No More Learning

1. Starting again from the Sacred Promontory,[1116] and continuing along
the other side of the coast, we come to the gulf near the Tagus,
afterwards Cape Barbarium,[1117] and near to this the outlets of the
Tagus, which may be reached by sailing in a straight course for a
distance of 10 stadia. [1118] Here are estuaries, one of them more than
400 stadia from the said tower, on a part of which Laccæa is
situated. [1119] The breadth of the mouth of the Tagus is about 20
stadia, its depth is so great as to be capable of navigation by vessels
of the greatest burden. At the flood-tide the Tagus forms two estuaries
in the [CAS. 152] plains which lie above it, so that the plain is
inundated and rendered navigable for a distance of 150 stadia. In the
upper estuary an island is formed about 30 stadia in length, and nearly
equal in breadth, which is fertile, and has excellent vines. The island
lies near to Moro,[1120] a city happily situated on a mountain close to
the river, and about 500 stadia from the sea. The country surrounding it
is very fine, and the ascent [of the Tagus] for a considerable way
practicable for vessels of a large size, the remainder is performed in
river-boats. Above Moro it is navigable for a yet longer distance.
Brutus, surnamed the Gallician, made use of this city as a military
station, when fighting against the Lusitanians, whom he subdued. On the
sides of the river he fortified Olysipo, in order that the passage up
the river and the carriage of necessaries might be preserved unimpeded.
These therefore are the finest cities near the Tagus. The river contains
much fish, and is full of oysters. It takes its rise amongst the
Keltiberians, and flows through the [country of the] Vettones,
Carpetani, and Lusitani, towards the west;[1121] to a certain distance
it runs parallel with the Guadiana[1122] and Guadalquiver,[1123] but
parts from them as they decline towards the southern coast.

2. Of those who dwell above the aforesaid mountains, the Oretani are the
most southern, extending in part as far as the sea-coast on this side
the Pillars. Next these towards the north are the Carpetani, then the
Vettones and Vaccæi, through whose [country] the Douro[1124] flows as it
passes Acontia,[1125] a city of the Vaccæi. The Gallicians are the last,
and inhabit for the most part a mountainous country: on this account
they were the most difficult to subdue, and furnished his surname to the
conqueror of the Lusitanians; in fact, at the present day the greater
part of the Lusitanians are beginning to call themselves Gallicians. The
finest cities of Oretania are Castulo[1126] and Oria. [1127]

3. North of the Tagus is Lusitania, the principal of the nations of
Iberia, and the one which has most frequently encountered the arms of
the Romans. On the southern side this country is bounded by the Tagus,
on the west and north by the ocean, on the east by the well-known
nations of the Carpetani, the Vettones, the Vaccæi, the Gallicians, and
by others not worthy to be mentioned on account of their insignificance
and obscurity. On the other hand, certain historians of the present day
give the name of Lusitanians to all of these nations.

To the east the Gallicians border on the nation of the Asturians and
Keltiberians, the others [border] on the Keltiberians. In length
Lusitania is 3000[1128] stadia; its breadth, which is comprised between
the eastern side and the opposite sea-coast, is much less. The eastern
part is mountainous and rugged, while the country beyond, as far as the
sea, consists entirely of plains, with the exception of a few
inconsiderable mountains. On this account Posidonius remarks that
Aristotle was not correct in supposing that the ebb and flow of the tide
was occasioned by the sea-coast of Iberia and Maurusia. [1129] For
Aristotle asserted that the tides of the sea were caused by the
extremities of the land being mountainous and rugged, and therefore both
receiving the wave violently and also casting it back. Whereas
Posidonius truly remarks that they are for the most part low and sandy.

4. The country which we are describing is fertile, and irrigated by
rivers both large and small, all of which flow from the eastern parts
parallel with the Tagus: most of them are navigable and full of gold
dust. After the Tagus, the most noted rivers are the Mondego[1130] and
the Vouga,[1131] which are navigable but for a short distance. After
these is the Douro,[1132] which flows from afar by Numantia,[1133] and
many other colonies of the Keltiberians and Vaccæi; it is capable of
being navigated in large vessels for a distance of nearly 800 stadia.
Besides these there are other rivers, after which is the [river] of
Lethe, which some call the Limæa,[1134] others the Belio,[1135] it
likewise rises amongst the Keltiberians and Vaccæi. After [CAS. 153]
this is the Bænis, (some call it the Minius,[1136]) by far the largest
river of Lusitania,[1137] being navigable for a distance of 800 stadia.
Posidonius says this too rises amongst the Cantabrians. [1138] An
island[1139] lies before its outlet, and two moles affording anchorage
for vessels. A natural advantage [of this country] well deserving of
commendation is, that the banks of the rivers are so lofty as to be
capable of containing the entirety of the water raised by the high tides
of the sea, without either being overfilled, or overflowing the plains.
This was the limit of Brutus’s expedition. Beyond there are many other
rivers parallel to those I have named.

5. The Artabri are the last of the people [on this coast]. They inhabit
the promontory called Nerium,[1140] which is the boundary [of Iberia] on
its western and northern sides. Around it dwell the Keltici, a kindred
race to those who are situated along the Guadiana. [1141] They say that
these latter, together with the Turduli, having undertaken an expedition
thither, quarrelled after they had crossed the river Lima,[1142] and,
besides the sedition, their leader having also died, they remained
scattered there, and from this circumstance the river was called the
Lethe. [1143] The Artabri have besides many cities established round the
Gulf, which mariners and those familiar with the places designate as the
Port of the Artabri. At the present day the Artabri are denominated the
Arotrebæ. About thirty[1144] different nations occupy the country
between the Tagus and the Artabri. Notwithstanding the fertility of the
country in corn, cattle, gold, silver, and numerous other similar
productions, the majority of its inhabitants, neglecting to gain their
subsistence from the ground, passed their lives in pillage and continual
warfare, both between themselves and their neighbours, whom they used to
cross the Tagus [to plunder]. To this the Romans at length put a stop by
subduing them, and changing many of their cities into villages, besides
colonizing some of them better. The mountaineers, as was natural, were
the first to commence this lawless mode of life: for living but
scantily, and possessing little, they coveted the goods of others, who
being obliged to repulse them, of necessity relinquished their proper
employments, and instead of pursuing agriculture took up arms. Thus it
happened that their country, being neglected, became barren
notwithstanding its natural advantages, and inhabited by bandits.

