No More Learning

This has completely shaken off barbarism, it is clear and sweet
in expression, the sort of thing we should like to call modern if modern
people could rise to it. A study of the bronze works at Hildesheim,
wrought under the direction of the great Bishop Bernward, shews that
the bronze workers of Huy derived their traditions from the artists of
Hildesheim, as those doubtless followed the men who worked for Charle-
magne at Aix two centuries earlier still.
At Hildesheim the doors
and the celebrated bronze column were made about the
1075. On
the square base of the latter are little figures of the four rivers of
Paradise. This may remind us of the bronze pine cone at Aix which
has the names of the rivers of Eden inscribed on its four sides. The
four rivers occur again on a most beautiful bronze font of the thirteenth
century in the cathedral. Again, on the bronze column there is a group
of people listening to Christ, which is plainly the prototype of another
year
CH. XXI.


## p. 560 (#606) ############################################

560
Architecture after Charlemagne
group on the Liège font. Thus the traditions of the bronze workers
were handed on to Dinant, which in turn inherited from Huy and
became the chief European centre for bronze working.
It is impossible here to give a separate account of the many
Romanesque schools of art, or even of architecture, which flourished
between the Carolingian Renaissance and the emergence of Gothic art
in the twelfth century. In Italy, Germany, and France there was
constant effort and practically continuous development towards one un-
foreseen end, the formation of the highly specialised type of art which
we call Gothic. All three countries contributed valuable ideas to the
commonwealth of art and continuously reacted on one another. The
master impulse in architecture was that by which the builders set them-
selves to explore the possibilities of vaulting and the interaction between
vaulting and planning. This may have been brought about in part by
the desire to guard against fire, but it was fed by the gradual spread of
Byzantine customs over the West.
In western Europe during the Carolingian age the churches were
planned in various forms. The central type of plan, varieties of which
are the circle, the polygon and the equal-armed cross, is represented by
the Palatine chapel at Aix-la-Chapelle. St Germigny, near Orleans,
is a square with apses projecting on every side. The large abbey church
of St Croix, Quimperlé, of the eleventh century, is circular with square
projections in the four directions.
Simple churches of this fashion were built in England. At Hexham
one of these was built by Wilfrid, and King Alfred built another at
Athelney. Several later Saxon churches had a big tower forming the
body of the structure with an apse opening from its east side and another
extension towards the west; such “tower churches" must have been simpli-
fications of the central type. The close association of the central tower,
the western version of the Byzantine dome, with the idea of the church has
not been fully worked out, but it led to a general insistence on the central
tower, or lantern, in Romanesque churches. Beneath these towers, at the
crossing of the central span and the transepts, the choirs were placed.
The monk Reginald, one of the Durham chroniclers, describes the
“White Church” (the cathedral) at Durham built by Bishop Aldhun in
1099 thus: “There were in the White Church, in which St Cuthbert had
first rested, two stone towers, as those who saw them have told us, standing
high into the air, the one containing the choir, the other standing at the
west end of the church, which was of wonderful size. They carried brazen
pinnacles set up on top, which aroused both the amazement of all men
and great admiration. ” The still earlier abbey church at Ramsey, built
about 970, was cruciform with a central tower, and at the west end a
smaller tower. Again, when in the description of the Confessor's church
at Westminster we are told that the domus principalis arae was of great
height, it possibly means the choir with the lantern tower, and that the


