
the night time, overwhelmed and destroyed many persons, and much
baggage; a great part even of the royal equipage was swept away.

The guides, through ignorance, deviated so far into the interior, that
the sea was no longer in sight. The king, perceiving the danger,
immediately set out in search of the coast; when he had discovered it,
and by sinking wells had found water fit for drinking, he sent for the
army: afterwards he continued his march for seven days near the shore,
with a good supply of water. He then again returned into the interior.

7. There was a plant resembling the laurel, which if eaten by the beasts
of burden caused them to die of epilepsy, accompanied with foaming at
the mouth. A thorn also, the fruit of which, like gourds, strewed the
ground, and was full of a juice; if drops of it fell into the eyes of
any kind of animal it became completely blind. Many persons were
suffocated by eating unripe dates. Danger also was to be apprehended
from serpents; for on the sand-hills there grew a plant, underneath
which they crept and hid themselves. The persons wounded by them died.

The Oritæ, it was said, smeared the points of their arrows, which were
of wood hardened in the fire, with deadly poisons. When Ptolemy was
wounded and in danger of his life, a person appeared in a dream to
Alexander, and showed him a root with leaves and branches, which he told
him to bruise and place upon the wound. Alexander awoke from his dream,
and remembering the vision, searched and found the root growing in
abundance, of which both he and others made use; [CAS. 723] when the
Barbarians perceived that the antidote for the poison was discovered,
they surrendered to the king. It is probable, however, that some one
acquainted with the plant informed the king of its virtues, and that the
fabulous part of the story was invented for the purpose of flattery.

Having arrived at the palace[420] of the Gedrosii on the sixtieth day
after leaving the Ori,[421] and allowed his army a short period of rest,
he set out for Carmania.

8. The position of the southern side of Ariana is thus situated, with
reference to the sea-coast, the country of the Gedrosii and the Oritæ
lying near and above it. A great part of Gedrosia extends into the
interior until it touches upon the Drangæ, Arachoti, and Paropamisadæ,
of whom Eratosthenes speaks in the following manner: we cannot give a
better description. “Ariana,” he says, “is bounded on the east by the
Indus, on the south by the Great Sea, on the north by the Paropamisus
and the succeeding chain of mountains as far as the Caspian Gates, on
the west by the same limits[422] by which the territory of the Parthians
is separated from Media, and Carmania from Parætacene and Persia.

The breadth of the country is the length of the Indus, reckoned from the
Paropamisus as far as the mouths of that river, and amounts to 12,000,
or according to others to 13,000, stadia. The length, beginning from the
Caspian Gates, as it is laid down in Asiatic Stathmi,[423] is estimated
in two different ways. From the Caspian Gates to Alexandreia among the
Arii[424] through Parthia is one and the same road. Then a road leads in
a straight line through Bactriana, and over the pass of the mountain to
Ortospana,[425] to the meeting of the three roads from Bactra, which is
among the Paropamisadæ. The other branch turns off a little from Aria
towards the south to Prophthasia in Drangiana; then the remainder leads
as far as the confines of India and of the Indus; so that the road
through the Drangæ and the Arachoti is longer, the whole amounting to
15,300 stadia. But if we deduct 1300 stadia, we shall have the remainder
as the length of the country in a straight line, namely, 14,000 stadia;
for the length of the coast is not much less, although some persons
increase this sum by adding to the 10,000 stadia Carmania, which is
reckoned at 6000 stadia. For they seem to reckon it either together with
the gulfs, or together with the Carmanian coast within the Persian Gulf.
The name also of Ariana is extended so as to include some part of
Persia, Media, and the north of Bactria and Sogdiana; for these nations
speak nearly the same language. [426]

9. The order in which these nations are disposed is as follows. Along
the Indus are the Paropamisadæ, above whom lies the mountain
Paropamisus; then towards the south are the Arachoti; then next to these
towards the south, the Gedroseni, together with other tribes who occupy
the sea-coast; the Indus runs parallel along the breadth of these
tracts. The Indians occupy [in part][427] some of the countries situated
along the Indus, which formerly belonged to the Persians: Alexander
deprived the Ariani of them, and established there settlements of his
own. But Seleucus Nicator gave them to Sandrocottus in consequence of a
marriage contract, and received in return five hundred elephants.

The Arii are situated on the west, by the side of the Paropamisadæ and
the Drangæ[428] by the Arachoti and Gedrosii. The Arii are situated by
the side of the Drangæ both on the north and west, and nearly encompass
them. Bactriana adjoins Aria on the north, and the Paropamisadæ, through
whose territory Alexander passed when he crossed the Caucasus on his way
to Bactra. Towards the west, next to the Arii, are the Parthians, and
the parts about the Caspian Gates. Towards the south of Parthia is the
desert of Carmania; then follows the remainder of Carmania and Gedrosia.

10. We shall better understand the position of the places about the
above-mentioned mountainous tract, if we further examine the route which
Alexander took from the Parthian territory to Bactriana, when he was in
pursuit of Bessus. He came first to Ariana, next to the Drangæ, where he
put to death Philotas, the son of Parmenio, having detected his
traitorous intentions. He despatched persons to Ecbatana[429] also
[CAS. 725] to put the father to death as an accomplice in the
conspiracy. It is said that these persons performed in eleven days, upon
dromedaries, a journey of 30 or 40 days, and executed their business.

The Drangæ resemble the Persians in all other respects in their mode of
life, except that they have little wine. Tin is found in the
country. [430]

Alexander next went from the Drangæ to the Euergetæ,[431] (to whom Cyrus
gave this name,) and to the Arachoti; then through the territory of the
Paropamisadæ at the setting of the Pleiad. [432] It is a mountainous
country, and at that time was covered with snow, so that the march was
performed with difficulty. The numerous villages, however, on their
march, which were well provided with everything except oil, afforded
relief in their distress. On their left hand were the summits of the
mountains.

