No More Learning

She has gone to church, and has con- tinued to . . . ever since the child was born. A very good wife, good mother, and darned good cook. Considerate of my folks . . . helped my mother with money, of her own accord. (What do wife and subject offer each other? ) Well, I'll be dog- goned if I know. Doesn't seem as if any bonds at all. Just she belongs there and so do I. "
M2o: "In my mind, there's no doubt about it. Woman's place is in the home. . . . To keep up a home and make it right and a man should be able to provide for the family. . . . A woman has no business working whatsoever. "
In contrast with the stereotyped and conventional description of their desired or real mates given by the high-scoring subjects, the typical low- scoring subject takes a much more individualized attitude, as shown in the following quotations:
M53: (What sort of girl appeals to you? ) "I don't know. . . . I think I like the ones with more independent spirit. (Q) Well, looks, charm (laughs), humor and a cer- tain freedom of spirit. In thought, I think, more than in action. . . . (Present fiancee? ) Awfully hard to say when you're sold on a girl. . . . Seems to have all the things I like . . . fun to be with, brains, pretty. She likes me, which is important. We share things together. Music, reading, swimming, dancing. Most of the things we do don't require too much energy, which makes it good. "
Mso: (What about your first wife? ) "She was an artist also and a really thorough- going individual. She had a tremendous amount of scope, both intellectually and individually. She is looking for something too. Not as serious as my case, just the case of a girl marrying the wrong person. "
M44: (What sort of person is your wife? ) (laughs) "She's a little bit easy to hurt or touchy about some things. . . . The most admirable thing, the most attractive thing about her is her hands. She has very small, delicate hands. She uses them very well and they're very expressive . . . and she also does things very fast, adept, sews
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
very well, very domestic, very much the mother. She was never really herself until she had this child, never really complete. "
M2: (Ideal woman? ) "She has to be (I) intelligent, (2) mature, (3) emotionally stable, (4) have adequate physiological characteristics, as well as have (5) culture and personality that goes with this. She should have at least as broad an inter- est and experience as my own, if not broader. She should have a maximum of femi- ninity, since we're all bisexual. You can think of it in terms of a polyfactorial setup (subject then quotes Rosanoff's theory of four factors in sex). "
The preceding descriptions by low-scoring subjects of their real ~r ideal mates reveal a conception of real people and an expectation of finding a person with "independent opinions" and "independent spirit. "
8. SUMMARY
Summarizing the attitude of the typical high-scoring subject toward mem-
bers of the opposite sex, the following may be said: A lack of individuation and of real object relationship can be found in the field of sex as it was previously found in the attitude toward the parents. It is this lack which may be called upon to explain the attitudes described above, such as the relative isolation of sexual impulses from the rest of the personality, the paucity of affection, and the somewhat exploitive, manipulative approach in the choice of a mate. Much of this may be understood in terms of disappoint- ments which apparently had been experienced by many of the extreme high- scorers in their first love-relations, those with their parents.
The same ambivalence which was found in the attitude toward parents can be found again in the sexual domain. Again there is surface admiration, coupled with underlying resentment against the other sex. Ambivalence also tends to be handled by establishing two separate images, one positive and one negative (good and bad women), without, however, being able really to love either of them.
Status-concern and conventionalized values again become predominant and take the place of a genuine and individualized approach. The expecta- tions of qualities in oneself and in one's mate are quite stereotyped and rigid. Shortcomings in these respects are faced as little as they are in other fields. Thus, as pointed out above, high-scoring subjects often think of themselves as the ideal representation of the conventional conception of their sex role.
The attitudes of the low-scoring subjects reveal a rather different picture, though it is much less clear-cut than that of the high scorers. In other words, the "High" variants of the categories in question are often more typical for the high-scoring subjects than the "Low" variants are for the low-scoring sub- jects. On the whole, our low scorers tend toward a more individualized, more internalized, more love-oriented approach toward their mates. (See also Chapter X. )
This does not mean, however, that in most of the cases their problems in
? SEX, PEOPLE, AND SELF SEEN THROUGH INTERVIEWS 405
this field are readily solved. On the contrary, some of the records of low- scoring subjects quoted above reveal a great deal of conflict in this area. Such subjects refer rather frankly to their inadequacies, inhibitions, and failures in sex adjustment. There also is evidence of ambivalence toward one's own sex role and toward the opposite sex although this ambivalence is of a different, more internalized kind from the combination of overt admiration and underlying disrespect characteristic of high scorers. Its clearest repre- sentation is the conflict of the man about his passivity and of the woman about her tendency to follow masculine interests. Ambivalence toward the other sex seems in low scorers often to be the consequence of an overly intense search for love that is not easily satisfied.