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Plans of churches
561
actual site of the altar in the apse of the eastern limb was considered as
attached to this dominating central feature. In some later Romanesque
churches in France, as at Issoire, Clermont, and elsewhere, parts of the
transept on either side of the lantern tower are lifted above the general
body of the work, thus adding to the importance of the central structure.
A central tower seems a more or less obvious arrangement, as a matter
of design, where it rises at the centre of a cruciform plan, and it has
sometimes been explained as a device for simplifying the intersection of
the roofs. Several Norman churches, however, like the one at Iffley,
have a tower rising over the choir of a long, simple, unaisled church, a
little to the east of the middle of its length. Here again the tower is as
typically the church as the hall is the house.
The central type of plan persisted also in palace chapels. Charle-
magne's chapel was repeated at the palace of Nimeguen near the mouth
of the Rhine. The palace of Goslar has a chapel with a plan resembling
that of St Germigny mentioned above. William of Malmesbury has a
curious note to the effect that a cathedral church built at Hereford at
the end of the eleventh century was copied from the church at Aix.
In the forest of Loches is a royal chapel, built in the reign of Henry II,
which is circular in form. At the palace of Woodstock was another cir-
cular chapel, and a Norman chapel at Ludlow castle, which still exists,
is also of this form. The English circular and polygonal chapter-houses
of cathedrals, of which that at Worcester is a Norman example, must
either have been adopted from such circular chapels or from the baptis-
teries of some of the old Saxon cathedrals. There seems to have been
such a baptistery at Canterbury, and we are told that it was used for
meetings as well as for its primary purpose.
The transepts of a church were an obvious means of enlarging the
interior space, and as they gave a symbolic form to the plan they became
normal parts of Romanesque structure. Sometimes they were of single
span, at others they had one or two aisles, and from their eastern sides
projected chapels, usually apses. Another type of Carolingian plan had
apses at both ends of the main span. A ninth century drawing for the
plan of the monastery at St Gall is of this form. And this arrangement
was for long a favourite one in Germany. It doubtless conformed to
ritual requirements. In England the Saxon cathedral at Canterbury
and the abbey church at Ramsbury were of this type.
A plan which persisted longer was one with three parallel apses at
the east end, the larger apse terminating the central space being Hanked
by two others at the end of the side aisles. This form of church early
became the usual one in Normandy. The abbey church at Bernay,
built c. 920, had transepts, and three parallel apses to the east. This
plan was again repeated in the great abbey church at Jumièges, which
was itself copied by Edward the Confessor for his fine new church in the
Norman manner, built at Westminster from about 1050. Some remnants
C. MED. H. VOL. III. CH, XXI.
36


## p. 562 (#608) ############################################

562
Galleries, porches and crypts
of it which still exist are enough to shew that the plan was a very accu-
rate copy of its prototype, so much so, that it appears that Norman
workmen must have been brought here to do it. The same tradition
was followed at Durham, Lincoln, and many other important churches.
Both Westminster and Jumièges had vestibules and triforium storeys ;
these were old customary features which tended to disappear. Charle-
magne's church at Aix has a fine vaulted gallery over the aisle which
surrounds the central space: and we are told of the Confessor's church
at Westminster that there were, both above and below, chapels dedi-
cated to the saints. In such cases the triforium evidently fulfilled a
function. Later it became a mere formal survival, although the triforium
of the later church at Westminster was probably used for the great con-
gregations at coronations. Many of the German Romanesque churches
have structural galleries at the sides of the choir, and many Norman
churches had galleries at the ends of the transepts. At Canterbury,
Lincoln and Christ Church the transepts seem to have had upper storeys
over their whole extent, forming chapels. Vestibules mentioned above
must represent the narthex of Eastern churches. The church of St
Remi at Rheims had in the tenth century a vaulted work which occupied
nearly half the nave. Immense vaulted porches still exist at Vézelay,
St Benoît-sur-Loire and other places, and the tradition of a western
porch has left its mark on some of the English Romanesque churches, as
Ely and Lincoln. In Germany the western bay was usually carried up
higher than the nave roof between two western towers, making thus an
impressive west end externally.
Quite generally crypts were also constructed beneath the choirs of
Romanesque churches ; deriving from the early confessio beneath the
altar, they frequently became of great size. Often, in the German and
Lombard churches, they were but little buried in the ground, but the
eastern limbs of the churches were raised high above them, and
approached by many steps. This arrangement is often very dignified
and impressive. A great seven-branched candlestick usually stood in the
middle of the platform beyond the steps. Many of the German Roman-
esque churches had rounded ends to the transepts as well as to the
eastern limb, the crossing being thus surrounded by three apsidal projec-
tions. This is a well-known Byzantine type, and St Mary in the Capitol
at Cologne, is an early and noble example in the West; Tournai
cathedral is another. This form of plan was handed on to the early
Gothic of North France, at Noyon and Soissons, and it persisted long in
Germany. The thirteenth century church at Marburg has similar semi-
octagonal apses in three directions, a short nave, no longer than the
transepts, and a chapel at each of the four re-entering angles. It is prac-
tically a church of the central type, and is certainly a very beautiful plan.
Another very beautiful scheme of planning is found in a church at
Angers, which has a wide vaulted nave extended and supported by a


