No More Learning

In some places the road is so narrow as to make
both the foot traveller and his beasts of burden, who are unaccustomed
to it, dizzy; but the animals of the district will carry their burdens
quite securely. These things however are beyond remedy, as well as the
violent descent of vast masses of congealed snow from above, capable of
overwhelming a whole company at a time, and sweeping them into the
chasms beneath. Numerous masses lie one upon the other, one hill of
congealed snow being formed upon another, so that the uppermost mass is
easily detached at any time from that below it, before being perfectly
melted by the sun.

7. A great part of the country of the Salassi lies in a deep
valley,[1532] formed by a chain of mountains which encloses the district
on either side; a part of them however inhabit the overhanging ridges.
The route of those who are desirous of passing from Italy over these
mountains, lies through the aforesaid valley. Beyond this the road
separates into two. The one which passes through the mountain peaks,
known as the Pennine Alps, cannot be traversed by carriages; the other,
which runs through the country of the Centrones, lies more to the
west. [1533] The country of the Salassi contains gold mines, of which
formerly, in the days of their power, they were masters, as well as of
the passes. The river Doria Baltea[1534] afforded them great facility in
obtaining the metal by [supplying them with water] for washing the gold,
and they have emptied the main bed by the numerous trenches cut for
drawing the water to different places. This operation, though
advantageous in gold hunting, was injurious to the agriculturists below,
as it deprived them of the irrigation of a river, which, by the height
of its position, was capable of watering their plains. This gave rise to
frequent wars between the two nations; when the Romans gained the
dominion, the Salassi lost both their gold works and their country, but
as they still possessed the mountains, they continued to sell water to
the public contractors of the gold mines; with whom there were continual
disputes on account of the avarice of the contractors, and thus the
Roman generals sent into the country were ever able to find a pretext
for commencing war. And, until very recently, the Salassi at one time
waging war against the Romans, and at another making peace, took
occasion to inflict numerous damages upon those who crossed over their
mountains, by their system of plundering; and even exacted from Decimus
Brutus, on his flight from Mutina,[1535] a drachm per man. Messala,
likewise, having taken up his winter quarters in their vicinity, was
obliged to pay them, both for his fire-wood, and for the elm-wood for
making javelins for the exercise of his troops. In one instance they
plundered the treasures of Cæsar,[1536] and rolled down huge [CAS. 206]
masses of rock upon the soldiers under pretence of making roads, or
building bridges over the rivers. Afterwards Augustus completely
overthrew them, and carried them to Eporedia,[1537] a Roman colony which
had been planted as a bulwark against the Salassi, although the
inhabitants were able to do but little against them until the nation was
destroyed; their numbers amounted to 36,000 persons, besides 8000 men
capable of bearing arms. Terentius Varro, the general who defeated them,
sold them all by public auction, as enemies taken in war. Three thousand
Romans sent out by Augustus founded the city of Augusta,[1538] on the
spot where Varro had encamped, and now the whole surrounding country,
even to the summits of the mountains, is at peace.

8. Beyond, both the eastern parts of the mountains, and those likewise
inclining to the south, are possessed by the Rhæti and Vindelici, who
adjoin the Helvetii and Boii, and press upon their plains. The Rhæti
extend as far as Italy above Verona and Como. The Rhætian wine, which is
esteemed not inferior to the finest wines of Italy, is produced [from
vines which grow] at the foot of the mountains. These people extend also
as far as the districts through which the Rhine flows. The Lepontii and
Camuni are of their nation. The Vindelici and Norici possess, for the
most part, the opposite side of the mountains together with the Breuni
and Genauni, who form part of the Illyrians. [1539] All these people were
continually making incursions both into the neighbouring parts of Italy,
and into [the countries] of the Helvetii, the Sequani,[1540] the Boii,
and the Germans. [1541] But the Licattii, the Clautinatii, and the
Vennones[1542] proved the boldest amongst the Vindelici; and the
Rucantii and Cotuantii amongst the Rhæti. Both the Estiones and
Brigantii belong to the Vindelici; their cities are Brigantium,
Campodunum, and Damasia, which may be looked upon as the Acropolis of
the Licattii. It is narrated, as an instance of the extreme brutality of
these robbers towards the people of Italy, that when they have taken any
village or city, they not only put to death all the men capable of
bearing arms, but likewise all the male children, and do not even stop
here, but murder every pregnant woman who, their diviners say, will
bring forth a male infant. [1543]

9. After these come certain of the Norici, and the Carni, who inhabit
the country about the Adriatic Gulf and Aquileia. The Taurisci belong to
the Norici. Tiberius and his brother Drusus in one summer put a stop to
their lawless incursions, so that now for three and thirty years[1544]
they have lived quietly and paid their tribute regularly. Throughout the
whole region of the Alps there are hilly districts capable of excellent
cultivation, and well situated valleys; but the greater part, especially
the summits of the mountains inhabited by the robbers, are barren and
unfruitful, both on account of the frost and the ruggedness of the land.
On account of the want of food and other necessaries the mountaineers
have sometimes been obliged to spare the inhabitants of the plains, that
they might have some people to supply them; for these they have given
them in exchange, resin, pitch, torches, [CAS. 207] wax, cheese, and
honey, of which they have plenty. In the Mount Apennine[1545] which lies
above the Carni there is a lake which runs out into the Isar, which
river, after receiving another river, the Aude,[1546] discharges itself
into the Adriatic. From this lake there is also another river, the
Atesinus, which flows into the Danube. [1547] The Danube itself rises in
the mountains which are split into many branches and numerous summits.
For from Liguria to here the summits of the Alps stretch along
continuously, presenting the appearance of one mountain; but after this
they rise and fall in turns, forming numerous ridges and peaks. The
first of these is beyond the Rhine and the lake[1548] inclining towards
the east, its ridge moderately elevated; here are the sources of the
Danube near to the Suevi and the forest of Hercynia. [1549] The other
branches extend towards Illyria and the Adriatic, such are the Mount
Apennine, already mentioned, Tullum and Phligadia,[1550] the mountains
lying above the Vindelici from whence proceed the Duras,[1551] the
Clanis,[1552] and many other rivers which discharge themselves like
torrents into the current of the Danube.

