philosopher of religion, James Martineau (who is also the most prominent recent representative of intuitionist ethics [Type* of Ethical Theory, 1885 ; A Study of Religion, 1888 ; Seat of
Authority
in Rel.
Windelband - History of Philosophy
Janet, E.
Caro, etc.
F.
HsTsIsann has risen from the school to a theoretical standpoint which is in a certain sense his own.
(Morale et mttaphytique.
In the Revue de Met.
et de Mor.
1803)
Its principal opponents were the philosophers of the CA*rrA> party, whose tbeorv is known as Traditionalism Together with Chateaubriand (Le Genie du ChrUtianltne, 1802), Jos. da Maistte (1763-1821 ; £j#ai tur It Primelpt
628 Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century. [Pabt VII.
Qenerateur des Constitutions Politique^, 1810 ; Soiries de St. Petersbourg, 1821 ; Du Pape, 1820; cf. on him Fr. Paulhan, Paris, 1898) and J. Frayssinons (1765-1841; Defense du Christianisme, 1828), V. G. A. de Bonald (1768-1841; Theorie du Pouvoir Politique et lieligieux, 1796 ; Essai Analytique sur lex Lois Haturelles de VOrdre Social, 1800; Du Divorce, 1801; De la Philosophic Morale et Politique du 184 siecle; complete works, 16 vols. , Paris, 1816 fl. ) stands here in the foreground. The traditionalism of P. S. Ballanche is presented in a strangely fantastic fashion (1776-1847 ; Essai sur les Institutions Societies, 1817 ; La Palingenesie Sociale ; complete works, 6 vols. , Paris, 1888). In the beginning II. F. U. de Lamennais (1782-1864) also supported this line in his Essai sur VIndifference en Matiere de Religion (1817); later, having fallen out with the Church {Parole d'un Croyant, 1884), he presented in the Esquisse (Vune Philosophic (4 vols. , 1841-1846) a comprehensive system of philosophy, which had for its prototype partly the Schellingian System of Identity and partly the Italian Ontologism.
Among the philosophical supporters of Socialism (cf. L. Stein, Geschichu der socialen Bevsegung in Frankreich, Leips. 1849 11. ) the most important is CI. H. de St. Simon (1760-1825 ; Introduction aux Travaux Scientifique* du ISh siecle, 1807 ; Biorganisation de la Societe Europienne, 1814 ; Systeme In dustrie^ 1821 f. ; Nouveau Christianisme, 1825 ; (Euvres choisies, 3 vols. , 1859). Of his successors may be mentioned, Bazard (Doctrine de St. Simon, 1829), B. Enfantin (1790-1864; La Religion St. Simonienne, 1831), Pierre Leroux (1798-1871 ; Refutation de I'Eclecticisme, 1&39 ; De V Humanite, 1840), and Ph. Buchez (1796-1866 ; Essai cTun Traiti Complet de Philosophic au Point de
Vue du Catholicisms et du Progres, 1840).
Aug. Comte occupies a most interesting position apart. He was born in
Montpellier in 1798 and died alone in Paris in 1867 : Cours du Philosophic Positive (6 vols. , Paris, 1840-1842) [Eng. tr. , or rather a condensation and repro duction by H. Martineau, The Positive Philosophy of A. Comte, 2 vols. , Lond. 1863] ; Systeme de Politique Positive (Paris, 1851-1854) ; The Positive Polity and certain earlier works, trans, by various authors, 4 vols. , Lond. 187(1-1878; Catechisme Positiviste (1853) ; cf. Littr6, C. et la Philosophic Positire, Paris, 1868 ; J. S. Mill, C. and Positivism, Lond. 1805 ; J. Rig, A. C. La Philosophic. Positive Resumee, Paris, 1881 ; E. Caird, The Social Philosophy and Religion of ft, Glasgow, 1886.
In the following period Comte's position became more influential and in part controlling. E. Littre' (1801-1881 ; La Science au Point de Vue Philosophique. Paris, 1873) defended his positivism in systematic form. A freer adaptation of positivism was made by such writers as H. Taine (1828-1893 ; Philosophic de I'Art, 1866 ; De VIntelligence, 1870 ; cf. on him G. Barzellotti, Rome, 1896) and Ernest Renan (1823-1892; Questions Contemporaines, 1868; L'Avenir de la Science, 1890). Under Comte's influence, likewise, has been the develop ment of empirical psychology. Th. Ribot. editor of the Revue Philosophique, is to be regarded as the leader in this field. In addition to his historical works on English and German psychology, his investigations with regard to heredity and abnormal conditions of memory, will, personality, etc. , may be noted.
In part also Sociology stands under Comte's influence, as R. Worms, G. Tarde, E. Durkheim, and others have striven to work it out (cf. Annie Sociolo- gique, pub. since 1894). Finally, evolutionary theories belong in this connection, which have been especially carried out by J. M. Guyau (1854-1888 ; Esquisse d'une Morale, 1885 ; LHrreligion de. Vavenir, 1887 ; Vart, au point de vue sociologique, 1889) [Problemes de VEsthetique Contemporaine, 1897].