## p. 563 (#609) ############################################

Apses, towers and vaults
563
series of large apsidal recesses or chapels along each side. This type is
again followed at Orvieto cathedral.
The most perfect plan for a great church would seem to be that in
which the central eastern apse is surrounded by an ambulatory from
which small circular-ended chapels open out-one, three, four, five or
seven. This is the plan which was adopted in the main line of progress
into Gothic, and it continued to be used right through the Middle Ages.
This fine scheme probably dates from Carolingian days, and three
important churches, at Tours, Dijon and Le Mans, were built in this
form at the end of the tenth century. Churches of the same type were
built in England, first for the abbey of St Augustine, Canterbury, and
the cathedrals of Winchester and Gloucester, during the last quarter of
the eleventh century. An apse was an essential member of a great church
during the Romanesque period. In its centre the bishop had his throne
lifted high above the altar as ruler of the assembly; this broken rem-
nants at Norwich still shew. The planning of a great church implied the
dealing with several common factors which might be variously combined,
The nave might be one, or three, or five spans wide ; there might be a
transept of one, two, or three spans, and the eastern limb might have a
simple apse, or parallel apses, or an ambulatory and a series of radiating
chapels. The position of towers was another factor to be considered.
Their positions were partly, doubtless, a matter of choice, but largely they
were conditioned by structural requirements. A great single tower at
the west end, as at Ely, will stop the thrusts of the inner arcading as
well as the more usual pair of towers. In French churches towers were
frequently put at the transepts also, and Winchester cathedral seems to
have been intended to have transeptal towers. In Germany towers are
often seen on either side of the apse. At Tournai four towers built
around the crossing against the transepts support the central lantern,
making a most impressive group of five spire-capped towers. At Exeter
two massive towers stand over small square transepts. A third great
controlling factor in the design of churches was that of vaulting. The
possibilities of rearing vaults were explored in all sorts of ways. All
three spans might have barrel vaults, or those over the aisles might be
quadrants rising higher against the nave than where they fell on the
aisle walls. The bays might be vaulted transversely, a favourite device
in Burgundy, or they might be covered by a combination of longitudinal
and transverse vaults interpenetrating and forming“ groined” vaults.
This last became the standard form for the vaults of churches in north-
western Europe, and the tradition was carried forward into Gothic.
The use of this scheme allowed of high windows in every bay, and con-
centrated the thrusts at intervals above the piers of the inner arcades.
One school of French Romanesque experimented with a series of domes
covering square compartments, and the curious church at Loches has its
nave covered by stone pyramidal erections like low pitched spires. It
OH. XXI.
36-2


## p. 564 (#610) ############################################

564
Beginnings of Gothic
a
has hardly been realised how many of the greater “Norman” churches
in England were vaulted, especially their eastern limbs and transepts.
The eastern limb of the great abbey church of St Albans, begun about
ten years after the Conquest, was vaulted. Durham and Lincoln cathe-
drals were vaulted throughout, by the middle of the twelfth century.
The abbey churches of Gloucester, Pershore and Tewkesbury all seem to
have had vaulted choirs and transepts; so probably had Canterbury
cathedral, Winchester cathedral, St Paul's cathedral, Reading abbey
and Lewes priory churches and many others. Frequently the nave was
covered with a wooden ceiling while the eastern half of the church was
vaulted. At Peterborough such a ceiling, delightfully decorated with
bold pattern-work, still exists. This church and others had such ceilings
throughout. The “ glorious choir” at Canterbury had a specially famous
painted ceiling. It is noteworthy that even in quite small churches the
chancels were frequently covered with vaults, while the rest of the struc-
ture had wooden roofs.
Many modifications were made in the planning of great churches to
accommodate the vaults, and a remarkable contrivance became common
towards the end of the twelfth century for the purpose of supporting the
high central vaults. This was the flying buttress, a strong arch built in
the open air, rising from the lower walls of the aisles, and butting against
those of the clerestory. Such buttresses were greatly developed in
Gothic architecture, but their invention is due to Romanesque builders.
Another great invention, which was of primary importance for the
development of Gothic, seems to have been made towards the end of the
eleventh century. This was the method of erecting vaults by first
building a series of skeleton arches (ribs) diagonally across each bay,
and then covering this subdivided space with a lighter web of work. In
England the method was used at Durham, and this is the first well-
authenticated instance in the west of Europe. Other examples, which
are said to be earlier, are known in Italy.
The general movement, which was to pass over an invisible frontier
into what we call Gothic architecture, was characterised by a search for
more vigorous and clear solutions of structural problems, a gathering up
of the wall masses into piers and buttresses and the vaults into ribs.
The whole medieval process in architecture from, say, the time of
Charlemagne to the time of the Black Death, was an organic develop-
ment. One phase in the progress may be traced in the tendency to
break up piers and arches into a series of recessed orders or members;
that is, they widen by degrees in a step-like profile. This held the germ
of the change from a square pier set in the direction of the wall into one
placed diagonally. Such membering of arches and piers easily led to
sub-arching, that is, the including of two or more smaller arches under
a larger one; and this again was to lead up to the development of
tracery. The process also early shewed itself in a liking for alternation.