6. The Lusitanians are reported to be clever in laying ambushes, sharp,
swift of foot, light,[1145] and easily disciplined as soldiers. The
small shield they make use of is two feet in diameter, its outer surface
concave, and suspended by leather thongs; it neither has rings nor
handles. They have in addition[1146] a poignard or dagger. Their
corselets are for the most part made of linen; a few have chain-coats
and helmets with triple crests, but the others use helmets composed of
sinews. The infantry wear greaves, each man is furnished with a number
of javelins; some also use spears pointed with brass. They report that
some of those who dwell near to the river Douro[1147] imitate the
Lacedæmonians in anointing their bodies with oil, using hot air-baths
made of heated stones, bathing in cold water, and taking but one tidy
and frugal meal a day. The Lusitanians are frequent in the performance
of sacrifice; they examine the entrails, but without cutting them out of
the body; they also examine the veins of the side, and practise augury
by the touch. They likewise divine by the entrails of captive enemies,
whom they first cover with a military cloak, and when stricken under the
entrails by the haruspex, they draw their first auguries from the fall
[of the victim]. [CAS. 155] They cut off the right hands of their
prisoners, and consecrate them to the gods.

7. All the mountaineers are frugal, their beverage is water, they sleep
on the ground, and wear a profuse quantity of long hair after the
fashion of women, which they bind around the forehead when they go to
battle. [1148] They subsist principally on the flesh of the goat, which
animal they sacrifice to Mars, as also prisoners taken in war, and
horses. They likewise offer hecatombs of each kind after the manner of
the Greeks, described by Pindar,

“To sacrifice a hundred of every [species]. ”[1149]

They practise gymnastic exercises,[1150] both as heavy-armed soldiers,
and cavalry, also boxing, running, skirmishing, and fighting in bands.
For two-thirds of the year the mountaineers feed on the acorn, which
they dry, bruise, and afterwards grind and make into a kind of bread,
which may be stored up for a long period. They also use beer; wine is
very scarce, and what is made they speedily consume in feasting with
their relatives. In place of oil they use butter. Their meals they take
sitting, on seats put up round the walls, and they take place on these
according to their age and rank. The supper is carried round, and whilst
drinking they dance to the sound of the flute and trumpet, springing up
and sinking upon the knees. [1151]

In Bastetania the women dance promiscuously with the men, each holding
the other’s hand. They all dress in black, the majority of them in
cloaks called saga, in which they sleep on beds of straw. They make use
of wooden vessels like the Kelts. The women wear dresses and embroidered
garments. Instead of money, those who dwell far in the interior exchange
merchandise, or give pieces of silver cut off from plates of that
metal. Those condemned to death are executed by stoning; parricides are
put to death without the frontiers or the cities. They marry according
to the customs of the Greeks. [1152] Their sick they expose upon the
highways, the same way as the Egyptians[1153] did anciently, in the hope
that some one who has experienced the malady may be able to give them
advice. Up to the time of [the expedition of] Brutus they made use of
vessels constructed of skins for crossing the lagoons formed by the
tides; they now have them formed out of the single trunk of a tree, but
these are scarce. Their salt is purple, but becomes white by pounding.
The life of the mountaineers is such as I have described, I mean those
bordering the northern side of Iberia, the Gallicians, the Asturians,
and the Cantabrians,[1154] as far as the Vascons[1155] and the Pyrenees.
The mode of life amongst all these is similar. But I am reluctant to
fill my page with their names, and would fain escape the disagreeable
task of writing them, unless perchance the Pleutauri, the Bardyetæ, the
Allotriges,[1156] and other names still worse and more out of the way
than these might be grateful to the ear of some one.

8. The rough and savage manners of these people is not alone owing to
their wars, but likewise to their isolated position, it being a long
distance to reach them, whether by sea or land. Thus the difficulty of
communication has deprived [CAS. 156] them both of generosity of manners
and of courtesy. At the present time, however, they suffer less from
this both on account of their being at peace and the intermixture of
Romans. Wherever these [influences] are not so much experienced people
are harsher and more savage. It is probable that this ruggedness of
character is increased by the barrenness of the mountains and some of
the places which they inhabit. At the present day, as I have remarked,
all warfare is put an end to, Augustus Cæsar having subdued the
Cantabrians[1157] and the neighbouring nations, amongst whom the system
of pillage was mainly carried on in our day. So that at the present
time, instead of plundering the allies of the Romans, the Coniaci and
those who dwell by the sources of the Ebro,[1158] with the exception of
the Tuisi,[1159] bear arms for the Romans. Tiberius, who succeeded
Augustus Cæsar, carried out his intention of placing a military force of
three legions in these parts, by which means he has not only preserved
peace, but introduced amongst some of them a civil polity.




CHAPTER IV.


1. What remains [to be described] of Iberia, is the sea-coast of the
Mediterranean from the Pillars to the Pyrenees, and the whole of the
inland country which lies above. The breadth of this is irregular, its
length a little above 4000 stadia. It has been remarked that the
sea-coast[1160] is above 2000 stadia, and they say that from Mount
Calpe,[1161] which is near the Pillars, to New Carthage,[1162] there are
2200 stadia. This coast is inhabited by the Bastetani, also called the
Bastuli, and in part by the Oretani. Thence[1163] to the Ebro the
distance is nearly as great. This [region] is inhabited by the Edetani.
On this side the Ebro to the Pyrenees and the Trophies of Pompey there
are 1600 stadia. It is peopled by a small portion of the Edetani, and
the rest by a people named the Indicetes, divided into four cantons.