Low-scoring men sometimes seem to long for a restoration, in a close relationship with a woman, of the type of love they received from the mother, and this may become a source of dissatisfaction. As Krout and Stagner (65) have shown, male liberals claim less . difficulty in expressing their affection for women and show preference for women of equal status. At the same time they experience more frustration in their love relations.
Low-scoring women, on the other hand, sometimes develop a conflict between the satisfactions derived from emotional dependence on the man and a striving for independence that leads to competition with men.
However, in spite of these conflicts, retardations, and ambivalences, there seems to be more actual or potential heterosexuality in low scorers. The interview material reveals a more genuine and more personalized relationship to members of the other sex, more fondness and ability to love in sexual relationships, more ego-accepted sensuality. Conflicts and inadequacies, being faced more openly, have a greater chance of being worked out successfully.
Since the typical low-scoring man more readily accepts his own femininity than the high scorer, and the low-scoring woman her masculine strivings, one important source of hidden aggression toward the opposite sex-and toward other people generally, as it seems-is reduced.
B. A TTITUDE TOW ARD PEOPLE
1. DEFINITION OF RA TING CA TEGORIES AND
QUANTITATIVE RESULTS
The part of the Scoring Manual covering social attitudes toward people in general is? as follows:
INTERVIEWSCORING MANUAL: A TTITUDE TOW ARD PEOPLE (to Table z(XI))
PRESUMABLY "HIGH" VARIANTS PRESUMABLY "Low" VARIANTS z8. Moralistic condemnation 28. Permissiveness toward individ- uals; rejections rationalized by
reference to principles.
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY 29a. Extrapunitiveness 29a. lmpunitiveness
29b.
30. Distrust-suspicion, people as 30. threatening; victimization; sur- vival of fittest idea, world as jungle
lntrapunitiveness; excessive guilt - feelings and self- re- proach
Trustingness. Openness; peo- ple essentially "good" until proved otherwise
3I a. Hierarchical conception of hu- man relations
3I b. Heroworshipofacquaintances 32a. Diffuse, ego-alien dependence;
non -love-seeking
32b. Exploitive- manipulative op-
3I a. Equalitarianism-mutuality
32a. Focal, love-seeking succorance
32b. Personalized nurturance
portunism
a. Status acceptable or admirable (economic or social)
b. Moral-conventional: clean-cut, good manners, emphasis on honesty, poise, control
a. Acceptable on grounds of in- trinsic worth; companionship and common interests; intel- lectual-aesthetic approach; "easy-going" traits; social awareness and insight; liberal
values
32c. Genuine object-cathexis 33? Traits desired in friends:
As can be seen from Table 2(XI), the eleven categories in this area dif- ferentiate satisfactorily, on the whole, the two extreme groups that make up our sample of interviewees.
2. MORALISTIC CONDEMNA TION VS. PERMISSIVENESS
High-scoring individuals were found to tend toward a moralistic con- demnation of other people while permissiveness toward individuals is more common in our low scorers (Category 28). For both men and women this difference is quite significant (I per cent level). For men there are 30 posi- tive instances as contrasted with only 4 negative ones ("positive" and "nega- tive" in the sense defined in the last section of Chapter IX); for women, the proportion is 24 to 6.
It is easy to understand why condemnation of people, based on an external and conventional set of values, should be closely connected with prejudice; in fact, such an attitude seems close to being the very essence of prejudice.
The records, quoted below, of subjects scoring high on overt ethno- centrism illustrate a readiness to condemn others on such external bases as absence of good manners, uncleanliness, "twitching the shoulders," saying "inappropriate" things (inappropriate, as will be seen, on a superficial level only), and so forth.