## p. 565 (#611) ############################################

Arches, cusps and glass
565
A nave arcade, for instance, was often planned with a more or less
square pier and then a column alternately. In some German churches
square piers alternately wider and narrower may be seen.
The pointed arch has been known from time immemorial. It was
generally adopted by Saracen builders from the seventh century, and it
became well known in the West from the eleventh. It proved especially
useful in adjusting the many difficulties which arose in applying vaulting
to compartments of various sizes and shapes. And further, it was used
as a strong structural form before it was generally admitted into the
architectural code. Thus, as ever, the aesthetic delight of one century
was found in the structural device of an earlier one.
The cusping of arches fell in with the general tendency toward sub-
ordination and grouping. The cusped arch had a distant origin in the
shell forms carved in the arched heads of the niches, which were common
in Hellenistic architecture. Byzantine and Arab builders simplified the
scalloped edge of this shell into a series of small lobes set within the
containing arch. Such cusped arches were passed on to the North-West
by the Moors. The special centre for their distribution seems to have
been the south-east of France, where the delight in cusped arches is very
noticeable at Clermont, Vienne and Le Puy. The forms of trefoiled
arches appear in the North as early as the tenth century in the ornaments
of illuminated books, and probably they were handed on in this pictorial
form long before they entered into real structures. Architecture and
sculpture often followed where painting led. Circular windows had been
used by the Romans and are frequently found in Romanesque work.
Both circular and quatrefoil openings were probably known in the West
from Carolingian days. The quatrefoil became popular as a form of
Ordinary windows, when grouped into pairs with a circle above,
formed the point of departure for the development of the traceried window.
From the early days of Christian art glazing of various colours
arranged in patterns had been used. Doubtless the beautifully patterned
casements of Arab art were, like so much else, taken over from the
Byzantine school. The jewelled lattices of Romance must have been
suggested by the use of coloured glass. At some time in the great
Carolingian era, which we are only now beginning to appreciate, painting
was added to the morsels of coloured glass, and they were joined together
by thin strips of lead rather than by some ruder means. These two steps
of development brought into being the stained glass window proper.
From th time windows were conceived as vast translucent enamels of
which the leads formed the divisions. The agreement of style between
the earliest known stained glass windows and Romanesque enamels is so
close that we may not doubt the near kindred of the two arts. The
earliest windows still extant, like those of St Denis (c. 1140-50), were
probably designed by some enameller.
For long the style of German Byzantine enamels may be traced in
cross.
OH. XXI.