10. Near to these regions dwell the Iapodes, (a nation now mixed with
the Illyrians, and Kelts,) close to them is [the Mount] Ocra. [1553]
Formerly the Iapodes were numerous, inhabiting either side of the
mountain, and were notorious for their predatory habits, but they have
been entirely reduced and brought to subjection by Augustus Cæsar. Their
cities are Metulum,[1554] Arupenum,[1555] Monetium,[1556] and
Vendon. [1557] After these is the city of Segesta,[1558] [situated] in a
plain. Near to it flows the river Save,[1559] which discharges itself
into the Danube. This city lies in an advantageous position for carrying
on war against the Dacians. [1560] Ocra forms the lowest portion of the
Alps, where they approach the territory of the Carni, and through which
they convey the merchandise of Aquileia in waggons to Pamportus. [1561]
This route is not more than 400 stadia. From thence they convey it by
the rivers as far as the Danube and surrounding districts, for a
navigable river[1562] which flows out of Illyria, passes by Pamportus,
and discharges itself into the Save, so that the merchandise may easily
be carried down both to Segesta, and to the Pannonians, and
Taurisci. [1563] It is near this city,[1564] that the Kulp[1565] falls
into the Save. Both of these rivers are navigable, and flow down from
the Alps. The Alps contain wild horses and cattle, and Polybius asserts
that an animal of a singular form is found there; it resembles a stag
except in the neck and hair, which are similar to those of a wild boar;
under its chin it has a tuft of hair about a span long, and the
thickness of the tail of a young horse. [1566]

11. One of the passages over the mountains from Italy into Transalpine
and northern Keltica is that which passes through the country of the
Salassi, and leads to Lugdunum. [1567] This [route] is divided into two
ways, one practicable for carriages, but longer, which crosses the
country of the Centrones, the other steep and narrow, but shorter; this
crosses the Pennine [Alps]. Lugdunum is situated in the midst of the
country, serving as an Acropolis, both on account of the confluence of
[CAS. 208] the rivers, and of its being equally near to all parts. It
was on this account that Agrippa cut all the roads from this [as a
centre] one running through the mountains of the Cevennes to the
Santones[1568] and Aquitaine,[1569] another towards the Rhine; a third
towards the ocean by the country of the Bellovaci[1570] and
Ambiani,[1571] and a fourth towards the Narbonnaise and the coast of
Marseilles. [1572] The traveller, also, leaving Lugdunum and the country
above on his left, may pass over the Pennine Alps themselves, the Rhone,
or Lake Leman, into the plains of the Helvetii, whence there is a
passage through Mount Jura into the country of the Sequani, and
Lingones; here the road separates into two routes, one running to the
Rhine, and the other[1573] to the ocean.

12. Polybius tells us that in his time the gold mines were so rich about
Aquileia, but particularly in the countries of the Taurisci Norici, that
if you dug but two feet below the surface you found gold, and that the
diggings [generally] were not deeper than fifteen feet. In some
instances the gold was found pure in lumps about the size of a bean or
lupin, and which diminished in the fire only about one eighth; and in
others, though requiring more fusion, was still very profitable. Certain
Italians[1574] aiding the barbarians in working [the mines], in the
space of two months the value of gold was diminished throughout the
whole of Italy by one third. The Taurisci on discovering this drove out
their fellow-labourers, and only sold the gold themselves. Now, however,
the Romans possess all the gold mines. Here, too, as well as in Iberia,
the rivers yield gold-dust as well as the diggings, though not in such
large quantities. The same writer, speaking of the extent and height of
the Alps, compares with them the largest mountains of Greece, such as
Taygetum,[1575] Lycæum,[1576] Parnassus,[1577] Olympus,[1578]
Pelion,[1579] Ossa,[1580] and of Thrace, as the Hæmus, Rhodope, and
Dunax, saying that an active person might almost ascend any of these in
a single day, and go round them in the same time, whereas five days
would not be sufficient to ascend the Alps, while their length along the
plains extends 2200 stadia. [1581] He only names four passes over the
mountains, one through Liguria close to the Tyrrhenian Sea,[1582] a
second through the country of the Taurini,[1583] by which Hannibal
passed, a third through the country of the Salassi,[1584] and a fourth
through that of the Rhæti,[1585] all of them precipitous. In these
mountains, he says, there are numerous lakes; three large ones, the
first of which is Benacus,[1586] 500 stadia in length and 130 in
breadth, the river Mincio flows from it. The second is the
Verbanus,[1587] 400 stadia [in length], and in breadth smaller than the
preceding; [CAS. 209] the great river Ticino[1588] flows from this
[lake]. The third is the Larius,[1589] its length is nearly 300 stadia,
and its breadth 30, the river Adda flows from it. All these rivers flow
into the Po. This is what we have to say concerning the Alpine
mountains.




BOOK V.

ITALY.

SUMMARY.


The Fifth Book contains a description of Italy from the roots of
the Alps to the Strait of Sicily, the Gulf of Taranto, and the
region about Posidonium; likewise of Venetia, Liguria, Agro
Piceno, Tuscany, Rome, Campania, Lucania, Apulia, and the islands
lying in the sea between Genoa and Sicily.




CHAPTER I.


1. At the foot of the Alps commences the region now known as Italy. The
ancients by Italy merely understood Œnotria, which reached from the
Strait of Sicily to the Gulf of Taranto, and the region about
Posidonium,[1590] but the name has extended even to the foot of the
Alps; comprehending on one side that portion of Liguria situated by the
sea, from the confines of Tyrrhenia to the Var; and on the other, that
portion of Istria which extends as far as Pola. It seems probable that
the first inhabitants were named Italians, and, being successful, they
communicated their name to the neighbouring tribes, and this propagation
[of name] continued until the Romans obtained dominion. Afterwards, when
the Romans conferred on the Italians the privileges of equal
citizenship, and thought fit to extend the same honour to the Cisalpine
Galatæ and Heneti,[1591] they comprised the whole under the general
denomination of Italians and Romans; they likewise founded amongst them
numerous colonies, some earlier, some later, of which it would be
difficult to say which are the most considerable.

2. It is not easy to describe the whole of Italy under any one
geometrical figure; although some say that it is a promontory of
triangular form, extending towards the south and winter rising, with its
apex towards the Strait of Sicily, and [CAS. 210] its base formed by the
Alps. . . . [No one can allow this definition either for the base or one of
the sides,] although it is correct for the other side which terminates
at the Strait, and is washed by the Tyrrhenian Sea. But a triangle,
properly so called, is a rectilinear figure, whereas in this instance
both the base and the sides are curved. So that, if I agree, I must add
that the base and the sides are of a curved figure, and it must be
conceded to me that the eastern side deviates, as well; otherwise they
have not been sufficiently exact in describing as one side that which
extends from the head of the Adriatic to the Strait [of Sicily]. For we
designate as a side a line without any angle; now a line without any
angle is one which does not incline to either side, or but very little;
whereas the line from Ariminum[1592] to the Iapygian promontory,[1593]
and that from the Strait [of Sicily] to the same promontory, incline
very considerably. The same I consider to be the case with regard to the
lines drawn from the head of the Adriatic and Iapygia, for meeting about
the neighbourhood of Ariminum and Ravenna, they form an angle, or if not
an angle, at least a strongly defined curve. Consequently, if the coast
from the head [of the Adriatic] to Iapygia be considered as one side, it
cannot be described as a right line; neither can the remainder of the
line from hence to the Strait [of Sicily], though it may be considered
another side, be said to form a right line. Thus the figure [of Italy]
may be said to be rather quadrilateral than trilateral, and can never
without impropriety be called a triangle. It is better to confess that
you cannot define exactly ungeometrical figures.