The statements show a great deal of indulgence in what is seen as "righteous indignation" about people considered as inferior. This indignation seems to serve the double purpose of externalizing what is unacceptable in oneself,
? Interview ratin~ cate~ories (abbreviated from Manual)
Sex
Number o f "High"(H} and "Low" (L} ratin~s received b~
Sums o{ instances Level 'of statistj. gal
"positive? ? negative? si~nificance reached
(percentage)
28. Moralistic condemnation(H) vs. Men
3 3
1 2
3 3
2 1
16 30 4 1 10 24 6 1
. . It 26 2 1
. ! . ! . ! ! . 4
1_~1 . ? _ . . . ? . . 2
14 285 1 . ll 28 7 1
11 233 1 11 243 1
permissiveness(L)
29a. Extrapunitiveness(H) \"S? impunitiveness(L)
29b. Intropunitiveness(L)
30. Distrust-suspicion(H) vs. trustingness
Women
Men Women
Men Women
Men Women
31a. Hierarchical conception(H) vs. Men equalitarianism-mutuality(L) Women
31b. Hero worship of acquaintances(H) Men Women
32a. Dependence, diffuse, ego-alien Men (H) vs~ focal, love-seeking(L) Women
32b. Exploitive-manipulation(H) vs. Men
1 . l1 0 . L0
personalized nurturance(L) 32c. Genuine object-cathexis(L)
Traits desired in friends: 33a. Status(H) vs. intrinsic
w o r t h ( L )
33b. Moral-convent ional(H)
Women
. ! l . ! .
3 3
3 1
1 0
TABLE 2 (XI)
INTERVIEW RATINGS ON ATTITUDE TOWARD PEOPLE
FUR 80 SUBJECTS SOORING EXTRFMELY "HIGH" OR "LOW" ON THE E'mNIC PREJUDICE QUESTIONNAIRE SCALE
20 men and 25 women ? high scorers" H L
14 1 14 3
17 1 15 2
1 2
14 2
. m 4
121 132
. 1 1
14 3 lQ 3
20 men and 15 women
? 1ow scorers" H L
10 24 6 1 1: I7 4 5
l! . ll. 4 . ! l ll 3
2 16234 1 0 10203 1
Men
Women 3 J! . 8 3
Men 7 Women 10
1
2 3
13 13 1 5
4 11 4
Men 11
Women11 3 IT3
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
and of displacing one's hostility which otherwise might turn against powerful "ingroups," e. g. , the parents.
Furthermore, the subsequent records presented in the following contain statements referring to a positive ideal of how one should behave, the essence of which is expressed by one of the subjects in this group who demands that everybody should have a "set of rules"; these rules turn out to be determined either by convention or by a shallow interpretation of church dogma.
The emphasis on conventional values is found in the respectable as well as in the delinquent high scorer (prison inmate; see also Chapter XXI).
Examples, for the various aspects listed, from the records of high-scoring male prison inmates follow:
M4o: (What things offend you most in other people? ) "Just that they're people. (Meaning? ) Oh, the majority are ignorant, close to animals as anything else. I mean dumb animals. (Q) They haven't got sense enough to see things as they are; they are easily swayed, crude, uncouth; they are like a pack. Show 'em a leader and they
will go anywhere. (Are most people like this? ) Records show it. (What records? ) Statistics. (Q) Like in here (prison). The average IQ is something around 50 or 6o. Very, very low. . . . They carry a knife and cut some poor son-of-a-bitch, and think they're tough. . . . "
M41: (What do you find most offensive in others? ) "Well, some people are more attractive than others. Some people have no attraction. Don't take care of them? ? selves. Don't keep clean. Don't have manners. . . . "
M45: (What do you find most irritating in others? ) "Petty habits. (What do you mean? ) I've noticed some people have a habit of snorting or as if their nose is always running or twitching their shoulders or my wife's habit of picking at things with her fingernails. (Others? ) Not being able to tend to their own business, not having sense enough to understand, to know when they're imposing on you. . . . It's changed around here (in prison) now, getting so many of these young kids, zootsuiters, don't have any tact at all. . . . (What else? ) Greed, I can't stand anyone who will take something without thinking about the other person . . . without any politeness. . . . You'd be surprised. You can find some of the politest people in the world right in here. . . . I believe in helping your fellow man regardless. "
A positive ideal of behavior as derived primarily from religious conven- tion is stated in the following records of high scorers:
Mp: (Main differences between Christians and other people? ) "Christians are people that at all times strive to do what is right and abide by God's word. "
Ms8: ". . . and the person who has lived according to Christianity will live for- ever-those who have not will perish at that time. "
M4: (Importance of religion? ) "It's very important. It gives people an opportunity to utilize some of their extra energy, also helps to set a standard for behavior and conduct. Without religion, there would be a lot more crime and delinquency in the world. (Is the world getting better or worse? ) It's getting worse-the younger gen- eration is wilder, 17-year-old boys go out and get drunk; and science is responsible for all this, that is, provides motor cars for them to get out in, they start drinking. "
? SEX, PEOPLE, AND SELF SEEN THROUGH INTERVIEWS 409
In the records of high-s~oring women there is a similar condemnation of people on moralistic and conventional grounds. Sometimes we find a general condemnation and contempt for an assumed inferiority of people which is quite similar to the statement of one of the high-scoring men, quoted above, to the effect that the "majority (of people) are ignorant, close to animals. . . I mean dumb animals. " While rejection of other people is more common in high scorers, low scorers tend more toward self-rejection.