## p. 566 (#612) ############################################

566
Imagery and Colour
the glass of Le Mans, Chartres, and Strasbourg, and for the most part
the code of imagery had been worked out by enamel-workers and
illuminators of books before it was adopted for stained glass.
There was a great expansion in the production of sculpture and its
application to architecture during the twelfth century, and an enormous
increase of power in dealing with it. Here again, however, all the great
types and traditions of treatment seem to have been invented or rather
developed by the Carolingian schools. For instance, there are two
delightful small impersonations of Land and Sea carved amongst the
early Gothic sculptures of the west front of Notre Dame at Paris.
Such impersonations derive directly from Romanesque ivories and
illuminated books of the German school and thence may be traced to
Alexandrian art. In the Carolingian age imagery had, for the most
.
part, been on a small scale, in metal-work and ivory, but some of it had
been of great beauty in conception and of masterly execution. By the
middle of the twelfth century several notable schools of architectural
sculpture had been developed in Italy, France, and Spain. In England
beginnings were made towards the development of what became a
special English tradition; the west front treated as a background for
an array of sculptured figures having reference to the Last Judgment.
Some remnants found at York and others extant at Lincoln are evidence
for this.
Sculpture, stained glass, and the large schemes of painting which
covered the interiors of Romanesque churches, were very largely inspired
by painted books. These illuminated volumes are almost the most
wonderful products of the whole Romanesque period. What the book
of Kells is to Irish art, and the Lindisfarne book to the Anglo-Celtic
school of Northumbria, is well known. Several superb Carolingian
volumes are just as remarkable, and this pre-eminence of the book was
sustained until the end of our period. Some hundred splendid books
and rolls written and painted in the twelfth century are marvels of
thoughtful invention and skilful manipulation. At this time types and
symbols were still dealt with in the great manner; many of the designers
at work seem to have had the imagination of Blake with ten times his
power of execution. For example, take the designs of an “Exultet "
roll in the British Museum; the first painting is Christ majestically
enthroned; then comes a group of rejoicing angels; then the interior
of a basilica shewn in section with nave and aisles and in the midst a
colossal Mater Ecclesia standing between groups of clergy and people ;
the next is Mother Earth, a woman's figure half emerging from the
ground, nourishing an ox and a dragon ; further on is the Crucifixion
with its “ type,” the passage of the Red Sea ; and near the end, after a
flower garden with bees, the Virgin and Holy Child. This appears to
be an Italian work of the middle of the twelfth century.
The artists of Charlemagne made use of mosaic in large schemes of


## p. 567 (#613) ############################################

Mosaics and painting
567
decoration. The vault, an octagonal dome in form, over the central
area of the palace chapel at Aix-la-Chapelle was covered by a simple but
splendid design of the sort which modern designers find it so hard to
imitate. The first rapture of all these things can never be recovered.
On a starry ground was set a great Figure of the throned Majesty, and
beneath were the twenty-four elders forming a band around the base of
the dome. The ancient church of St Germigny in France still has in
its apse a mosaic of rather crude workmanship but similar in ability of
design. Here two colossal cherubim with expanded wings guard the
ark of the New Covenant, and above in the centre is the Right Hand of
God. The floor of the chapel at Aix was also covered with coarse
mosaic, and mosaic floors were common in the Romanesque churches of
Germany, Lombardy and France. The mosaics of both walls and floors
in Italy are too many and too well known to require mention. In
France one or two floor mosaics still remain. The most perfect one is in
the church of Lescar in the south. This was laid down in 1115. Two
panels are preserved in the Cluny Museum of the beautiful mosaic floor
of the abbey church of St Denis (c. 1150).
The internal walls and ceilings of Romanesque churches were (by
custom) painted entirely with scriptural pictures and large single figures
of saints, all set out according to traditional modes of arrangement and
with schemes of teaching. In Germany several large churches retain, in
a more or less restored condition, an almost complete series of such
paintings. One of the most notable is the basilican church at Brunswick.
But the most striking of all is, probably, the church at Hildesheim,
where the flat boarded ceiling is entirely occupied by an enormous
Jesse-tree, the ramifying branches of which spread over the whole nave.
In Italy many painted churches of Romanesque date still exist, as, for
instance, the church of San Pietro a Grado near Pisa. In France the
church of St Savin has preserved its paintings most completely.
Here,
and in the many traces of paintings in a Byzantine tradition which are
to be found on the walls and vaults of the cathedral of Le Puy, may be
seen sufficient evidence to suggest what the idea of interior architectural
painting was during the Romanesque epoch. A Romanesque church
was intended to be as fully adorned with paintings as was a Byzantine
church, and, indeed, the traditions of the two schools flowed very much
in a common stream from one source. It was the same in England, as is
shewn by fragments at Pickering, St Albans, Norwich, Ely, Romsey,
Canterbury, and other places. We probably think of our “Norman”
churches as rude and melancholy, but if we picture for ourselves all the
colour suggested by the fragmentary evidences which exist, and furnish
again by imagination the vistas of the interior with their great coronae
of lights, the gilded roods, and embossed altar-pieces, the astonishing
nature of these vast and splendid works will fill our minds with some-
what saddening reflections. Archaeology is no minister to pride.
CH, XXI.