2. Commencing our particular description from Calpe, there is [first]
the mountain-chain of Bastetania and the Oretani. This is covered
with thick woods and gigantic trees, and separates the sea-coast from
the interior. In many places it also contains gold and other mines. The
first city along the coast is Malaca,[1164] which is about as far
distant from Calpe as Calpe is from Gades. [1165] It is a market for the
nomade tribes from the opposite coast, and there are great stores of
salt-fish there. Some suppose it to be the same as Mænaca, which
tradition reports to be the farthest west of the cities of the Phocæi;
but this is not the case, for Mænaca, which was situated at a greater
distance from Calpe, is in ruins, and preserves traces of having been a
Grecian city, whereas Malaca is nearer, and Phœnician in its
configuration. Next in order is the city of the Exitani,[1166] from
which the salted fish[1167] bearing that name takes its appellation.

3. After these comes Abdera,[1168] founded likewise by the Phœnicians.
Above these places, in the mountains, the city of Ulyssea[1169] is
shown, containing a temple to Minerva, according to the testimony of
Posidonius, Artemidorus, and Asclepiades the Myrlean,[1170] a man who
taught literature in Turdetania, and published a description of the
nations dwelling there. He says that in the temple of Minerva were hung
up spears and prows of vessels, monuments of the wanderings [CAS. 157]
of Ulysses. That some of those who followed Teucer in his expedition
settled among the Gallicians;[1171] and that two cities were there, the
one called Hellenes,[1172] the other Amphilochi; but Amphilochus[1173]
having died, his followers wandered into the interior. He adds, that it
is said, that some of the followers of Hercules, and certain also of the
inhabitants of Messene, settled in Iberia. Both he and others assert
that a portion of Cantabria was occupied by Laconians. Here is the city
named Opsicella,[1174] founded by Ocela,[1175] who passed into Italy
with Antenor and his children. Some believe the account of the merchants
of Gades, asserted by Artemidorus, that in Libya there are people living
above Maurusia, near to the Western Ethiopians, named Lotophagi, because
they feed on the leaves and root of the lotus[1176] without wanting to
drink; for they possess [no drink], being without water. These people
they say extend as far as the regions above Cyrene. There are others
also called Lotophagi, who inhabit Meninx,[1177] one of the islands
situated opposite the Lesser Syrtes. [1178]

4. No one should be surprised that the poet, in his fiction descriptive
of the wanderings of Ulysses, should have located the majority of the
scenes which he narrates without the Pillars, in the Atlantic. For
historical events of a similar character did actually occur near to the
places, so that the other circumstances which he feigned did not make
his fiction incredible; nor [should any one be surprised] if certain
persons, putting faith in the historical accuracy and extensive
knowledge of the poet, should have attempted to explain the poem of
Homer on scientific principles; a proceeding undertaken by Crates of
Mallos,[1179] and some others. On the other hand, there have been those
who have treated the undertaking of Homer so contemptuously, as not only
to deny any such knowledge to the poet, as though he were a ditcher or
reaper, but have stigmatized as fools those who commented on his
writings. And not one either of the grammarians, or of those skilled in
the mathematics, has dared to undertake their defence, or to set right
any mistakes in what they have advanced, or any thing else; although it
seems to me possible both to prove correct much that they have said, and
also to set right other points, especially where they have been misled
by putting faith in Pytheas, who was ignorant of the countries situated
along the ocean, both to the west and north. But we must let these
matters pass, as they require a particular and lengthened discussion.

5. The settlement of the Grecians amongst these barbarous nations may be
regarded as the result of the division of these latter into small tribes
and sovereignties, having on account of their moroseness no union
amongst themselves, and therefore powerless against attacks from
without. This moroseness is remarkably prevalent amongst the Iberians,
who are [CAS. 158] besides crafty in their manner, devoid of sincerity,
insidious, and predatory in their mode of life; they are bold in little
adventures, but never undertake any thing of magnitude, inasmuch as they
have never formed any extended power or confederacy. If they had had but
the will to assist each other, neither could the Carthaginians by making
an incursion have so easily deprived them of the greater part of their
country, nor before them the Tyrians, then the Kelts, now called the
Keltiberians and Berones, nor after these the brigand Viriathus, and
Sertorius,[1180] nor any others who desired power. On this account the
Romans, having carried the war into Iberia, lost much time by reason of
the number of different sovereignties, having to conquer first one, then
another; in fact, it occupied nearly two centuries, or even longer,
before they had subdued the whole. —I return to my description.

6. After Abdera[1181] is New Carthage,[1182] founded by Asdrubal, who
succeeded Barcas, the father of Hannibal. It is by far the most powerful
city of this country, being impregnable, and furnished with a noble
wall, harbours, and a lake, besides the silver mines already mentioned.
The places in the vicinity have an abundance of salted fish, and it is
besides the great emporium of the sea merchandise for the interior, and
likewise for the merchandise from the interior for exportation. About
midway along the coast between this city and the Ebro, we meet with the
outlet of the river Xucar,[1183] and a city bearing the same name. [1184]
It rises in a mountain belonging to the chain which overlooks
Malaca,[1185] and the regions around Carthage, and may be forded on
foot; it is nearly parallel to the Ebro, but not quite so far distant
from Carthage as from the Ebro. Between the Xucar and Carthage are three
small towns of the people of Marseilles, not far from the river. Of
these the best known is Hemeroscopium. [1186] On the promontory there is
a temple to Diana of Ephesus, held in great veneration. Sertorius used
it as an arsenal, convenient to the sea, both on account of its being
fortified and fitted for piratical uses, and because it is visible from
a great distance to vessels approaching. It is called Dianium,[1187]
from Diana. Near to it are some fine iron-works, and two small islands,
Planesia[1188] and Plumbaria,[1189] with a sea-water lake lying above,
of 400 stadia in circumference. Next is the island of Hercules, near to
Carthage, and called Scombraria,[1190] on account of the mackerel taken
there, from which the finest garum[1191] is made. It is distant 24
stadia from Carthage. On the other side of the Xucar, going towards the
outlet of the Ebro, is Saguntum, founded by the Zacynthians. The
destruction of this city by Hannibal, contrary to his treaties with the
Romans, kindled the second Punic war. Near to it are the cities of
Cherronesus,[1192] Oleastrum, and Cartalia, and the colony of
Dertossa,[1193] on the very passage of the Ebro. The Ebro takes its
source amongst the Cantabrians; it flows through an extended plain
towards the south, running parallel with the Pyrenees.