By far the most important among the present representatives of philosophy in France is Ch. Renouvier (bom 1818 ; Essais de Critique Ginirale, 2d ed. , 1875-96; Esqitisse d'une Classification Systematique des Doctrines Philoso- phiques, 1885 ; La Philosophic Analytique de VHistoire, 1896 ; La Nouvelle Monadologie, 1899). The synthesis of Kant and Comte which he has sought to effect has its literary organ in the Annee Philosophique (published since 1889).
In England the Associational Psychology continues through Thomas Brown to men like Thomas Belnham (1750-1829 ; Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind, 1801), John Fearn (First Lines of the Human Mind,
Philotophy of the Nineteenth Century. 629
1830), and many others; finds support here also in physiological and phreno logical theories as with G. Combe (. 1 System nf Phrenology, Kdin. 1826), Sam. Bailey (Essays on the Pursuit of Truth, 1829; The Theory of Reasoning, 1861 ; LetUrs on the Philosophy of the Human Mind, 18. '>. ">)and Harriet Mar tineau {Letters on the Isiws of Man's Nature ami Development, 1861), and reaches its full development through James Mill (Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind. 1829), and his son. J. Stuart M1U (1806-1873 ; System of Ijigir Hatiorinatite and Indurlire, 1843; Principles of Political Economy, 1848; On Liberty, 18611; Utilitarianism, 1803 ; Examination of Sir W. Hamilton's Philosophy, 1805; Autobiography, 1873; Posthumously, Essays on Heliijion, 1874 ; Collected Dissertations and Discussions, N. Y. , 1882 ; Useful ed. of Ethical Writings by Douglas, Kdin. 1897. Cf. H. Taine, Le Posit irisme Anglais, Paris, 1804 [Kng. tr. by Haye ; Courtney, Life of M„ and Meta physics of J. S. M. ; Bain, J. S. M. 1882], Douglas, J. S. M. , A Study of his Phitos. , kdin. 1806). Closely connected with this line of thought stands Alex. Bam ( The Senses and the Intellect, I860, 3d ed. 1808 ; Mental ami Moral Science, 1808, 3d ed. 1872, Pt. II, 1872; The Emotions and the Will, 1869, 3d
ed. 1875 ; Mind and Body, 3d ed. 1874.
The related Utilitarianism is represented by T. Cogan ( Philosophical Treatise
vn the Passion*, 1802; Ethical Questions, 1817), John Austin (17H0-1869 ; The Philosophy of Positive Law, 1832), G. Cornwall Lewis (A Treatise on the Methixls of Obsecration and Reasoning in Politics, 1852). [As representatives
of Utilitarianism, in addition to Mill, and Bain, op. cit. above, H. Sidgwiclc. Methyls of Ethics, Lond. 1874, 0th ed. 1901, and T. Fowler, Principles of Montis, Lond. lHMti f. , should also be mentioned.
Scottish Philosophy, after Dugald Stewart and James Mackintosh
I*. ! 2 ; Dissertation on the Itogress of Ethical Philosophy, 1830), had at first unimportant supporters like Abercromble (1781-1840 ; In'/nir;/ concerning the Intellectual Powers. 18:10 ; Philosophy of the Moral Feelings, 1833) and
Chalmers (1780-1847), and was especially as academical instruction brought into affiliation with the eclecticism of Cousin by Henry Calderwood (Philoso phy of the Infinite, 1864), S. Morell (An Historical and Critical I'iew of the Speculative Philosophy of Europe in the 10th Century, 1846), also H. Wedg
wood (On the Development ofthe Understanding, 1848).
The horizons of English thought were widened by acquaintance with the
German literature, to which Sam. Tayl. Coleridge (1772-1*14), W. Words worth (1770-1850), and especially Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881; Past and Present, 1843 [the articles on various German thinkers and the Sartor Resartus belong here also]) contributed. In philosophy this influence made itself felt
primarily through Kant, whose theory of cognition influenced J. Herschel (On the Study of Natural Philosophy, 1831), and especially W. Whewell (Phi losophy of the Inductive Sciences, 1840).
In intelligent reaction against this influence, Scottish philosophy experienced a valuable re-shaping at the hands of Sir William Hamilton (1788-1866 ; Dis- mssioHs tm Philosophy and Literature, 1852 ; On Truth and Error, 1856 ; Lec tures on Metaphysics and Logic, 1869 ; Editions of ReiiFs and Stewart's Works ; cf. J. Veitch. S. W. H. , The Man and his Philosophy, Edin. and Lond. 1883
[Memoir in 2 vols. , 1869. bv same author]). In his school Agnosticism proper, •u|*pnrted principally by H. L. Mansel (1820-1871 ; Metaphysics or the Phi- lovphy of Consciousness, 1860), is separated from a tendency inclining toward •tImmIc metaphysics : J. Veitch, K. Lowndes (Introduction to the Philosophy "f Primary Beliefs, IHit5). Leechman. McCosb. and others.