3. [Italy], however, may be described in the following manner. The roots
of the Alps are curved, and in the form of a gulf, the head turned
towards Italy; the middle of the gulf in the country of the Salassi, and
its extremities turned, the one towards Ocra and the head of the
Adriatic, the other towards the coast of Liguria as far as Genoa, a
mercantile city of the Ligurians, where the Apennines fall in with the
Alps. Immediately under [the Alps] there is a considerable plain, of
about an equal extent of 2100 stadia both in breadth and length; its
southern side is closed by the coast of the Heneti[1594] and the
Apennines, which extend to Ariminum and Ancona; for these mountains,
commencing at Liguria, enter Tyrrhenia, leaving but a narrow sea-coast;
they afterwards retire by degrees into the interior, and having reached
the territory of Pisa, turn towards the east in the direction of the
Adriatic as far as the country about Ariminum and Ancona, where they
approach the sea-coast of the Heneti at right angles. Cisalpine Keltica
is enclosed within these limits, and the length of the coast joined to
that of the mountains is 6300 stadia; its breadth rather less than 2000.
The remainder of Italy is long and narrow, and terminates in two
promontories, one[1595] extending to the Strait of Sicily, the
other[1596] to Iapygia. It is embraced on one side by the
Adriatic,[1597] on the other by the Tyrrhenian Sea. [1598] The form and
size of the Adriatic resembles that portion of Italy bounded by the
Apennines and the two seas, and extending as far as Iapygia and the
isthmus which separates the Gulf of Taranto from that of
Posidonium. [1599] The greatest breadth of both is about 1300 stadia, and
the length not much less than 6000. The remainder of the country is
possessed by the Bruttii, and certain of the Leucani. Polybius tells us,
that traversing the sea-coast on foot from Iapygia[1600] to the Strait
[of Sicily] there are 3000 stadia, the coast being washed by the Sea of
Sicily; but, that going by water it is 500 stadia less. The Apennines,
after approaching the country about Ariminum and Ancona, and determining
the breadth of Italy at this point from sea to sea, change their
direction and divide the whole country throughout its length. As far as
the Peucetii and Leucani they do not recede much from the Adriatic, but
on arriving at the Leucani they decline considerably towards the other
sea,[1601] and traversing the remainder of the distance through the
Leucani and Bruttii, terminate at Leucopetra,[1602] in Reggio. Such is a
general description of the whole of present Italy. We will now endeavour
to undertake a description of its various parts. And, first, of those
situated below the Alps.

[CAS. 212] 4. This is a superb plain variegated with fruitful hills. The
Po divides it almost through its midst, one side being denominated
Cispadana, and the other Transpadana. Cispadana comprehends that part
next the Apennines and Liguria and Transpadana the remainder. The former
[division] is inhabited by Ligurian and Keltic nations, the former
inhabiting the mountains and the latter the plains; and the latter
[division] by Kelts and Heneti. These Kelts are of the same race as the
Transalpine Kelts. Concerning the Heneti there are two traditions, some
saying that they are a colony of those Kelts of the same name who dwell
by the ocean. [1603] Others say that they are descended from the Veneti
of Paphlagonia, who took refuge here with Antenor after the Trojan war;
and they give as a proof of this the attention these people bestow on
rearing horses; which, though now entirely abandoned, was formerly in
great esteem among them, resulting from the ancient rage for breeding
mules, which Homer thus mentions:

“From the Eneti for forest mules renowned. ”[1604]

It was here that Dionysius, the tyrant of Sicily, kept his stud of
race-horses. And, in consequence, the Henetian horses were much esteemed
in Greece, and their breed in great repute for a long period.

5. The whole of this country[1605] is full of rivers and marshes,
especially the district of the Heneti, which likewise experiences the
tides of the sea. This is almost the only part of our sea[1606] which is
influenced in the same manner as the ocean, and, like it, has ebb and
flood tides. In consequence most of the plain is covered with
lagoons. [1607] The inhabitants have dug canals and dikes, after the
manner of Lower Egypt, so that part of the country is drained and
cultivated, and the rest is navigable. Some of their cities stand in the
midst of water like islands, others are only partially surrounded. Such
as lie above the marshes in the interior are situated on rivers
navigable for a surprising distance, the Po in particular, which is
both a large river, and also continually swelled by the rains and snows.
As it expands into numerous outlets, its mouth is not easily perceptible
and is difficult to enter. But experience surmounts even the greatest
difficulties.

6. Formerly, as we have said, the district next this river was chiefly
inhabited by Kelts. The principal nations of these Kelts were the Boii,
the Insubri, and the Senones and Gæsatæ, who in one of their incursions
took possession of Rome. The Romans afterwards entirely extirpated these
latter, and expelled the Boii from their country, who then migrated to
the land about the Danube, where they dwelt with the Taurisci, and
warred against the Dacians until the whole nation was destroyed; and
they left to the surrounding tribes this sheep-pasturing district of
Illyria. The Insubri still exist; their metropolis is Mediolanum,[1608]
which formerly was a village, (for they all dwelt in villages,) but is
now a considerable city, beyond the Po, and almost touching the Alps.
Near to it is Verona, a large city, and the smaller towns Brescia,
Mantua, Reggio, and Como. This latter was but a very indifferent colony,
having been seriously impaired by the Rhæti who dwelt higher up, but it
was repeopled by Pompey Strabo, father of Pompey the Great. Afterwards
Caius Scipio[1609] transferred thither 3000 men, and finally divus Cæsar
peopled it with 5000 men, the most distinguished of whom were 500
Greeks. He conferred on these the privileges of citizens, and enrolled
them amongst the inhabitants. They not only took up their abode here,
but left their name to the colony itself; for all the inhabitants taking
the name of Νεοκωμῖται, this was translated [into Latin], and the place
called Novum-Comum. Near to this place is Lake Larius,[1610] which is
filled by the river Adda, and afterwards flows out into the Po. The
sources of this river, as well as those of the Rhine, rise in Mount
Adulas. [1611]