7. The first city between the windings of the Ebro and the extremities
of the Pyrenees, near to where the Trophies of Pompey are erected, is
Tarraco;[1194] it has no harbour, but is situated on a bay, and
possessed of many other advantages. At the present day it is as well
peopled as Carthage;[1195] for it is admirably suited for the stay of
the prefects,[1196] and is as it were the metropolis, not only of [the
country lying] on this side the Ebro, but also of a great part of what
lies beyond. The near vicinity of the Gymnesian Islands,[1197] and
Ebusus,[1198] which are all of considerable importance, are sufficient
to inform one of the felicitous position of the city. Eratosthenes tells
us that it has a roadstead, but Artemidorus contradicts this, and
affirms that it scarcely possesses an anchorage.

8. The whole coast from the Pillars up to this place wants harbours, but
all the way from here to Emporium,[1199] the countries of the Leëtani,
the Lartolæetæ, and others, are both furnished with excellent harbours
and fertile. Emporium was founded by the people of Marseilles, and is
about 4000[1200] stadia [CAS. 160] distant from the Pyrenees, and the
confines of Iberia and Keltica. This is a very fine region, and
possesses good ports. Here also is Rhodope,[1201] a small town of the
Emporitæ, but some say it was founded by the Rhodians. Both here and in
Emporium they reverence the Ephesian Diana. The cause of this we will
explain when we come to speak of Massalia. [1202] In former times the
Emporitæ dwelt on a small island opposite, now called the old city, but
at the present day they inhabit the mainland. The city is double, being
divided by a wall, for in past times some of the Indiceti dwelt close
by, who, although they had a separate polity to themselves, desired, for
the sake of safety, to be shut in by a common enclosure with the
Grecians; but at the same time that this enclosure should be two-fold,
being divided through its middle by a wall. In time, however, they came
to have but one government, a mixture of Barbarian and Grecian laws; a
result which has taken place in many other [states].

9. A river[1203] flows near to it, which has its sources in the
Pyrenees; its outlet forms a port for the Emporitæ, who are skilful
workers in flax. Of the interior of their country some parts are
fertile, others covered with spartum, a rush which flourishes in
marshes, and is entirely useless: they call this the Junc Plain. There
are some who inhabit the Pyrenean mountains as far as the Trophies of
Pompey, on the route which leads from Italy into Ulterior Iberia,[1204]
and particularly into Bætica. This road runs sometimes close to the sea,
sometimes at a distance therefrom, particularly in the western parts.
From the Trophies of Pompey it leads to Tarraco,[1205] through the Junc
Plain, the Betteres,[1206] and the plain called in the Latin tongue [the
plain] of Marathon, on account of the quantity of fennel growing there.
From Tarraco [the road runs] towards the passage of the Ebro at the city
of Dertossa;[1207] from thence having traversed the city of
Saguntum,[1208] and Setabis,[1209] it follows a course more and more
distant from the sea, till it approaches the Plain of Spartarium, which
signifies the Plain of Rushes. This is a vast arid plain, producing the
species of rush from which cords are made, and which are exported to all
parts, but particularly to Italy. [1210] Formerly the road passed on
through the midst of the plain, and [the city of] Egelastæ,[1211] which
was both difficult and long, but they have now constructed a new road
close to the sea, which merely touches upon the Plain of Rushes, and
leads to the same places as the former, [viz. ] Castlon,[1212] and
Obulco,[1213] through which runs the road to Corduba and Gades,[1214]
the two greatest emporia [of Iberia]. Obulco is distant about 300 stadia
from Corduba. Historians report that Cæsar came from Rome to Obulco, and
to his army there, within the space of twenty-seven days, when about to
fight the battle of Munda. [1215]

10. Such is the whole sea-coast from the Pillars to the confines of the
Iberians and Kelts. The interior of the country lying above, and
included between the mountains of the Pyrenees and the northern side [of
Iberia], as far as the Astures, is principally divided by two mountain
chains; the one of these is parallel to the Pyrenees, and takes its
commencement from the country of the Cantabri, terminating at the
Mediterranean. This is called the Idubeda. [1216] The second, springing
from the middle [of this first], runs towards the west, inclining
however to the south and the sea-coast towards the Pillars. At the
commencement it consists of bare hills, but after traversing the Plain
of Spartarium, falls in with the forest lying above Carthage,[1217] and
the regions round Malaca. [1218] It is named Orospeda. [1219] The river
Ebro flows between the Pyrenees and Idubeda, and parallel to both these
mountains. It is fed by the rivers and other waters carried down [CAS.
161] from [the mountains]. Situated on the Ebro is the city of Cæsar
Augusta,[1220] and the colony of Celsa,[1221] where there is a stone
bridge across the river. This country is inhabited by many nations, the
best known being that of the Jaccetani. [1222] Commencing at the foot of
the Pyrenees, it widens out into the plains, and reaches to the
districts around Ilerda[1223] and Osca,[1224] [cities] of the Ilergetes
not far distant from the Ebro.
It was in these cities, and in
Calaguris,[1225] a city of the Gascons, as well as those of
Tarraco[1226] and Hemeroscopium,[1227] situated on the coast, that
Sertorius sustained the last efforts of the war, after being ejected
from the country of the Keltiberians. He died at Osca, and it was near
to Ilerda that Afranius and Petreius, Pompey’s generals, were afterwards
defeated by divus[1228] Cæsar. Herda is distant 160 stadia from the
Ebro, which is on its west, about 460 from Tarraco, which is on the
south, and 540 from Osca, which lies to the north. [1229] Passing through
these places from Tarraco to the extremities of the Vascons who dwell by
the ocean, near Pompelon[1230] and the city of Œaso[1231] situated on
the ocean, the route extends 2400 stadia, to the very frontiers of
Aquitaine and Iberia. It was in the country of the Jaccetani that
Sertorius fought against Pompey, and here afterwards Sextus, Pompey’s
son, fought against the generals of Cæsar. The nation of the Vascons, in
which is Pompelon, or Pompey’s city, lies north of Jaccetania.