Following a suggestion from one aspect of Hamilton's thought, a movement an*ie which sought to develop formal logic as a calculus of symbols. To this movement belong G. Boole (The Mathematical Analysis of Logic, 1847 ; An
Analysis of the Isites of Thought, 1854) ; De Morgan (Ftirmal Logic, 1847) ; Th. Spencer Baynes (An Essay on the Veir Analytic of Logical Forms, 1850) ;
J. Venn f Symbolic Logic, 1881 ; Logic of Chance, 1870 ; Principles of Logic, 1889) [C. 8. Peirce, Algebra nf Lome, 1807 ; Ladd and Mitchell, in Studies in Logic,
W. Stanley JeTons ( Pure I^oi/ic, 1804 ; Principles nf Science, 1874) ;
•d. by Pelrce. Boston. '18*31. Compare on this A. Rlehl ( Vierieljohrttthr. /. writs. Philos. 1877) and L. Liard (Le* LogtcUns Anglais Contcmporain*, 1878). The combined influence of Kant and the later German theism impressed lbs
(1764-
630 Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century. [Part V. 'I.
philosopher of religion, James Martineau (who is also the most prominent recent representative of intuitionist ethics [Type* of Ethical Theory, 1885 ; A Study of Religion, 1888 ; Seat of Authority in Rel. , 189U]; cf. A. W. Jackson. J. M. , Boston, 1900), and likewise F. W. Newman (The Soul, etc. , 1849 ; The ism, 1858), A. C. Fraser and others. Since Hutchinson Stirling (The Secret of Hegel, 1865 ; What is Thought f 1000) German idealism in its whole develop ment and in its metaphysical aspect, particularly in the Hegelian form, has called forth a vigorous idealistic movement, of which the leading representative was the late Thomas Hill Green (18:50-1882), Professor at Oxford. [His Introd. to Hume was followed by criticisms on Lewes and Spencer and (posthumously j by the Prolegomena to Ethics, 1883, and complete works (except the Proleg. ), 3 vols. , Lond. and N. Y. 1885, 1886, 1888; cf. W. H. Fairbrother, The Phi losophy of T. II. (? . , Lond. 1896. ] In sympathy with this idealistic and more or less Hegelian interpretation of Kantian principles are F. H. Bradley (Logic, Lond. 1883 ; Ethical Studies, 1876; Appearance and Reality, 189:)), H. Boaan qttet (Logic, 2 vols. , 1888 ; Hist, of ^Esthetics, 1892 ; Fhilos. of the State, 1899,
Religion, ; E. Caird 1880)
J. Caird to the Philosophy etc. ) ; Phil, (Introduction
of
of Kant, 2 vols. , 1889 ; Essays, 2 vols. , 1892 ; Evolution of Religion.
( Critical
1893); Seth and Haldane (Essays in Phil. Criticism, 1883) ;
(Social Philosophy, 1890). Cf. A. Seth, Hegelianism and Personality, 1887, and the review of this in Mind, by D. G. Ritchie.
These movements above noted stand under the principle of Evolution; the same principle became authoritative for the investigation of organic nature through Charles Darwin (Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. 1859; Descent of Man, 1871; The Expression of the Emotions, 1872). The same principle was formulated in more general terms and made the basis of » comprehensive System of Synthetic Philosophy by Herbert Spencer
J. Mackenzie
(bom 1820), First Principles, 1862, 6th ed. 1901; Principles of Psychology, 1855, 5th ed.
1890; Principles of Biology, 1864-1867, 4th ed. 1888; Principles of Sociology, 1876-1896 ; Principles of Ethics, 1879-1893. Cf. on him O. Gaupp, Stuttgart, 1897 [T. H. Green, in Works ; F. H. Collins, Epitome of the Synthetic Philoso phy, 1889. ] Huxley, Wallace, Tyndall, G. H. Lewes (Problems of Life and Mind, 3d ed. 1874), belong in the main to this tendency.