The southern parts of the Paropamisus belong to India and Ariana; the
northern parts towards the west belong to Bactriana [towards the east to
Sogdiana * *[433] Bactrian barbarians]. Having wintered there, with
India above to the right hand, and having founded a city, he crossed the
summits of the mountains into Bactriana. The road was bare of everything
except a few trees of the bushy terminthus;[434] the army was driven
from want of food to eat the flesh of the beasts of burthen, and that in
a raw state for want of firewood; but silphium grew in great abundance,
which promoted the digestion of this raw food. Fifteen days after
founding the city and leaving winter quarters, he came to Adrapsa[435]
(Darapsa? ), a city of Bactriana.

11. Chaarene is situated somewhere about this part of the country
bordering upon India. This, of all the places subject to the Parthians,
lies nearest to India. It is distant 10,000 or 9000 stadia[436] from
Bactriana,[437] through the country of the Arachoti, and the
above-mentioned mountainous tract. Craterus traversed this country,
subjugating those who refused to submit, and hastened with the greatest
expedition to form a junction with the king. Nearly about the same time
both armies, consisting of infantry, entered Carmania together, and at a
short interval afterwards Nearchus sailed with his fleet into the
Persian Gulf, having undergone great danger and distress from wandering
in his course, and among other causes, from great whales.

12. It is probable that those who sailed in the expedition greatly
exaggerated many circumstances; yet their statements prove the
sufferings to which they were exposed, and that their apprehensions were
greater than the real danger. That which alarmed them the most was the
magnitude of the whales, which occasioned great commotion in the sea
from their numbers; their blowing was attended with so great a darkness,
that the sailors could not see where they stood. But when the pilots
informed the sailors, who were terrified at the sight and ignorant of
the cause, that they were animals which might easily be driven away by
the sound of a trumpet, and by loud noises, Nearchus impelled the
vessels with violence in the direction of the impediment, and at the
same time frightened the animals with the sound of trumpets. The whales
dived, and again rose at the prow of the vessels, so as to give the
appearance of a naval combat; but they soon made off.

13. Those who now sail to India speak of the size of these animals and
their mode of appearance, but as coming neither in bodies nor
frequently, yet as repulsed by shouts and by the sound of trumpets. They
affirm that they do not approach the land, but that the bones of those
which die, bared of flesh, are readily thrown up by the waves, and
supply the Ichthyophagi with the above-mentioned material for the
construction of their cabins. According to Nearchus, the size of these
animals is three and twenty orguiæ in length. [438]

[CAS. 726] Nearchus says that he proved the confident belief of the
sailors in the existence of an island situated in the passage, and
destructive to those who anchored near it, to be false.

A bark in its course, when it came opposite to this island, was never
afterwards seen, and some men who were sent in search did not venture to
disembark upon the island, but shouted and called to the crew, when,
receiving no answer, they returned. But as all imputed this
disappearance to the island, Nearchus said that he himself sailed to it,
went ashore, disembarked with a part of his crew, and went round it. But
not discovering any trace of those of whom he was in search, he
abandoned the attempt, and informed his men that no fault was to be
imputed to the island (for otherwise destruction would have come upon
himself and those who disembarked with him), but that some other cause
(and innumerable others were possible) might have occasioned the loss of
the vessel.

14. Carmania is the last portion of the sea-coast which begins from the
Indus. Its first promontory projects towards the south into the Great
Sea. [439] After it has formed the mouth of the Persian Gulf towards the
promontory, which is in sight, of Arabia Felix, it bends towards the
Persian Gulf, and is continued till it touches Persia.

Carmania is large, situated in the interior, and extending itself
between Gedrosia and Persia, but stretches more to the north than
Gedrosia. This is indicated by its fertility, for it not only produces
everything, but the trees are of a large size, excepting however the
olive; it is also watered by rivers. Gedrosia also differs little from
the country of the Ichthyophagi, so that frequently there is no produce
from the ground. They therefore keep the annual produce in store for
several years.

Onesicritus says, that a river in Carmania brings down gold-dust; that
there are mines of silver, copper, and minium; and that there are two
mountains, one of which contains arsenic, the other salt.

There belongs to it a desert tract, which is contiguous to Parthia and
Parætacene. The produce of the ground is like that of Persia; and among
other productions the vine. The Carmanian vine, as we call it, often
bears bunches of grapes of two cubits in size; the seeds are very
numerous and very large; probably the plant grows in its native soil
with great luxuriance.

Asses, on account of the scarcity of horses, are generally made use of
even in war. They sacrifice an ass to Mars, who is the only deity
worshipped by them, for they are a warlike people. No one marries before
he has cut off the head of an enemy and presented it to the king, who
deposits the scull in the royal treasury. The tongue is minced and mixed
with flour, which the king, after tasting it, gives to the person who
brought it, to be eaten by himself and his family. That king is the most
highly respected, to whom the greatest number of heads are presented.

According to Nearchus, most of the customs and the language of the
inhabitants of Carmania resemble those of the Persians and Medes.

The passage across the mouth of the Persian Gulf does not occupy more
than one day.




CHAPTER III.


1. Next to Carmania is Persis. A great part of it extends along the
coast of the Gulf, which has its name from the country, but a much
larger portion stretches into the interior, and particularly in its
length, reckoned from the south, and Carmania to the north, and to the
nations of Media.

It is of a threefold character, as we regard its natural condition and
the quality of the air.