11. The side of the Pyrenees next Iberia is covered with forests
containing numerous kinds of trees and evergreens, whilst the side next
Keltica is bare: in the midst [the mountains] enclose valleys admirably
fitted for the habitation of man. These are mainly possessed by the
Kerretani, a people of the Iberians. The hams they cure are excellent,
fully equal to those of the Cantabrians,[1232] and they realize no
inconsiderable profit to the inhabitants.

12. Immediately after passing Idubeda, you enter on Keltiberia, a large
and irregular country. It is for the most part rugged, and watered by
rivers, being traversed by the Guadiana,[1233] the Tagus, and many other
of the rivers which flow into the western sea, but have their sources in
Keltiberia. Of their number is the Douro, which flows by Numantia[1234]
and Serguntia. The Guadalquiver[1235] rises in Orospeda, and after
passing through Oretania, enters Bætica. The Berones inhabit the
districts north of the Keltiberians, and are neighbours of the Conish
Cantabrians. They likewise had their origin in the Keltic expedition.
Their city is Varia,[1236] situated near to the passage of the Ebro.
They are adjacent to the Bardyitæ, now called the Bardyli. [1237] To the
west [of the Keltiberians] are certain of the Astures, Gallicians, and
Vaccæi, besides Vettones and Carpetani. On the south are the Oretani,
and the other inhabitants of Orospeda, both Bastetani and Edetani,[1238]
and to the east is Idubeda.

13. Of the four divisions into which the Keltiberians are separated, the
most powerful are the Aruaci, situated to the east and south, near to
the Carpetani and the sources of the Tagus. Their most renowned city is
Numantia. They showed their valour in the war of twenty years, waged by
the Keltiberians against the Romans; for many armies of the Romans,
together with their generals, were destroyed; and in the end the
Numantians, besieged within their city, endured the famine with
constancy, till, reduced to a very small number, they were compelled to
surrender the place. The Lusones are also situated to the east, and
likewise border on the sources of the Tagus. Segeda and Pallantia[1239]
are cities of the [CAS. 162] Aruaci. Numantia is distant from Cæsar
Augusta,[1240] situated as we have said upon the Ebro, about 800 stadia.
Near to Segobriga and Bilbilis,[1241] likewise cities of the
Keltiberians, was fought the battle between Metellus and Sertorius.
Polybius, describing the people and countries of the Vaccæi and
Keltiberians, enumerates Segesama[1242] and Intercatia amongst their
other cities. Posidonius tells us that Marcus Marcellus exacted of
Keltiberia a tribute of 600 talents, which proves that the Keltiberians
were a numerous and wealthy people, notwithstanding the little fertility
of their country. Polybius narrates that Tiberius Gracchus destroyed 300
cities of the Keltiberians. This Posidonius ridicules, and asserts that
to flatter Gracchus, Polybius described as cities the towers such as are
exhibited in the triumphal processions. [1243] This is not incredible;
for both generals and historians easily fall into this species of
deception, by exaggerating their doings. Those who assert that Iberia
contained more than a thousand cities, seem to me to have been carried
away in a similar manner, and to have denominated as cities what were
merely large villages; since, from its very nature, this country is
incapable of maintaining so many cities, on account of its sterility,
wildness, and its out-of-the-way position. Nor, with the exception of
those who dwell along the shores of the Mediterranean, is any such
statement confirmed by the mode of life or actions of the inhabitants.
The inhabitants of the villages, who constitute the majority of the
Iberians, are quite uncivilized. Even the cities cannot very easily
refine the manners [of their inhabitants], as the neighbouring woods are
full of robbers, waiting only an opportunity to inflict injury on the
citizens.

14. Beyond the Keltiberians to the south are the inhabitants of
Orospeda and the country about the Xucar,[1244] the Sidetani,[1245] [who
extend] as far as Carthage,[1246] and the Bastetani and Oretani, [who
extend] almost as far as Malaca. [1247]

15. All the Iberians, so to speak, were peltastæ, furnished with light
arms for the purposes of robbery, and, as we described the Lusitanians,
using the javelin, the sling, and the sword. They have some cavalry
interspersed amongst the foot-soldiers, the horses are trained to
traverse the mountains, and to sink down on their knees at the word of
command, in case of necessity. Iberia produces abundance of antelopes
and wild horses. In many places the lakes are stocked. They have fowl,
swans, and birds of similar kind, and vast numbers of bustards. Beavers
are found in the rivers, but the castor does not possess the same virtue
as that from the Euxine,[1248] the drug from that place having peculiar
properties of its own, as is the case in many other instances. Thus
Posidonius tells us that the Cyprian copper alone produces the cadmian
stone, copperas-water, and oxide of copper. He likewise informs us of
the singular fact, that in Iberia the crows are not black; and that the
horses of Keltiberia which are spotted, lose that colour when they pass
into Ulterior Iberia. He compares them to the Parthian horses, for
indeed they are superior to all other breeds, both in fleetness and
their ease in speedy travelling.