[Other works in evolutionary ethics are, L. Stephen, The Science of Ethics, Ix>nd. 1882 ; S. Alexander, Moral Order and Progress, Lond. 1889 ; C. M. Williams, The Ethics of Evolution, Lond. and N. Y. 1893. This last contains useful summaries of the chief works. ]
[In America idealistic lines of thought were introduced (in opposition to the prevalent Scottish philosophy) through the medium of Coleridge's interpretation of Kant, by James Marsh (1829) and Henry's trans, of V. Cousin's Lectures on Locke (1834), more directly from Germany by L. P. Hickok (Rational Psy chology, 1848; Bmp. Psych. , 1854 (rev. ed. by J. H. Seelye, 1882) ; Moral Science, 1853 (rev. ed. by J. H. Seelye), etc. ). W. T. Harris, in the Jour. Spec. Philosophy, and elsewhere, has done an important work in the same line. Of more recent writers, J. Royoe (The Religious Aspect of Philosophy, 1886; Spirit of Modern Philos. , 1802; The World and the Individual, 1900), J. Dewey (Psychology, 1886 ; Outlines of Ethics, 1891), are closer to the school of Green, while G. T. Ladd (Phys. Psychology, 1887 ; Introd. to Phil. , 1891 ; Psychology Descriptive and Explanatory, 1894 ; Philos. of Mind, 1895 ; PhilTM, of Knowledge, 1897 ; A Theory of Reality, 1899) and B. P. Bowne (Meta- physics. Psychological Theory, Ethical Theory, etc. ) stand nearer to Lotze. Ormond (The Foundations of Knowledge, 1900) combines idealistic motive. -, with those of Scottish thought. The extremely suggestive work of W. James (Psychology, 2 vols. , 1890) should also be mentioned, and as representatives of the modern treatment of this science, in addition to the works of Ladd and Dewey cited above, J. M. Baldwin (Psychology, 2 vols. , 1890 f. ; Mental Devel opment, 1895-1897) and G. S. Hall (in Am. Jour. Psychology) may be named as American writers, and Jas. Ward (art. Psychology in Enc. Brit. ), S. H. Hodgson ( Time and Space, 1866 ; The Philosophy of Reflection, 1878 ; Meta physics of Experience, 1898), James Sully (The Human Mind, 2 vols. . 1892), and G. F. Stout (Analytic Psychology, 1896) as Englishmen. Darwin, Romanes, and Lloyd Morgan have treated comparative psychology. The Dictionary of Psychology and Philosophy, ed. by J. M. Baldwin with cooper*
Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century. 631
tion of British and American writers, will give historical material as well as definitions (in press). ]
The Italian philosophy of the nineteenth century hag been determined more than the French by political motives, and in the content of the thought*
that have been worked over for these ends, it has been dependent
French, partly upon German, philosophy. At the beginning the Kncyclopte- dint*' view of the world, both in its practical and it* theoretical aspects, was
dominant In men like Oioja (1760-1829) or his friend, Romagnoai (17(11- 1835), while as early as Pasquale Qaluppi (1771-1846 ; Saggio Filosojico sulla Critica delle Cunosceme Umane, 1320 ft ; Filosofla delta 'Volouta, 1832 ff. ) Kantian influences assert themselves, — to be sure, under the psychologists
form of the Leibnizian virtual innateness.
At a later period philosophy, which was mainly developed by the clergy, was
influenced essentially by the political alliance of the Papacy with democratic Liberalism, inasmuch as Rationalism wished to unite itaelf with revealed faith. The most characteristic representative of this tendency and the most attractive
personally was Antonio Boamini-Serbati (1797-1855; Xuuvo Saggio suit' Ori gin* delle Idee, 1830; Principii delta Srietua Morale, 1831 ; Post hum, Teosojia, 1*59 II. ; Saggio Storico-Critico suite Cateyorie e la Dialettiea, 1884) [Eng. tr. of the first, Origin of Idea*, 3 vols. . Loud. 188:1 f. ; also It's Philtut. System, by T. Davidson, with int. bibliog. , etc. , Loud. 1882 ; Psychology, vols. , Lond. and Boston, 1884-1889]. Ct. op him F. X. Kraus (Deutsche Kuiolxchiiu, 1890). The combination of Platonic, Cartesian, and Schellingian ideas proceeds in still wore pronounced lines to an Ontologism. i. e. an <i priori science of Being, in Vincenzo Oiobertl (1801-1852; Deyli Errori Filosojico di Rosmitii. 1842; iHlmdmione alia Filosofla, 1840 Prolologia, 1857. Ct. B. Spaveuta, La Filo-
iiflix di G. , 180:1). Terenzo Mamlanl passed through this entire development (1800-1885; Coufessioni di tin Mebtfisir,,, 18*55) l. uigi Ferri (1820-1806), l. abanca, Bonatetli, and others followed it, though intlueuced also by Ueruian and French views.
As opponents this tendency found, on the one hand, the rigid Orthodoxiem <>f Ventura IT'. '. ' 18t;i Tappaielll and Liberatore (Drlla Conosreuza Intel- letnale, 1865), and, on the other hand, politically radical Scepticism, as repre sented by Guiseppe Ferrari (1811-1808 La Filosofla delle Reroluzioni, 1861) and Antonio Franckl (La Religione del 19. Secolo, 1863). The Kantian philosophy was introduced by Alf. Teata (1784-1800; Delia Critica delta lingione Punt, 1841» ff. ), and uioru successfully by C. Canton! (born 1840; cf. above, 632), F. Tocco, S. Turbiglio, and others. Hegel's doctrine wa* intro duced by A. Vara (1813-1885), It. Spaventa (1817-188:5), and Fr. Fiorentino, and Comte's positivism by Cataneo, Ardigo, and I. aliriola. [Cf. for this Italian thought the App. in Ueberweg's Hit. Phil. , Eng. tr. , Vol. II.