Illustrations from records of high-scoring women follow.
F66: (Why not social welfare? ) "Well, some of the people you see-I just don't like them. I don't think I'd have enough patience to help them. . . . (Why not social activities? ) I didn't like the people. "re had just moved there and they just weren't my kind. (Q) They were too cliquish and infantile. They were silly, always gig- gling, wore jeans and dirty old plaid shirts. . . . "
F24: (Low income group? ) "They don't think fast enough-can't make it. They haven't educated themselves for any line. Most people are like that all their lives. (Maybe they haven't had opportunities? ) There's a way-there's always a way if
they care enough. Maybe it's tough, but eventually you can get there. "
F22: "I don't go in for petting; I can't see necking for hours either. (Q) I've been shocked by the conduct of my girl friends. I didn't think they were that type of
girl. "
By contrast, low-scoring subjects tend to be permissive and tolerant toward individuals (although not necessarily toward institutions). Or at least they make an attempt to understand behavior from a common sense (if not professional) psychological or sociological point of view; and they show generally more empathy. Whenever rejection of individuals occurs, an at- tempt is usually made to explain or to rationalize this rejection on the basis of violation of fundamental principles and social values rather than for surface reasons.
3. EXTRAPUNITIVENESS
Another attitude, quite directly akin to prejudice, is that of extrapunitive- ness, to use Rosenzweig's term (I6), i. e. , a tendency to blame other people rather than oneself. As has been repeatedly pointed out in this volume, lack of insight into one's own shortcomings and the projection of one's own weak- nesses and faults onto others is often found in high-scoring subjects. It prob- ably represents the essential aspect of the mechanism of scapegoating.
An opposite variant to extrapunitiveness is impunitiveness, i. e. , the tend- ency to refrain from blaming altogether, be it others or oneself.
The differential distribution of this pair of opposites (Category 29a) with respect to overt ethnocentrism is quite significant for men (I per cent level)-26 positive and only 2 negative instances. For women there is a distinct trend in the same direction-I 8 positive as contrasted with 4 nega- tive instances-but it is not statistically significant.
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
An "extrapunitive" attitude is manifested in the descriptions given by the following high-scoring women about t;heir co-workers, fellow students or teachers:
F6o: Subject just doesn't care for her fellow workers. "Some have all the PDQ's (degrees) but no common sense. " She wouldn't like to mention names, but she'd like to tell me what goes on. "Some just spend their time gossiping together. " She doesn't believe she should do more than just speak to her fellow workers. Very scornful of them, feels superior and aloof. They don't know her at all-no, indeed-implies she's a very special somebody and could reveal her gifts to them, but doesn't. She de- scribes how she treated masturbation. The others were afraid to stop the children. But she just "popped" the little boys' and girls' hands and said, "Now, don't do that. It isn't good for you. "
F71: Sister president of sorority in high school and of interclub council; thinks high school sororities "stupid and silly-dirty rushing, girls misplaced in clubs. Nothing as selfish and cruel as a little high school girl growing up. Noisy-no atten- tion to business-it was just too much. " Talks about high school teacher-thinks her aspiration level too high. "Too much screaming and yelling-has theateritis-pol- ished and professional-too many students broke down-you have to be stone to take it. "
Fn, although talking about her mother, reveals her general attitude toward people in the following quotation: "This wouldn't have happened if I hadn't gone down. She's mean and inconsiderate and doesn't give a darn about anyone else but herself. I helped her with so many things. She hasn't helped me with one little thing-I can't stand it. "
The foregoing statements illustrate the tendency of high scorers to blame others for difficulties that arise in their contact with other people or their work.