16. Iberia produces a large quantity of roots used in dyeing. In olives,
vines, figs, and every kind of similar fruit-trees, the Iberian coast
next the Mediterranean abounds, they are likewise plentiful beyond. Of
the coasts next the ocean, that towards the north is destitute of them,
on account of the cold, and the remaining portion generally on account
of the apathy of the men, and because they do not lead a civilized life,
but pass their days in poverty, only acting on the animal [CAS. 164]
impulse, and living most corruptly. They do not attend to ease or
luxury, unless any one considers it can add to the happiness of their
lives to wash themselves and their wives in stale urine kept in tanks,
and to rinse their teeth with it, which they say is the custom both with
the Cantabrians and their neighbours. [1249] This practice, as well as
that of sleeping on the ground, is common both among the Iberians and
Kelts. Some say that the Gallicians are atheists, but that the
Keltiberians, and their neighbours to the north, [sacrifice] to a
nameless god, every full moon, at night, before their doors, the whole
family passing the night in dancing and festival. The Vettones, the
first time they came to a Roman camp, and saw certain of the officers
walking up and down the roads for the mere pleasure of walking, supposed
that they were mad, and offered to show them the way to their tents. For
they thought, when not fighting, one should remain quietly seated at
ease. [1250]

17. What Artemidorus relates concerning the adornment of certain of
their women, must likewise be attributed to their barbarous customs. He
says that they wear iron collars having crows fixed to them which bend
over the head, and fall forward considerably over the forehead. When
they wish they draw their veil over these crows, so as to shade the
whole face: this they consider an ornament. Others wear a
tympanium[1251] surrounding the occiput, and fitting tight to the head
as far as the ears, turning over [and increasing] little by little in
height and breadth. Others again make bald the front of the head, in
order to display the forehead to greater advantage. Some twist their
flowing hair round a small style, a foot high, and afterwards cover it
with a black veil. Of singularities like these many have been observed
and recorded as to all the Iberian nations in common, but particularly
those towards the north, not only concerning their bravery, but likewise
their cruelty and brutal madness. For in the war against the
Cantabrians, mothers have slain their children sooner than suffer them
to be captured; and a young boy, having obtained a sword, slew, at the
command of his father, both his parents and brothers, who had been made
prisoners and were bound, and a woman those who had been taken together
with her. A man being invited by a party of drunken [soldiers] to their
feast, threw himself into a fire. These feelings are common both to the
Keltic, Thracian, and Scythian nations, as well as the valour not only
of their men, but likewise of their women. These till the ground,[1252]
and after parturition, having put their husbands instead of themselves
to bed, they wait upon them. Frequently in their employment they wash
and swathe their infants, sitting down by some stream. Posidonius tells
us that in Liguria, his host Charmoleon, a man who came from Marseilles,
related to him, that having hired some men and women to dig his land,
one of the women was seized with the pains of labour, and going to a
little distance from where they were at work, she brought forth, and
returned immediately to her work, for fear she might lose her pay. He
observed that she was evidently working in considerable pain, but was
not aware of the cause till towards evening, when he ascertained it, and
sent her away, having given her her wages. She then carried her infant
to a small spring, and having washed it, wrapped it up in as good
swaddling clothes as she could get, and made the best of her way home.

18. Another practice, not restricted to the Iberians alone, is for two
to mount on one horse, so that in the event of a conflict, one may be
there to fight on foot. Neither are they the only sufferers in being
tormented with vast swarms of mice, from which pestilential diseases
have frequently ensued. This occurred to the Romans in Cantabria, so
that they caused it to be proclaimed, that whoever would catch the mice
should receive rewards according to the number taken, and [even with
this] they were scarcely preserved, as they were suffering besides from
want of corn and other necessaries, it being difficult to get supplies
of corn from Aquitaine on account of [CAS. 165] the rugged nature of the
country. It is a proof of the ferocity of the Cantabrians, that a number
of them having been taken prisoners and fixed to the cross, they chanted
songs of triumph. Instances such as these are proofs of the ferocity of
their manners. There are others which, although not showing them to be
polished, are certainly not brutish. For example, amongst the
Cantabrians, the men give dowries to their wives, and the daughters are
left heirs, but they procure wives for their brothers. These things
indicate a degree of power in the woman, although they are no proof of
advanced civilization. [1253] It is also a custom with the Iberians to
furnish themselves with a poison, which kills without pain, and which
they procure from a herb resembling parsley. This they hold in readiness
in case of misfortune, and to devote themselves for those whose cause
they have joined, thus dying for their sake. [1254]

19. Some, as I have said, state that this country is separated into
four divisions; others, into five. It is not easy to state any thing
precisely on these points, both on account of the changes which the
places have undergone, and by reason of their obscurity. In well-known
and notable countries both the migrations are known, and the divisions
of the land, and the changes of their names, and every thing else of the
same kind. Such matters being the common topics with everybody, and
especially with the Greeks, who are more talkative than any other
people. But in barbarous and out-of-the-way countries, and such as are
cut up into small divisions, and lie scattered, the remembrance of such
occurrences is not nearly so certain, nor yet so full. If these
countries are far removed from the Greeks [our] ignorance is increased.
For although the Roman historians imitate the Greeks, they fall far
short of them. What they relate is taken from the Greeks, very little
being the result of their own ardour in acquiring information. So that
whenever any thing has been omitted by the former there is not much
supplied by the latter. Add to this, that the names most celebrated are
generally Grecian. Formerly the name of Iberia was given to the whole
country between the Rhone and the isthmus formed by the two Galatic
gulfs; whereas now they make the Pyrenees its boundary, and call it
indifferently Iberia or Hispania; others have restricted Iberia to the
country on this side the Ebro. [1255] Still earlier it bore the name of
the Igletes,[1256] who inhabited but a small district, according to
Asclepiades the Myrlean. The Romans call the whole indifferently Iberia
and Hispania, [CAS. 166] but designate one portion of it Ulterior, and
the other Citerior. However, at different periods they have divided it
differently, according to its political aspect at various times.