Its principal opponents were the philosophers of the CA*rrA> party, whose tbeorv is known as Traditionalism Together with Chateaubriand (Le Genie du ChrUtianltne, 1802), Jos. da Maistte (1763-1821 ; £j#ai tur It Primelpt
628 Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century. [Pabt VII.
Qenerateur des Constitutions Politique^, 1810 ; Soiries de St. Petersbourg, 1821 ; Du Pape, 1820; cf. on him Fr. Paulhan, Paris, 1898) and J. Frayssinons (1765-1841; Defense du Christianisme, 1828), V. G. A. de Bonald (1768-1841; Theorie du Pouvoir Politique et lieligieux, 1796 ; Essai Analytique sur lex Lois Haturelles de VOrdre Social, 1800; Du Divorce, 1801; De la Philosophic Morale et Politique du 184 siecle; complete works, 16 vols. , Paris, 1816 fl. ) stands here in the foreground. The traditionalism of P. S. Ballanche is presented in a strangely fantastic fashion (1776-1847 ; Essai sur les Institutions Societies, 1817 ; La Palingenesie Sociale ; complete works, 6 vols. , Paris, 1888). In the beginning II. F. U. de Lamennais (1782-1864) also supported this line in his Essai sur VIndifference en Matiere de Religion (1817); later, having fallen out with the Church {Parole d'un Croyant, 1884), he presented in the Esquisse (Vune Philosophic (4 vols. , 1841-1846) a comprehensive system of philosophy, which had for its prototype partly the Schellingian System of Identity and partly the Italian Ontologism.
Among the philosophical supporters of Socialism (cf. L. Stein, Geschichu der socialen Bevsegung in Frankreich, Leips. 1849 11. ) the most important is CI. H. de St. Simon (1760-1825 ; Introduction aux Travaux Scientifique* du ISh siecle, 1807 ; Biorganisation de la Societe Europienne, 1814 ; Systeme In dustrie^ 1821 f. ; Nouveau Christianisme, 1825 ; (Euvres choisies, 3 vols. , 1859). Of his successors may be mentioned, Bazard (Doctrine de St. Simon, 1829), B. Enfantin (1790-1864; La Religion St. Simonienne, 1831), Pierre Leroux (1798-1871 ; Refutation de I'Eclecticisme, 1&39 ; De V Humanite, 1840), and Ph. Buchez (1796-1866 ; Essai cTun Traiti Complet de Philosophic au Point de
Vue du Catholicisms et du Progres, 1840).
Aug. Comte occupies a most interesting position apart. He was born in
Montpellier in 1798 and died alone in Paris in 1867 : Cours du Philosophic Positive (6 vols. , Paris, 1840-1842) [Eng. tr. , or rather a condensation and repro duction by H. Martineau, The Positive Philosophy of A. Comte, 2 vols. , Lond. 1863] ; Systeme de Politique Positive (Paris, 1851-1854) ; The Positive Polity and certain earlier works, trans, by various authors, 4 vols. , Lond. 187(1-1878; Catechisme Positiviste (1853) ; cf. Littr6, C. et la Philosophic Positire, Paris, 1868 ; J. S. Mill, C. and Positivism, Lond. 1805 ; J. Rig, A. C. La Philosophic. Positive Resumee, Paris, 1881 ; E. Caird, The Social Philosophy and Religion of ft, Glasgow, 1886.
In the following period Comte's position became more influential and in part controlling. E. Littre' (1801-1881 ; La Science au Point de Vue Philosophique. Paris, 1873) defended his positivism in systematic form. A freer adaptation of positivism was made by such writers as H. Taine (1828-1893 ; Philosophic de I'Art, 1866 ; De VIntelligence, 1870 ; cf. on him G. Barzellotti, Rome, 1896) and Ernest Renan (1823-1892; Questions Contemporaines, 1868; L'Avenir de la Science, 1890). Under Comte's influence, likewise, has been the develop ment of empirical psychology. Th. Ribot. editor of the Revue Philosophique, is to be regarded as the leader in this field. In addition to his historical works on English and German psychology, his investigations with regard to heredity and abnormal conditions of memory, will, personality, etc. , may be noted.
In part also Sociology stands under Comte's influence, as R. Worms, G. Tarde, E. Durkheim, and others have striven to work it out (cf. Annie Sociolo- gique, pub. since 1894). Finally, evolutionary theories belong in this connection, which have been especially carried out by J. M. Guyau (1854-1888 ; Esquisse d'une Morale, 1885 ; LHrreligion de. Vavenir, 1887 ; Vart, au point de vue sociologique, 1889) [Problemes de VEsthetique Contemporaine, 1897].