7. These cities are situated high above the marshes; near to them is
Patavium,[1612] the finest of all the cities in this [CAS. 213]
district, and which at the time of the late census[1613] was said to
contain 500 equites. Anciently it could muster an army of 120,000 men.
The population and skill of this city is evinced by the vast amount of
manufactured goods it sends to the Roman market, especially clothing of
all kinds. It communicates with the sea by a river navigable from a
large harbour [at its mouth], the river runs across the marshes for a
distance of 250 stadia. This harbour,[1614] as well as the river,[1615]
is named Medoacus. Situated in the marshes is the great [city of]
Ravenna, built entirely on piles,[1616] and traversed by canals, which
you cross by bridges or ferry-boats. At the full tides it is washed by a
considerable quantity of sea-water, as well as by the river, and thus
the sewage is carried off, and the air purified; in fact, the district
is considered so salubrious that the [Roman] governors have selected it
as a spot to bring up and exercise the gladiators in. It is a remarkable
peculiarity of this place, that, though situated in the midst of a
marsh, the air is perfectly innocuous; the same is the case with respect
to Alexandria in Egypt, where the malignity of the lake during summer is
entirely removed by the rising of the river which covers over the mud.
Another remarkable peculiarity is that of its vines, which, though
growing in the marshes, make very quickly and yield a large amount of
fruit, but perish in four or five years. Altinum[1617] stands likewise
in the marshes, its situation being very similar to that of Ravenna.
Between them is Butrium,[1618] a small city of Ravenna, and Spina,[1619]
which is now a village, but was anciently a celebrated Grecian city. In
fact, the treasures of the Spinitæ are shown at Delphi, and it is,
besides, reported in history that they had dominion over the sea. They
say that it formerly stood on the sea; now, however, the district is
inland about 90 stadia from the sea. Ravenna is reported to have been
founded by Thessalians, who not being able to sustain the violence of
the Tyrrheni, welcomed into their city some of the Ombrici, who still
possess it, while they themselves returned home. These cities for the
most part are surrounded, and, as it were, washed by the marshes.

8. Opitergium,[1620] Concordia, Atria,[1621] Vicetia,[1622] as well as
some smaller cities, are less annoyed by the marshes: they communicate
by small navigable canals with the sea. They say that Atria was formerly
a famous city, from which the Adriatic Gulf, with a slight variation,
received its name. Aquileia, which is the nearest to the head [of the
gulf], was founded by the Romans,[1623] to keep in check the barbarians
dwelling higher up. You may navigate transport ships to it up the river
Natisone for more than sixty stadia. This is the trading city with the
nations of Illyrians who dwell round the Danube. Some deal in marine
merchandise, and carry in waggons wine in wooden casks and oil, and
others exchange slaves, cattle, and hides. Aquileia is without the
limits of the Heneti, their country being bounded by a river which flows
from the mountains of the Alps, and is navigable for a distance of 1200
stadia, as far as the city of Noreia,[1624] near to where Cnæus Carbo
was defeated in his attack upon the Kimbrians. [1625] This place contains
fine stations for gold washing and iron-works. At the very head of the
Adriatic is the Timavum,[1626] a temple consecrated to Diomede, worthy
of notice. For it contains a harbour and a fine grove, with seven
springs of fresh water, which fall into the sea in a broad, deep
river. [1627] Polybius, however, says that, with the exception of one,
they are all salt springs, and that it is on this account the place is
called by the inhabitants—_the source and mother of the sea_.
Posidonius, on the other hand, tells us that the river Timavo, after
flowing from the mountains, precipitates itself into a chasm, [CAS. 215]
and after flowing under ground about 130 stadia, discharges itself into
the sea.

9. That Diomedes did hold sovereignty over the country around this
sea,[1628] is proved both by the Diomedean islands,[1629] and the
traditions concerning the Daunii and Argos-Hippium. [1630] Of these we
shall narrate as much as may be serviceable to history, and shall leave
alone the numerous falsehoods and myths; such, for instance, as those
concerning Phaethon and the Heliades[1631] changed into alders near the
[river] Eridanus, which exists no where, although said to be near the
Po;[1632] of the islands Electrides, opposite the mouths of the Po, and
the Meleagrides,[1633] found in them; none of which things exist in
these localities. [1634] However, some have narrated that honours are
paid to Diomedes amongst the Heneti, and that they sacrifice to him a
white horse; two groves are likewise pointed out, one [sacred] to the
Argian Juno, and the other to the Ætolian Diana. They have too, as we
might expect, fictions concerning these groves; for instance, that the
wild beasts in them grow tame, that the deer herd with wolves, and they
suffer men to approach and stroke them; and that when pursued by dogs,
as soon as they have reached these groves, the dogs no longer pursue
them. They say, too, that a certain person, well known for the facility
with which he offered himself as a pledge for others, being bantered on
this subject by some hunters who came up with him having a wolf in
leash, they said in jest, that if he would become pledge for the wolf
and pay for the damage he might do, they would loose the bonds. To this
the man consented, and they let loose the wolf, who gave chase to a herd
of horses unbranded, and drove them into the stable of the person who
had become pledge for him. The man accepted the gift, branded the horses
with [the representation of] a wolf, and named them _Lucophori_. They
were distinguished rather for their swiftness than gracefulness. His
heirs kept the same brand and the same name for this race of horses, and
made it a rule never to part with a single mare, in order that they
might remain sole possessors of the race which became famous. At the
present day, however, as we have before remarked, this [rage for]
horse-breeding has entirely ceased.

After the Timavum[1635] comes the sea-coast of Istria as far as Pola,
which appertains to Italy. Between [the two] is the fortress of
Tergeste, distant from Aquileia 180 stadia. Pola is situated in a gulf
forming a kind of port, and containing some small islands,[1636]
fruitful, and with good harbours. This city was anciently founded by the
Colchians sent after Medea, who not being able to fulfil their mission,
condemned themselves to exile. As Callimachus says,

“It a Greek would call
The town of Fugitives, but in their tongue
’Tis Pola named. ”

The different parts of Transpadana are inhabited by the Heneti and the
Istrii as far as Pola; above the Heneti, by the Carni, the Cenomani, the
Medoaci, and the Symbri. [1637] These nations were formerly at enmity
with the Romans, but the Cenomani and Heneti allied themselves with that
nation, both prior to the expedition of Hannibal, when they waged war
with the Boii and Symbrii,[1637] and also after that time.

10.
Cispadana comprehends all that country enclosed [CAS. 216] between
the Apennines and the Alps as far as Genoa and Vada-Sabatorum. [1638] The
greater part was inhabited by the Boii, the Ligurians, the Senones, and
Gæsatæ; but after the depopulation of the Boii, and the destruction of
the Gæsatæ and Senones, the Ligurian tribes and the Roman colonies alone
remained. The nation of the Ombrici[1639] and certain of the Tyrrheni
are also mixed amongst the Romans. These two nations, before the
aggrandizement of the Romans, had some disputes with each other
concerning precedence. Having only the river Tiber between, it was easy
to commence war upon each other; and if the one sent out an expedition
against any nation, it was the ambition of the other to enter the same
country with an equal force. Thus, the Tyrrheni, having organized a
successful expedition against the barbarians [dwelling in the countries]
about the Po, but having speedily lost again through their luxury [all
they had acquired], the Ombrici made war upon those who had driven them
out. Disputes arose between the Tyrrheni and Ombrici concerning the
right of possessing these places, and both nations founded many
colonies; those, however, of the Ombrici were most numerous, as they
were nearest to the spot. When the Romans gained the dominion, they sent
out colonies to different parts, but preserved those which had been
formerly planted by their predecessors. And although now they are all
Romans, they are not the less distinguished, some by the names of Ombri
and Tyrrheni, others by those of Heneti, Ligurians, and Insubri.