20. At the present time some of the provinces having been assigned to
the people and senate of the Romans, and the others to the emperor,
Bætica appertains to the people, and a prætor has been sent into the
country, having under him a quæstor and a lieutenant. Its eastern
boundary has been fixed near to Castlon. [1257] The remainder belongs to
the emperor, who deputes two lieutenants, a prætor, and a consul. The
prætor with a lieutenant administers justice amongst the Lusitanians,
who are situated next Bætica, and extend as far as the outlets of the
river Douro, for at the present time this district is called Lusitania
by the inhabitants. Here is [the city of] Augusta Emerita. [1258] What
remains, which is [indeed] the greater part of Iberia, is governed by
the consul, who has under him a respectable force, consisting of about
three legions, with three lieutenants, one of whom with two legions
guards the whole country north of the Douro, the inhabitants of which
formerly were styled Lusitanians, but are now called Gallicians. The
northern mountains, together with the Asturian and Cantabrian, border on
these. The river Melsus[1259] flows through the country of the
Asturians, and at a little distance is the city of Noïga,[1260] close to
an estuary formed by the ocean, which separates the Asturians from the
Cantabrians. The second lieutenant with the remaining legion governs the
adjoining district as far as the Pyrenees. The third oversees the
midland district, and governs the cities inhabited by the togati, whom
we have before alluded to as inclined to peace, and who have adopted the
refined manners and mode of life of the Italians, together with the
toga. These are the Keltiberians, and those who dwell on either side of
the Ebro, as far as the sea-coast. The consul passes the winter in the
maritime districts, mostly administering justice either in [the city
of] Carthage,[1261] or Tarraco. [1262] During the summer he travels
through the country, observing whatever may need reform. There are also
the procurators of the emperor, men of the equestrian rank, who
distribute the pay to the soldiers for their maintenance.




CHAPTER V.


1. Of the islands which are situated in front of Iberia, two named the
Pityussæ, and two the Gymnasiæ, (also called the Baleares,) are situated
on the sea-coast between Tarraco and [the river] Xucar, on which
Saguntum[1263] is built. The Pityussæ are situated farther in the high
seas and more to the west than the Gymnasiæ. One of the Pityussæ is
called Ebusus,[1264] having a city of the same name. This island is 400
stadia in circumference, and nearly equal in its breadth and length. The
other, [named] Ophiussa, is situated near to this, but is desert, and
much smaller. The larger[1265] of the Gymnasiæ contains two cities,
Palma,[1266] and Polentia;[1267] the latter lying towards the east, the
former towards the west. The length of this island is scarcely less than
600 stadia, its breadth 200; although Artemidorus asserts it is twice
this size both in breadth and length. [1268] The smaller island[1269] is
about [2]70 stadia distant from Polentia; in size it is far surpassed
by the larger island, but in excellence it is by no means inferior, for
both of them are very fertile, and furnished with harbours. At the
mouths of these however there are rocks rising but a little out of the
water, which renders attention necessary in entering them. The fertility
of these places inclines the inhabitants to peace, as also the people of
Ebusus. But certain [CAS. 168] malefactors, though few in number, having
associated with the pirates in those seas, they all got a bad name, and
Metellus, surnamed Balearicus, marched against them. He it was who built
the cities. But owing to the great fertility of the country, these
people have always had enemies plotting against them. Although naturally
disposed to peace, they bear the reputation of being most excellent
slingers, which art they have been proficient in since the time that the
Phœnicians possessed the islands. It is said that these[1270] were the
first who introduced amongst the men [of the Baleares] the custom of
wearing tunics with wide borders. They were accustomed to go into battle
naked, having a shield covered with goat-skin in their hand, and a
javelin hardened by fire at the point, very rarely with an iron tip, and
wearing round the head three slings of black rush,[1271] hair, or sinew.
The long sling they use for hitting at far distances, the short one for
near marks, and the middle one for those between. From childhood they
were so thoroughly practised in the use of slings, that bread was never
distributed to the children till they had won it by the sling. [1272] On
this account Metellus, when he was approaching the islands, spread pelts
over the decks, as a shelter from the slings. He introduced [into the
country] 3000 Roman colonists from Spain.

2. In addition to the fruitfulness of the land, noxious animals are
rarely to be met with. Even the rabbits, they say, were not indigenous,
but that a male and female having been introduced by some one from the
opposite continent, from thence the whole stock sprung, which formerly
was so great a nuisance that even houses and trees were overturned,
[being undermined] by their warrens, and the inhabitants were
compelled, as we have related, to resort for refuge to the Romans.
However, at the present day the facility with which these animals are
taken, prevents them from doing injury, consequently those who possess
land cultivate it with advantage. These [islands] are on this side of
what are called the Pillars of Hercules.

3. Near to them are two small islands, one of which is called the Island
of Juno: some call these the Pillars. Beyond the Pillars is Gades,[1273]
concerning which all that we have hitherto remarked is, that it is
distant from Calpe[1274] about 750 stadia, and is situated near to the
outlet of the Guadalquiver. [1275] Notwithstanding there is much can be
said about it. For its inhabitants equip the greatest number of ships,
and the largest in size, both for our sea,[1276] and the exterior
[ocean], although the island they inhabit is by no means large, nor yet
do they possess much of the mainland, nor are masters of other islands.
They dwell for the most part on the sea, only a few staying at home or
passing their time in Rome. Still, in amount of population, their city
does not seem to be surpassed by any with the exception of Rome. I have
heard that in a census taken within our own times, there were enumerated
five hundred citizens of Gades of the equestrian order, a number
equalled by none of the Italian cities excepting that of the
Patavini. [1277] However, notwithstanding their vast number, its
inhabitants possess an island, in length[1278] not much above 100
stadia, and in some places only one stadium in breadth. Originally the
city in which they dwelt was extremely small, but Balbus[1279] the
Gaditanian, who received the honours of a [CAS. 169] triumph, added
another to it which they call the New Town. These two form the city of
Didyme,[1280] which is not above twenty stadia in circumference. In it,
however, they are not pressed for room, because few live at home, the
majority passing their lives on the sea, some too dwelling on the
opposite continent, and particularly on a little island adjacent on
account of its excellence. They have such a liking for this place as
almost to have made it a rival city to Didyme. However, few in
comparison inhabit either this or the sea-port which Balbus constructed
for them on the opposite continent. Their city is situated in the
western parts of the island. Near to it is the temple of Saturn, which
terminates [Gades to the west], and is opposite the smaller island. The
temple of Hercules is on the other side, to the east, where the island
approaches nearest to the mainland, being only separated therefrom by a
strait of a stadium [in breadth]. [1281] They say that this temple is
twelve miles from the city, thus making the number of miles and the
number of [Hercules’] labours equal: but this is too great, being almost
equal to the length of the island. Now the length of the island runs
from west to east.