By far the most important among the present representatives of philosophy in France is Ch. Renouvier (bom 1818 ; Essais de Critique Ginirale, 2d ed. , 1875-96; Esqitisse d'une Classification Systematique des Doctrines Philoso- phiques, 1885 ; La Philosophic Analytique de VHistoire, 1896 ; La Nouvelle Monadologie, 1899). The synthesis of Kant and Comte which he has sought to effect has its literary organ in the Annee Philosophique (published since 1889).
In England the Associational Psychology continues through Thomas Brown to men like Thomas Belnham (1750-1829 ; Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind, 1801), John Fearn (First Lines of the Human Mind,
Philotophy of the Nineteenth Century. 629
1830), and many others; finds support here also in physiological and phreno logical theories as with G. Combe (. 1 System nf Phrenology, Kdin. 1826), Sam. Bailey (Essays on the Pursuit of Truth, 1829; The Theory of Reasoning, 1861 ; LetUrs on the Philosophy of the Human Mind, 18. '>. ">)and Harriet Mar tineau {Letters on the Isiws of Man's Nature ami Development, 1861), and reaches its full development through James Mill (Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind. 1829), and his son. J. Stuart M1U (1806-1873 ; System of Ijigir Hatiorinatite and Indurlire, 1843; Principles of Political Economy, 1848; On Liberty, 18611; Utilitarianism, 1803 ; Examination of Sir W. Hamilton's Philosophy, 1805; Autobiography, 1873; Posthumously, Essays on Heliijion, 1874 ; Collected Dissertations and Discussions, N. Y. , 1882 ; Useful ed. of Ethical Writings by Douglas, Kdin. 1897. Cf. H. Taine, Le Posit irisme Anglais, Paris, 1804 [Kng. tr. by Haye ; Courtney, Life of M„ and Meta physics of J. S. M. ; Bain, J. S. M. 1882], Douglas, J. S. M. , A Study of his Phitos. , kdin. 1806). Closely connected with this line of thought stands Alex. Bam ( The Senses and the Intellect, I860, 3d ed. 1808 ; Mental ami Moral Science, 1808, 3d ed. 1872, Pt. II, 1872; The Emotions and the Will, 1869, 3d
ed. 1875 ; Mind and Body, 3d ed. 1874.
The related Utilitarianism is represented by T. Cogan ( Philosophical Treatise
vn the Passion*, 1802; Ethical Questions, 1817), John Austin (17H0-1869 ; The Philosophy of Positive Law, 1832), G. Cornwall Lewis (A Treatise on the Methixls of Obsecration and Reasoning in Politics, 1852). [As representatives
of Utilitarianism, in addition to Mill, and Bain, op. cit. above, H. Sidgwiclc. Methyls of Ethics, Lond. 1874, 0th ed. 1901, and T. Fowler, Principles of Montis, Lond. lHMti f. , should also be mentioned.
Scottish Philosophy, after Dugald Stewart and James Mackintosh
I*. ! 2 ; Dissertation on the Itogress of Ethical Philosophy, 1830), had at first unimportant supporters like Abercromble (1781-1840 ; In'/nir;/ concerning the Intellectual Powers. 18:10 ; Philosophy of the Moral Feelings, 1833) and
Chalmers (1780-1847), and was especially as academical instruction brought into affiliation with the eclecticism of Cousin by Henry Calderwood (Philoso phy of the Infinite, 1864), S. Morell (An Historical and Critical I'iew of the Speculative Philosophy of Europe in the 10th Century, 1846), also H. Wedg
wood (On the Development ofthe Understanding, 1848).
The horizons of English thought were widened by acquaintance with the
German literature, to which Sam. Tayl. Coleridge (1772-1*14), W. Words worth (1770-1850), and especially Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881; Past and Present, 1843 [the articles on various German thinkers and the Sartor Resartus belong here also]) contributed. In philosophy this influence made itself felt
primarily through Kant, whose theory of cognition influenced J. Herschel (On the Study of Natural Philosophy, 1831), and especially W. Whewell (Phi losophy of the Inductive Sciences, 1840).
In intelligent reaction against this influence, Scottish philosophy experienced a valuable re-shaping at the hands of Sir William Hamilton (1788-1866 ; Dis- mssioHs tm Philosophy and Literature, 1852 ; On Truth and Error, 1856 ; Lec tures on Metaphysics and Logic, 1869 ; Editions of ReiiFs and Stewart's Works ; cf. J. Veitch. S. W. H. , The Man and his Philosophy, Edin. and Lond. 1883
[Memoir in 2 vols. , 1869. bv same author]). In his school Agnosticism proper, •u|*pnrted principally by H. L. Mansel (1820-1871 ; Metaphysics or the Phi- lovphy of Consciousness, 1860), is separated from a tendency inclining toward •tImmIc metaphysics : J. Veitch, K. Lowndes (Introduction to the Philosophy "f Primary Beliefs, IHit5). Leechman. McCosb. and others.