11. Both in Cispadana and around the Po there are some fine cities.
Placentia[1640] and Cremona, situated about the middle of the country,
are close to each other. Between these and Ariminum,[1641] are Parma,
Mutina,[1642] and Bononia,[1643] which is near to Ravenna; amongst these
are smaller cities on the route to Rome, as Acara,[1644]
Rhegium-Lepidum,[1645] Macri-Campi,[1646] where a public festival is
held every year, Claterna,[1647] Forum-Cornelium;[1648] while
Faventia[1649] and Cæsena, situated near to the river Savio[1650] and
the Rubicon,[1651] are adjacent to Ariminum. Ariminum, like Ravenna, is
an ancient colony of the Ombri, but both of them have received also
Roman colonies. Ariminum has a port and a river[1652] of the same name
as itself. From Placentia to Ariminum there are 1300 stadia. About 36
miles above Placentia, towards the boundaries of the kingdom of Cottius,
is the city of Ticinum,[1653] by which flows a river[1654] bearing the
same name, which falls into the Po, while a little out of the route are
Clastidium,[1655] Derthon,[1656] and Aquæ-Statiellæ. [1657] But the
direct route as far as Ocelum,[1658] along the Po and the Doria
Riparia,[1659] is full of precipices, intersected by numerous other
rivers, one of which is the Durance,[1660] and is about 160 miles long.
Here commence the Alpine mountains and Keltica. [1661] Near to the
mountains above Luna is the city of Lucca. Some [of the people of this
part of Italy] dwell in villages, nevertheless it is well populated, and
furnishes the greater part of the military force, and of equites, of
whom the senate is partly composed. Derthon is a considerable city,
situated about half way on the road from Genoa to Placentia, which are
distant 400 stadia from each other. Aquæ-Statiellæ is on the same route.
That from Placentia to Ariminum we have already described, but the sail
to Ravenna down the Po requires two days and nights. A[1662] great part
of Cispadana likewise was covered by marshes, through which Hannibal
passed with difficulty on his march into Tyrrhenia. [1663] But Scaurus
drained the plains by navigable canals from the Po[1664] to the country
of the Parmesans. For the Trebia meeting the Po near Placentia, and
having previously received many other rivers, is over-swollen near this
place. I allude to the Scaurus[1665] who also made the Æmilian road
through Pisa and Luna as far as Sabbatorum, and thence through Derthon.
There is another Æmilian road, which continues the Flaminian. For Marcus
Lepidus and Caius Flaminius being colleagues in the consulship, and
having vanquished the Ligurians, the one made the Via Flaminia from Rome
across [CAS. 218] Tyrrhenia and Ombrica as far as the territory of
Ariminum,[1666] the other, the road as far as Bononia,[1667] and thence
to Aquileia[1668] by the roots of the Alps, and encircling the marshes.
The boundaries which separate from the rest of Italy this country, which
we designate Citerior Keltica,[1669] were marked by the Apennine
mountains above Tyrrhenia and the river Esino,[1670] and afterwards by
the Rubicon. [1671] Both these rivers fall into the Adriatic.

12. The fertility of this country is proved by its population, the size
of its cities, and its wealth, in all of which the Romans of this
country surpass the rest of Italy. The cultivated land produces fruits
in abundance and of every kind, and the woods contain such abundance of
mast, that Rome is principally supplied from the swine fed there. Being
well supplied with water, millet grows there in perfection. This affords
the greatest security against famine, inasmuch as millet resists any
inclemency of the atmosphere, and never fails, even when there is
scarcity of other kinds of grain. Their pitch-works are amazing, and
their casks give evidence of the abundance of wine: these are made of
wood, and are larger than houses, and the great supply of pitch allows
them to be sold cheap. The soft wool and by far the best is produced in
the country round Mutina[1672] and the river Panaro;[1673] while the
coarse wool, which forms the main article of clothing amongst the slaves
in Italy, is produced in Liguria and the country of the Symbri. There is
a middling kind grown about Patavium,[1674] of which the finer carpets,
gausapi,[1675] and every thing else of the same sort, whether with the
wool on one or on both sides, are made. The mines are not worked now so
diligently, because not equally profitable with those of Transalpine
Keltica and Iberia; but formerly they must have been, since there were
gold-diggings even in Vercelli, near to Ictimuli,[1676] both which
villages are near to Placentia. [1677] Here we finish our description of
the first part of Italy, and pass on to the second.




CHAPTER II.


1. In the second place, we shall treat of that portion of Liguria
situated in the Apennines, between the Keltica[1678] already described
and Tyrrhenia. There is nothing worth mentioning about it, except that
the people dwell in villages, ploughing and digging the intractable
land, or rather, as Posidonius expresses it, hewing the rocks.

The third division contains the Tyrrhenians, who dwell next the former,
and inhabit the plains extending to the Tiber, which river, as far as
its outlet, washes the side towards the east, the opposite side being
washed by the Tyrrhenian and Sardinian sea. The Tiber flows from the
Apennines, and is swelled by many rivers; it flows partly through
Tyrrhenia, dividing it in the first instance from Ombrica,[1679]
afterwards from the Sabini and the Latini, who are situated next Rome as
far as the sea-coast; so that these countries are bounded in their
breadth by the river [Tiber] and the Tyrrhenians, and in their length by
each other. They extend upwards towards the Apennines which approach the
Adriatic. The first[1680] are the Ombrici, after these the Sabini, and
finally the inhabitants of Latium. They all commence from the river. The
country of the Latini extends on one side along the sea-coast from Ostia
to the city of Sinuessa, on the other it is bounded by the land of the
Sabini, (Ostia is the port of Rome, through which the Tiber passes in
its course,) it [CAS. 219] extends in length as far as Campania and the
Samnitic mountains. The country of the Sabini lies between the Latini
and the Ombrici, it likewise extends to the Samnitic mountains, but
approaches nearer to the Apennines inhabited by the Vestini, the
Peligni, and the Marsi. The Ombrici lie between the country of the
Sabini and Tyrrhenia, but extend beyond the mountains as far as
Ariminum,[1681] and Ravenna. The Tyrrheni, commencing from their own sea
and the Tiber, extend to the circular chain of mountains which stretches
from Liguria to the Adriatic. We will now enter into a detailed account,
commencing with these.