4. Pherecydes appears to have given to Gades the name of Erythia, the
locality of the myths concerning Geryon: others suppose it to have been
the island situated near to this city, and separated from it by a strait
of merely one stadium. This they do on account of the excellence of its
pasturage. For the milk of the cattle which feed there does not yield
any whey, and they are obliged to mix it with large quantities of water
when they make cheese on account of its richness. After fifty days the
beasts [pasturing there] would be choked unless they were let blood. The
pasturage of the country is dry, but it fattens wonderfully: and it is
thought that from this the myth concerning the oxen of Geryon took its
rise. The whole sea-shore however is possessed in common. [1282]

5. Concerning the foundation of Gades, the Gaditanians report that a
certain oracle commanded the Tyrians to found a colony by the Pillars of
Hercules. Those who were sent out for the purpose of exploring, when
they had arrived at the strait by Calpe, imagined that the capes which
form the strait were the boundaries of the habitable earth, as well as
of the expedition of Hercules, and consequently they were what the
oracle termed the Pillars. They landed on the inside of the straits, at
a place where the city of the Exitani now stands. Here they offered
sacrifices, which however not being favourable, they returned. After a
time others were sent, who advanced about 1500[1283] stadia beyond the
strait, to an island consecrated to Hercules, and lying opposite to
Onoba, a city of Iberia: considering that here were the Pillars, they
sacrificed to the god, but the sacrifices being again unfavourable, they
returned home. In the third voyage they reached Gades, and founded the
temple in the eastern part of the island, and the city in the west. On
this account some consider that the capes in the strait are the Pillars,
others suppose Gades, while others again believe that they lie still
farther, beyond Gades. There are also some who think that the Pillars
are Calpe,[1284] and the mountain of Libya which is opposite, named
Abilyx,[1285] and situated, according to Eratosthenes, amongst the
Metagonians, a wandering race. Others fancy that they are two small
islands near to the former, one of which is named the Island of Juno.
Artemidorus speaks both of the Island of Juno and the temple there, but
makes no mention either of mount Abilyx, or the nation of the [CAS. 170]
Metagonians. [1286] Some have transported hither the Planctæ and the
Symplegades, supposing them to be the Pillars, which Pindar calls the
Gates of Gades, when he says that they were the farthest limits at which
Hercules arrived. [1287] Dicæarchus, Eratosthenes, and Polybius, with
most of the Grecians, represent the Pillars as being close to the
strait, while the Iberians and Libyans place them at Gades, alleging
that there is nothing at all resembling pillars close by the strait.
Others pretend that they are the pillars of brass eight cubits high in
the temple of Hercules at Gades, on which is inscribed the cost of
erecting that edifice; and that the sailors coming there on the
completion of their voyage and sacrificing to Hercules, rendered the
place so famous that it came to be regarded as the termination of the
land and sea. Posidonius thinks this view the most probable of all, and
looks upon the oracle and the several expeditions as a Phœnician
invention. [1288] As for the expeditions, what matters it whether any one
should vehemently deny or credit the account, as neither the one nor the
other would be inconsistent with reason: but the assertion that neither
the little islands, nor yet the mountains, bear much resemblance to
pillars, and that we should seek for pillars, strictly so called, [set
up] either as the termination of the habitable earth, or of the
expedition of Hercules, has at all events some reason in it; it being an
ancient usage to set up such boundary marks. As for instance the small
column which the inhabitants of Rhegium[1289] erected by the Strait of
Sicily, which is indeed a little tower; and the tower called after
Pelorus, which is situated opposite to this small column; also the
structures called altars[1290] of the Philæni, about midway in the land
between the Syrtes; likewise it is recorded, that a certain pillar was
formerly erected on the Isthmus of Corinth, which the Ionians who took
possession of Attica and Megaris when they were driven out of the
Peloponnesus, and those who settled in the Peloponnesus, set up in
common, and inscribed on the side next Megaris,

“This is no longer Peloponnesus, but Ionia;”

and on the opposite,

“This is Peloponnesus, not Ionia. ”

Alexander too erected altars as boundaries of his Indian campaign in
those parts of the Indies he arrived at, which were situated farthest
towards the east, in imitation of Hercules and Bacchus. [1291] That this
custom existed, then, cannot be doubted.

6. It is probable that the places themselves took the same name [as the
monuments], especially after time had destroyed the boundary marks which
had been placed there. For instance, at the present day the altars of
the Philæni no longer exist, but the place itself bears that
designation. Similarly they say that in India neither the pillars of
Hercules or Bacchus are to be seen, nevertheless certain localities
being described and pointed out to the Macedonians, they believed that
those places were the pillars in which they discovered any trace either
of the adventures of Bacchus or Hercules. In the instance before us, it
is not improbable that they who first [visited these regions], set up
boundary marks fashioned by the hand of man, such as altars, towers, and
pillars, in the most remarkable situations, to indicate the farthest
distance they had reached, (and straits, the surrounding mountains, and
little islands, are indubitably the most remarkable situations for
pointing out the termination or commencement of places,) and that after
these human monuments had decayed, their names descended to the places
[where they had stood]; whether that were the little islands or the
capes forming the strait. This latter point it would not be easy now to
determine; the name would suit either place, as they both bear some
resemblance to pillars; I say bear some resemblance, because they are
placed in such situations as might well indicate boundaries.