Following a suggestion from one aspect of Hamilton's thought, a movement an*ie which sought to develop formal logic as a calculus of symbols. To this movement belong G. Boole (The Mathematical Analysis of Logic, 1847 ; An
Analysis of the Isites of Thought, 1854) ; De Morgan (Ftirmal Logic, 1847) ; Th. Spencer Baynes (An Essay on the Veir Analytic of Logical Forms, 1850) ;
J. Venn f Symbolic Logic, 1881 ; Logic of Chance, 1870 ; Principles of Logic, 1889) [C. 8. Peirce, Algebra nf Lome, 1807 ; Ladd and Mitchell, in Studies in Logic,
W. Stanley JeTons ( Pure I^oi/ic, 1804 ; Principles nf Science, 1874) ;
•d. by Pelrce. Boston. '18*31. Compare on this A. Rlehl ( Vierieljohrttthr. /. writs. Philos. 1877) and L. Liard (Le* LogtcUns Anglais Contcmporain*, 1878). The combined influence of Kant and the later German theism impressed lbs
(1764-
630 Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century. [Part V. 'I.
philosopher of religion, James Martineau (who is also the most prominent recent representative of intuitionist ethics [Type* of Ethical Theory, 1885 ; A Study of Religion, 1888 ; Seat of Authority in Rel. , 189U]; cf. A. W. Jackson. J. M. , Boston, 1900), and likewise F. W. Newman (The Soul, etc. , 1849 ; The ism, 1858), A. C. Fraser and others. Since Hutchinson Stirling (The Secret of Hegel, 1865 ; What is Thought f 1000) German idealism in its whole develop ment and in its metaphysical aspect, particularly in the Hegelian form, has called forth a vigorous idealistic movement, of which the leading representative was the late Thomas Hill Green (18:50-1882), Professor at Oxford. [His Introd. to Hume was followed by criticisms on Lewes and Spencer and (posthumously j by the Prolegomena to Ethics, 1883, and complete works (except the Proleg. ), 3 vols. , Lond. and N. Y. 1885, 1886, 1888; cf. W. H. Fairbrother, The Phi losophy of T. II. (? . , Lond. 1896. ] In sympathy with this idealistic and more or less Hegelian interpretation of Kantian principles are F. H. Bradley (Logic, Lond. 1883 ; Ethical Studies, 1876; Appearance and Reality, 189:)), H. Boaan qttet (Logic, 2 vols. , 1888 ; Hist, of ^Esthetics, 1892 ; Fhilos. of the State, 1899,
Religion, ; E. Caird 1880)
J. Caird to the Philosophy etc. ) ; Phil, (Introduction
of
of Kant, 2 vols. , 1889 ; Essays, 2 vols. , 1892 ; Evolution of Religion.
( Critical
1893); Seth and Haldane (Essays in Phil. Criticism, 1883) ;
(Social Philosophy, 1890). Cf. A. Seth, Hegelianism and Personality, 1887, and the review of this in Mind, by D. G. Ritchie.
These movements above noted stand under the principle of Evolution; the same principle became authoritative for the investigation of organic nature through Charles Darwin (Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. 1859; Descent of Man, 1871; The Expression of the Emotions, 1872). The same principle was formulated in more general terms and made the basis of » comprehensive System of Synthetic Philosophy by Herbert Spencer
J. Mackenzie
(bom 1820), First Principles, 1862, 6th ed. 1901; Principles of Psychology, 1855, 5th ed.
1890; Principles of Biology, 1864-1867, 4th ed. 1888; Principles of Sociology, 1876-1896 ; Principles of Ethics, 1879-1893. Cf. on him O. Gaupp, Stuttgart, 1897 [T. H. Green, in Works ; F. H. Collins, Epitome of the Synthetic Philoso phy, 1889. ] Huxley, Wallace, Tyndall, G. H. Lewes (Problems of Life and Mind, 3d ed. 1874), belong in the main to this tendency.