2. The Tyrrheni have now received from the Romans the surname of Etrusci
and Tusci. The Greeks thus named them from Tyrrhenus the son of Atys, as
they say, who sent hither a colony from Lydia. Atys, who was one of the
descendants of Hercules and Omphale, and had two sons, in a time of
famine and scarcity determined by lot that Lydus should remain in the
country, but that Tyrrhenus, with the greater part of the people, should
depart. Arriving here, he named the country after himself, Tyrrhenia,
and founded twelve cities, having appointed as their governor Tarcon,
from whom the city of Tarquinia [received its name], and who, on account
of the sagacity which he had displayed from childhood, was feigned to
have been born with hoary hair. Placed originally under one authority,
they became flourishing; but it seems that in after-times, their
confederation being broken up and each city separated, they yielded to
the violence of the neighbouring tribes. Otherwise they would never have
abandoned a fertile country for a life of piracy on the sea, roving from
one ocean to another; since, when united they were able not only to
repel those who assailed them, but to act on the offensive, and
undertake long campaigns. After the foundation of Rome, Demaratus
arrived here, bringing with him people from Corinth. [1682] He was
received at Tarquinia, where he had a son, named Lucumo, by a woman of
that country. [1683] Lucumo becoming the friend of Ancus Marcius, king
of the Romans, succeeded him on the throne, and assumed the name of
Lucius Tarquinius Priscus. Both he and his father did much for the
embellishment of Tyrrhenia, the one by means of the numerous artists who
had followed him from their native country; the other having the
resources of Rome. [1684] It is said that the triumphal costume of the
consuls, as well as that of the other magistrates, was introduced from
the Tarquinii, with the fasces, axes, trumpets, sacrifices, divination,
and music employed by the Romans in their public ceremonies. His son,
the second Tarquin, named Superbus, who was driven from his throne, was
the last king [of Rome]. Porsena, king of Clusium,[1685] a city of
Tyrrhenia, endeavoured to replace him on the throne by force of arms,
but not being able he made peace[1686] with the Romans, and departed in
a friendly way, with honour and loaded with gifts.

3. Such are the facts concerning the celebrity of the Tyrrheni, to which
may be added the exploits of the Cæretani,[1687] who defeated the Galatæ
after they had taken Rome. Having attacked them as they were departing
through the country of the Sabini, they took from them, much against
their will, the ransom which the Romans had willingly paid to them;
besides this, they took under their protection those who fled to them
out of Rome, the sacred fire and the priestesses of Vesta. [1688] The
Romans, influenced by those who then misgoverned the city, seem not to
have been properly mindful of this service; for although they conferred
on them the rights of citizenship, they did not enrol them amongst the
citizens; and further, they inscribed upon the same roll with the
Cæretani, others who did not enjoy as great privileges as they did.
However, [CAS. 220] amongst the Greeks this city was highly esteemed
both for its bravery and rectitude of conduct; for they refrained from
piracy, with favourable opportunities for engaging in it, and dedicated
at Delphi the treasure, as it was called, of the Agyllæi; for their
country was formerly named Agylla, though now Cærea. It is said to have
been founded by Pelasgi from Thessaly. The Lydians, who had taken the
name of Tyrrheni, having engaged in war against the Agyllæi, one of
them, approaching the wall, inquired the name of the city; when one of
the Thessalians from the wall, instead of answering the question,
saluted him with χαῖρε. [1689] The Tyrrheni received this as an omen, and
having taken the city they changed its name. This city, once so
flourishing and celebrated, only preserves the traces [of its former
greatness]; the neighbouring hot springs, named Cæretana,[1690] being
more frequented than it, by the people attracted thither for the sake of
their health.

4. Almost every one is agreed that the Pelasgi were an ancient race
spread throughout the whole of Greece, but especially in the country of
the Æolians near to Thessaly. Ephorus, however, says that he considers
they were originally Arcadians, who had taken up a warlike mode of life;
and having persuaded many others to the same course, imparted their own
name to the whole, and became famous both among the Greeks, and in every
other country where they chanced to come. Homer informs us that there
were colonies of them in Crete, for he makes Ulysses say to Penelope—

“Diverse their language is; Achaians some,
And some indigenous are; Cydonians there,
Crest-shaking Dorians, and Pelasgians dwell. ”[1691]

And that portion of Thessaly between the outlets of the Peneius[1692]
and the Thermopylæ, as far as the mountains of Pindus, is named Pelasgic
Argos, the district having formerly belonged to the Pelasgi. The poet
himself also gives to Dodonæan Jupiter, the epithet of Pelasgian:—

“Pelasgian, Dodonæan Jove supreme. ”[1693]

Many have likewise asserted that the nations of the Epirus are Pelasgic,
because the dominions of the Pelasgi extended so far. And, as many of
the heroes have been named Pelasgi, later writers have applied the same
name to the nations over which they were the chiefs. Thus Lesbos[1694]
has been called Pelasgic, and Homer has called the people bordering on
the Cilices in the Troad Pelasgic:—

“Hippothous from Larissa, for her soil
Far-famed, the spear-expert Pelasgians brought. ”[1695]

Ephorus, when he supposes that they were a tribe of Arcadians, follows
Hesiod, who says,

“The sons born of the divine Lycaon, whom formerly Pelasgus
begot. ”

Likewise Æschylus in his Suppliants, or Danaids, makes their race to be
of Argos near Mycenæ. Ephorus likewise says that Peloponnesus was named
Pelasgia; and Euripides, in the Archelaus, says,

“Danaus, who was the father of fifty daughters, having arrived in
Argos, inhabited[1696] the city of Inachus, and made a law that
those who had before borne the name of Pelasgiotæ throughout
Greece should be called Danai. ”

Anticlides says, that they first colonized about Lemnos and Imbros, and
that some of their number passed into Italy with Tyrrhenus, the son of
Atys. And the writers on the Athenian Antiquities,[1697] relate of the
Pelasgi, that some of them came to Athens, where, on account of their
wanderings, and their settling like birds in any place where they
chanced to come, they were called by the Athenians _Pelargi_. [1698]