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## p. 569 (#615) ############################################

569
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS OF TITLES
OF PERIODICALS, SOCIETIES, ETC.
vol. 1.
(1) The following abbreviations are used for titles of periodicals :
AB. Analecta Bollandiana. Brussels.
AHR. American Historical Review. New York and London.
AKKR. Archiv für katholisches Kirchenrecht. Mayence.
AM. Annales du Midi. Toulouse.
AMur. Archivio Muratoriano. Rome.
Ang. Anglia. Zeitschrift für englische Philologie. Halle a. S. 1878 ff.
Arch. Ven. Archivio veneto. Venice, 1871-90, continued as Nuovo archivio veneto.
Venice. 1891 ff.
ASAK. Anzeiger für schweizerische Alterthumskunde. Zurich.
ASHF. Annuaire-Bulletin de la Société de l'histoire de France. Paris.
ASI. Archivio storico italiano. Florence. Ser. 1. 20 v. and App. 9 v. 1842–53.
Index. 1857. Ser. nuova. 18 v. 1855–63. Ser. III. 26'v. 1865-77.
Indices to 11 and 1. 1874. Suppt. 1877. Ser. IV. 20 v. 1878–87.
Index. 1891. Ser. v. 49 y. 1888–1912. Index. 1900. Anni 71 etc.
1913 ff. in progress.
(Index in Catalogue of The London Library,
1913. )
ASL. Archivio storico lombardo. Milan.
ASPN. Archivio storico per le province napoletane. Naples. 1876 ff.
ASRSP. Archivio della Società romana di storia patria. Rome.
BCRH. Bulletins de la Commission royale d'histoire. Brussels.
BHisp. Bulletin hispanique. Bordeaux.
BISI. Bullettino dell'Istituto storico italiano. Rome. 1886 ff.
BRAH. Boletin de la R. Academia de la historia. Madrid.
BZ. Byzantinische Zeitschrift. Leipsic.
CQR. Church Quarterly Review. London.
CR. Classical Review. London.
DZG. Deutsche Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft. Freiburg-i. -B.
DZKR. Deutsche Zeitschrift für Kirchenrecht. Leipsic.
EHR. English Historical Review. London.
FDG. Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte.
HJ. Historisches Jahrbuch. Munich.
HMC. Historical Manuscripts Commission's Publications. London. 1883 ff.
HVJS. Historische Vierteljahrsschrift. Leipsic.
HZ.
Historische Zeitschrift (von Sybel). Munich and Berlin.
JA. Journal Asiatique. Paris.
JB. Jahresberichte der Geschichtswissenschaft im Auftrage der historischen
Gesellschaft zu Berlin. Berlin. 1878 ff.


## p. 570 (#616) ############################################

570
Abbreviations
JSG. Jahrbuch für schweizerische Geschichte. Zurich.
JTS. Journal of Theological Studies. London.
MA. Le moyen âge. Paris.
MIOGF. Mittheilungen des Instituts für österreichische Geschichtsforschung.
Innsbruck.
NAGDG. Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde.
Hanover and Leipsic.
NRDF. Nouvelle Revue historique du droit français. Paris.
QFIA. Quellen und Forschungen aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken.
Rome.
RA. Revue archéologique. Paris.
RBAB. Revue des bibliothèques et des archives de la Belgique. Brussels.
RBén. Revue bénédictine. Maredsous.
RCel. Revue celtique. Paris.
RCHL. Revue critique d'histoire et de littérature. Paris.
RH. Revue historique. Paris.
RHD. Revue d'histoire diplomatique. Paris.
RHE.
Revue d'histoire ecclésiastique. Louvain.
Rhein.
Mus. Rheinisches Museum für Philologie. Frankfurt-a. -M.
RN. Revue de numismatique.