[Other works in evolutionary ethics are, L. Stephen, The Science of Ethics, Ix>nd. 1882 ; S. Alexander, Moral Order and Progress, Lond. 1889 ; C. M. Williams, The Ethics of Evolution, Lond. and N. Y. 1893. This last contains useful summaries of the chief works. ]
[In America idealistic lines of thought were introduced (in opposition to the prevalent Scottish philosophy) through the medium of Coleridge's interpretation of Kant, by James Marsh (1829) and Henry's trans, of V. Cousin's Lectures on Locke (1834), more directly from Germany by L. P. Hickok (Rational Psy chology, 1848; Bmp. Psych. , 1854 (rev. ed. by J. H. Seelye, 1882) ; Moral Science, 1853 (rev. ed. by J. H. Seelye), etc. ). W. T. Harris, in the Jour. Spec. Philosophy, and elsewhere, has done an important work in the same line. Of more recent writers, J. Royoe (The Religious Aspect of Philosophy, 1886; Spirit of Modern Philos. , 1802; The World and the Individual, 1900), J. Dewey (Psychology, 1886 ; Outlines of Ethics, 1891), are closer to the school of Green, while G. T. Ladd (Phys. Psychology, 1887 ; Introd. to Phil. , 1891 ; Psychology Descriptive and Explanatory, 1894 ; Philos. of Mind, 1895 ; PhilTM, of Knowledge, 1897 ; A Theory of Reality, 1899) and B. P. Bowne (Meta- physics. Psychological Theory, Ethical Theory, etc. ) stand nearer to Lotze. Ormond (The Foundations of Knowledge, 1900) combines idealistic motive. -, with those of Scottish thought. The extremely suggestive work of W. James (Psychology, 2 vols. , 1890) should also be mentioned, and as representatives of the modern treatment of this science, in addition to the works of Ladd and Dewey cited above, J. M. Baldwin (Psychology, 2 vols. , 1890 f. ; Mental Devel opment, 1895-1897) and G. S. Hall (in Am. Jour. Psychology) may be named as American writers, and Jas. Ward (art. Psychology in Enc. Brit. ), S. H. Hodgson ( Time and Space, 1866 ; The Philosophy of Reflection, 1878 ; Meta physics of Experience, 1898), James Sully (The Human Mind, 2 vols. . 1892), and G. F. Stout (Analytic Psychology, 1896) as Englishmen. Darwin, Romanes, and Lloyd Morgan have treated comparative psychology. The Dictionary of Psychology and Philosophy, ed. by J. M. Baldwin with cooper*
Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century. 631
tion of British and American writers, will give historical material as well as definitions (in press). ]
The Italian philosophy of the nineteenth century hag been determined more than the French by political motives, and in the content of the thought*
that have been worked over for these ends, it has been dependent
French, partly upon German, philosophy. At the beginning the Kncyclopte- dint*' view of the world, both in its practical and it* theoretical aspects, was
dominant In men like Oioja (1760-1829) or his friend, Romagnoai (17(11- 1835), while as early as Pasquale Qaluppi (1771-1846 ; Saggio Filosojico sulla Critica delle Cunosceme Umane, 1320 ft ; Filosofla delta 'Volouta, 1832 ff. ) Kantian influences assert themselves, — to be sure, under the psychologists
form of the Leibnizian virtual innateness.
At a later period philosophy, which was mainly developed by the clergy, was
influenced essentially by the political alliance of the Papacy with democratic Liberalism, inasmuch as Rationalism wished to unite itaelf with revealed faith. The most characteristic representative of this tendency and the most attractive
personally was Antonio Boamini-Serbati (1797-1855; Xuuvo Saggio suit' Ori gin* delle Idee, 1830; Principii delta Srietua Morale, 1831 ; Post hum, Teosojia, 1*59 II. ; Saggio Storico-Critico suite Cateyorie e la Dialettiea, 1884) [Eng. tr. of the first, Origin of Idea*, 3 vols. . Loud. 188:1 f. ; also It's Philtut. System, by T. Davidson, with int. bibliog. , etc. , Loud. 1882 ; Psychology, vols. , Lond. and Boston, 1884-1889]. Ct. op him F. X. Kraus (Deutsche Kuiolxchiiu, 1890). The combination of Platonic, Cartesian, and Schellingian ideas proceeds in still wore pronounced lines to an Ontologism. i. e. an <i priori science of Being, in Vincenzo Oiobertl (1801-1852; Deyli Errori Filosojico di Rosmitii. 1842; iHlmdmione alia Filosofla, 1840 Prolologia, 1857. Ct. B. Spaveuta, La Filo-
iiflix di G. , 180:1). Terenzo Mamlanl passed through this entire development (1800-1885; Coufessioni di tin Mebtfisir,,, 18*55) l. uigi Ferri (1820-1806), l. abanca, Bonatetli, and others followed it, though intlueuced also by Ueruian and French views.
As opponents this tendency found, on the one hand, the rigid Orthodoxiem <>f Ventura IT'. '. ' 18t;i Tappaielll and Liberatore (Drlla Conosreuza Intel- letnale, 1865), and, on the other hand, politically radical Scepticism, as repre sented by Guiseppe Ferrari (1811-1808 La Filosofla delle Reroluzioni, 1861) and Antonio Franckl (La Religione del 19. Secolo, 1863). The Kantian philosophy was introduced by Alf. Teata (1784-1800; Delia Critica delta lingione Punt, 1841» ff. ), and uioru successfully by C. Canton! (born 1840; cf. above, 632), F. Tocco, S. Turbiglio, and others. Hegel's doctrine wa* intro duced by A. Vara (1813-1885), It. Spaventa (1817-188:5), and Fr. Fiorentino, and Comte's positivism by Cataneo, Ardigo, and I. aliriola. [Cf. for this Italian thought the App. in Ueberweg's Hit. Phil. , Eng. tr. , Vol. II.