5. They say that the greatest length of Tyrrhenia, which is along the
coast from Luna to Ostia, is about 2500 stadia; and that its breadth in
the direction of the mountains is less than half that number. Then from
Luna to Pisa there are more than 400 stadia; from thence to
Volaterræ[1699] 280; thence to [CAS. 222] Poplonium 270; and from
Poplonium to Cossa[1700] near 800, or as some say, 600. Polybius,
however, says that there are not[1701] in all 1330. [1702] Of these Luna
is a city and harbour; it is named by the Greeks, the harbour and city
of Selene. [1703] The city is not large, but the harbour[1704] is very
fine and spacious, containing in itself numerous harbours, all of them
deep near the shore; it is in fact an arsenal worthy of a nation holding
dominion for so long a time over so vast a sea. The harbour is
surrounded by lofty mountains,[1705] from whence you may view the
sea[1706] and Sardinia, and a great part of the coast on either side.
Here are quarries of marble, both white and marked with green, so
numerous and large, as to furnish tablets and columns of one block; and
most of the material for the fine works, both in Rome and the other
cities, is furnished from hence. The transport of the marble is easy, as
the quarries lie near to the sea, and from the sea they are conveyed by
the Tiber. Tyrrhenia likewise supplies most of the straightest and
longest planks for building, as they are brought direct from the
mountains to the river. Between Luna and Pisa flows the Macra,[1707] a
division which many writers consider the true boundary of Tyrrhenia and
Liguria. Pisa was founded by the Pisatæ of the Peloponnesus, who went
under Nestor to the expedition against Troy, but in their voyage home
wandered out of their course, some to Metapontium,[1708] others to the
Pisatis; they were, however, all called Pylians. The city lies between
the two rivers Arno[1709] and Æsar,[1710] at their point of confluence;
the former of which, though very full, descends from Arretium[1711] not
in one body, but divided into three; the second flows down from the
Apennines. Where they fall into one current, the shock between them is
so great as to raise the water to that height, that people standing on
either bank are not able to see each other; so that necessarily the
voyage up from the sea is difficult. This voyage is about 20 stadia.
There is a tradition, that when these rivers first descended from the
mountains they were impeded by the inhabitants of the district, lest
falling together they should inundate the country; however, they
promised not to inundate it, and they have kept their word. This city
appears to have been formerly flourishing, and at the present day it
still maintains its name, on account of its fertility, its
marble-quarries, and its wood for building ships, which formerly they
employed to preserve themselves from danger by sea; for they were more
warlike than the Tyrrheni, and were constantly irritated by the
Ligurians, troublesome neighbours, who dwelt on the coast. At the
present day the wood is mostly employed for building houses in Rome, and
in the country villas [of the Romans], which resemble in their
gorgeousness Persian palaces.

6. The country of the Volaterrani[1712] is washed by the sea. Their city
is situated in a deep hollow on the top of a high hill. The wall of the
city is built round its summit, which is flat and precipitous on every
side. From its base, the ascent upward is fifteen stadia, steep and
difficult. Here certain of the Tyrrhenians and of those proscribed by
Sulla,[1713] took their stand, and having organized four bands,
sustained a siege for two years, and at last secured articles of truce
before surrendering the place. Poplonium is situated on a lofty
promontory, which projects into the sea, and forms a chersonesus. It
likewise sustained a siege about the same time. This little place is now
deserted, with the exception of the temples and a few houses; the
sea-port, which is situated at the root of the mountain, is better
inhabited, having both a small harbour and ship-sheds. This appears to
me the only one of the ancient Tyrrhenian cities situated on the sea;
the reason being that this territory affords no harbours. The founders
[of the cities] therefore either avoided the sea altogether, or threw up
fortifications in order that they might not become the ready prey of
those who might sail against them. On the [CAS. 223] summit [of the
cape] there is a look-out for thunnies. [1714] From this city there is an
indistinct and distant view of Sardinia. Cyrnus,[1715] however, is
nearer, being distant from Sardinia about 60 stadia. While Æthalia[1716]
is much nearer to the continent than either, being distant therefrom
only 300[1717] stadia, and the same number from Cyrnus. Poplonium is the
best starting-place to any of the three mentioned islands. We ourselves
observed them from the height of Poplonium, in which place we saw
certain mines which had been abandoned, we also saw the craftsmen who
work the iron brought from Æthalia; for they cannot reduce it into bars
in the furnaces on the island, and it is therefore transferred direct
from the mines to the continent. There is another remarkable
circumstance, that the exhausted mines of the island in course of time
are again refilled similarly to what they say takes place at the
_platamones_[1718] in Rhodes, the marble-quarries in Paros, and the
salt-mines in India, mentioned by Clitarchus. Eratosthenes was therefore
incorrect in saying that from the mainland you could neither see Cyrnus
nor Sardinia; and so was Artemidorus in his assertion, that both these
places lay in the high sea at a distance of 1200 stadia. For whatever
others might, I certainly could never have seen them at such a distance,
however carefully I had looked, particularly Cyrnus. Æthalia has a
harbour named Argoüs,[1719] derived, as they say, from the [ship] Argo,
Jason having sailed hither, seeking the abode of Circe as Medea wished
to see that goddess; and that from the sweat scraped off by the
Argonauts and hardened, are formed the variegated pebbles now seen on
the beach. [1720] This and similar traditions prove what we before
stated, that Homer did not invent them all himself, but, hearing the
numerous current stories, he merely transferred the scenes to other
localities and exaggerated the distances: as he makes Ulysses wander
over the ocean, so does he narrate of Jason, as he too had been renowned
for his travels: and the same he likewise relates of Menelaus. This is
what we have to say of Æthalia.

7. Cyrnus is called by the Romans Corsica; it is poorly inhabited, being
both rugged and in many parts entirely inaccessible, so that the
mountaineers, who live by plunder, are more savage than wild beasts.
Whenever any Roman general invades the country, and, penetrating into
the wilds, seizes a vast number of slaves, it is a marvel to behold in
Rome how savage and bestial they appear. For they either scorn to live,
or if they do live, aggravate their purchasers by their apathy and
insensibility, causing them to regret the purchase-money, however
small. [1721] We must remark, however, that some districts are habitable,
and that there are some small cities, for instance Blesino, Charax,
Eniconiæ, and Vapanes. [1722] The chorographer[1723] says that the length
of this island is 160 miles, its breadth 70; that the length of Sardinia
is 220, and its breadth 98. According to others, the perimeter of Cyrnus
is said to be about 1200[1724] stadia, and of Sardinia 4000. A great
portion of this latter is rugged and untranquil; another large portion
is fertile in every production, but particularly in wheat. There are
many cities, some are considerable, as Caralis[1725] and Sulchi. [1726]
There is however an evil, which must be set against the fertility of
these places; for during the summer the island is unhealthy, more
particularly so in the most fertile districts; in addition to this, it
is often ravaged by the mountaineers, whom they call Diagesbes,[1727]
who formerly were named Iolaënses. For it is said that Iolaus[1728]
brought hither certain of the children of Hercules, and established
himself amongst the barbarian [CAS. 225] possessors of the island, who
were Tyrrhenians. Afterwards the Phœnicians of Carthage became masters
of the island, and, assisted by the inhabitants, carried on war against
the Romans; but after the subversion of the Carthaginians, the Romans
became masters of the whole. There are four nations of mountaineers, the
Parati, Sossinati, Balari, and the Aconites. These people dwell in
caverns. Although they have some arable land, they neglect its
cultivation, preferring rather to plunder what they find cultivated by
others, whether on the island or on the continent, where they make
descents, especially upon the Pisatæ. The prefects sent [into Sardinia]
sometimes resist them, but at other times leave them alone, since it
would cost too dear to maintain an army always on foot in an unhealthy
place: they have, however, recourse to the arts of stratagem, and taking
advantage of the custom of the barbarians, who always hold a great
festival for several days after returning from a plundering expedition,
they then fall upon them, and capture many. There are rams here which,
instead of wool, have hair resembling that of a goat; they are called
musmones, and the inhabitants make corselets of their hides. They
likewise arm themselves with a pelta and a small sword.

8. Along the whole coast between Poplonium and Pisa these islands are
clearly visible; they are oblong, and all three nearly parallel,[1729]
running towards the south and Libya. Æthalia is by far smaller than
either of the other two. The chorographer says that the shortest passage
from Libya to Sardinia is 300[1730] miles. After Poplonium is the city
of Cossæ, situated at a short distance from the sea: there is at the
head of the bay a high hill upon which it is built; below it lies the
port of Hercules,[1731] and near to it a marsh formed by the sea. [1732]
At the summit of the cape which commands the gulf is a look-out for
thunnies; for the thunny pursues his course along the coast, from the
Atlantic Ocean as far as Sicily, in search not only of acorns, but also
of the fish which furnishes the purple dye. As one sails along the coast
from Cossæ to Ostia there are the towns of Gravisci,[1733] Pyrgi,[1734]
Alsium,[1735] and Fregena. [1736] [From Cossæ] to Gravisci is a distance
of 300 stadia, and between them is the place named Regis-Villa. This is
said to have been the royal residence of Maleos the Pelasgian; they
report that after he had reigned here for some time, he departed with
his Pelasgians to Athens. These were of the same tribe as those who
occupied Agylla. From Gravisci to Pyrgi is a little less than 180
stadia, and the sea-port town of the Cæretani is 30 stadia farther.
[Pyrgi] contains a temple of Ilethyia[1737] founded by the Pelasgi, and
which was formerly rich, but it was plundered by Dionysius the tyrant of
the Sicilians, at the time[1738] of his voyage to Cyrnus. [1739] From
Pyrgi to Ostia is 260 stadia; between the two are Alsium and Fregena.
Such is our account of the coast of Tyrrhenia.

9. In the interior of the country, besides the cities already mentioned,
there are Arretium,[1740] Perusia,[1741] Volsinii,[1742] Sutrium;[1743]
and in addition to these are numerous small cities, as Blera,[1744]
Ferentinum,[1745] Falerium,[1746] Faliscum,[1747] Nepita,[1748]
Statonia,[1749] and many others; some of which exist in their original
state, others have been colonized by the Romans, or partially ruined by
them in their wars, viz. those they frequently waged against the
Veii[1750] and the Fidenæ. [1751] Some say that the inhabitants of
Falerium are not Tyrrhenians, but Falisci, a distinct nation; others
state further, that the Falisci speak a language peculiar to themselves;
some again would make it Æquum-Faliscum on [CAS. 226] the Via Flaminia,
lying between Ocricli[1752] and Rome. Below Mount Soracte[1753] is the
city of Feronia, having the same name as a certain goddess of the
country, highly reverenced by the surrounding people: here is her
temple, in which a remarkable ceremony is performed, for those possessed
by the divinity pass over a large bed of burning coal and ashes
barefoot, unhurt. A great concourse of people assemble to assist at the
festival, which is celebrated yearly, and to see the said spectacle.
Arretium,[1754] near the mountains, is the most inland city: it is
distant from Rome 1200 stadia: from Clusium[1755] [to Rome] is 800
stadia. Near to these [two cities] is Perusia. [1756] The large and
numerous lakes add to the fertility of this country,[1757] they are
navigable, and stocked with fish and aquatic birds. Large quantities of
typha,[1758] papyrus, and anthela[1759] are transported to Rome, up the
rivers which flow from these lakes to the Tiber. Among these are the
lake Ciminius,[1760] and those near the Volsinii,[1761] and
Clusium,[1762] and Sabatus,[1763] which is nearest to Rome and the sea,
and the farthest Trasumennus,[1764] near Arretium. Along this is the
pass by which armies can proceed from [Cisalpine] Keltica into
Tyrrhenia; this is the one followed by Hannibal. There are two; the
other leads towards Ariminum across Ombrica, and is preferable as the
mountains are considerably lower; however, as this was carefully
guarded, Hannibal was compelled to take the more difficult, which he
succeeded in forcing after having vanquished Flaminius in a decisive
engagement. There are likewise in Tyrrhenia numerous hot springs, which
on account of their proximity to Rome, are not less frequented than
those of Baiæ, which are the most famous of all.

10. Ombrica lies along the eastern boundary of Tyrrhenia, and commencing
from the Apennines, or rather beyond those mountains, [extends] as far
as the Adriatic. For commencing from Ravenna, the Ombrici inhabit the
neighbouring country together with the cities of Sarsina,
Ariminum,[1765] Sena,[1766] †and Marinum. †[1767] To their country
likewise belongs the river Esino,[1768] Mount Cingulum, [the city of]
Sentinum,[1769] the river Metaurus, and the Fanum Fortunæ;[1770] for
about these parts are the boundaries which separate ancient Italy and
[Cisalpine] Keltica on the side next the Adriatic, although the boundary
has frequently been changed by the chief men of the state. First they
made the Esino the boundary; afterwards the river Rubicon: the Esino
being between Ancona and Sena, and the Rubicon between Ariminum and
Ravenna, both of them falling into the Adriatic. At the present day,
however, since Italy comprehends the whole country as far as the Alps,
we need take no further notice of these limits. All allow that
Ombrica[1771] extends as far as Ravenna, as the inhabitants are Ombrici.
From Ravenna to Ariminum they say is about 300 stadia. Going from
Ariminum to Rome by the Via Flaminia, the whole journey lies through
Ombrica as far as the city of Ocricli[1772] and the Tiber, a distance of
1350 stadia. This, consequently, is the length [of Ombrica]; its breadth
varies. The cities of considerable magnitude situated on this side the
Apennines along the Via Flaminia, are Ocricli on the Tiber,
Laroloni,[1773] and Narnia,[1774] through which the Nera[1775] flows.
This river discharges itself into the Tiber a little above Ocricli; it
is not navigable for large vessels. After these are Carsuli and
Mevania,[1776] past which latter the Teneas[1777] flows, by which river
the merchandise of the plain is transported in small vessels to the
Tiber.