As was pointed out above, low-scoring subjects tend either not to blame at all (impunitiveness); or they may show exaggerated self-blame, intrapuni- tiveness (Category 29b). The latter tendency was found in 7 low-scoring men and 6 low-scoring women, while only I high-scoring man and 2 high- scoring women manifested this attitude. The tendency toward exaggerated self-blame in the low-scoring subjects must be interpreted as an expression of an internalized, and rather strict, superego of the sort that often leads to neurotic symptoms.
The following is a good example of a low scorer with good work ad- justment who does not blame others for the difficulties which arise in co- operative work situations:
F63: "Money has never meant much to me. . . . Maybe it is stupid and unrealistic. But it is the work itself that gives me satisfaction. I work best by myself-have diffi- culty working with other people. I get along with them all right, but it's a strain on me. I'm rather shy and don't like competition, at least not directly with the people you work with. "
The following 2 low-scoring men are described by their interviewer as suffering from excessive guilt feelings.
? SEX, PEOPLE, AND SELF SEEN THROUGH INTERVIEWS 41I
M42: He verbalized readily' and spontaneously, and shows no reluctance to dis- cuss any given topic. At the same time, however, he repeatedly deprecates himself, particularly as to his ability to express himself. He is quite abusive and appears to have no little moral masochism. His thinking and actions seem to be pervaded by doubt, hesitation, and indecision.
M 55: Subject has a rather pervasive sense of humor which is often directed against himself. He seems to have a great deal of conscious feelings of inadequacy and in- feriority and guilt.
The record of another low scorer gives evidence, over and above the absence of conventional moralism, and a stressing of intrinsic values, of a tendency not to think very highly of oneself:
M;: (Ideal wife? ) "Attractive, at least average. I can't ask for too much there, with my looks. At least as much intelligence as I have. Fairly intelligent, in other words. I don't care about religion and morals, as long as they are not too bad. Her own damn business whether she is a virgin or not. . . . Essential that she be a good companion, keep me well amused; companionship includes everything from con- versation to sex, with emphasis on congeniality. "
Some of the low scorers come close to a tendency toward obsessional rumination about their faults and the mistakes they have made. The exag- gerated feelings of guilt and self-deprecation constitute some of the major neurotic features common in low scorers. They are frequently accompanied by depressions. Instead of aggressive self-assertion, there is often an unhealthy trend toward withdrawal in the face of difficulties.
4. WORLD AS JUNGLE
Projection of one's inner impulses, particularly of aggression, onto others will naturally lead to a conception of a dangerous and hostile world and con- sequently to a general suspiciousness of others. Thus, it was found that typical high-scoring subjects tend to manifest distrust and suspicion of others. Theirs is a conception of people as threatening in the sense of an oversimplified sur- vival-of-the-fittest idea. Feelings of victimization are often connected with such notions. The opposite variant was defined as trustingness and openness, as manifested by seeing people as essentially "good" until proved otherwise; it was expected to be found predominantly in the low-scoring subjects.
For both men and women, differentiation in terms of this pair of opposites (Category 30) was found to be highly significant (I per cent level of con- fidence).
Emphasis on the "jungle-character" of the world1 as just described, a world in which one has to destroy others to prevent them from destroying oneself, is best expressed by a quotation from M4z, a high scorer: "Nowadays it's 'get the other fellow before he gets you. ' "
1 This, as well as many other findings reported in this chapter, is in perfect agreement with the description of the authoritarian character given by Fromm (42) and Maslow (79).
? 412
THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
Another high-scoring man, M57, says: "Hell, you can't have real friends in here (prison), stab you in the back. Can't trust any of them. "
Distrust in, and dislike of, other people is further manifested in the fol- lowing records of high-scoring men.
M45: "Not being able to attend to their own business, not having sense enough to understand to know when they're imposing on you. . . . "
M47: (What dislike in others? ) "Well, their actions, the way they talk. (How do you mean? ) I don't know how to explain it. . . . Maybe a fellow comes up and gives me a couple of knick-knacks just to make up to me. I don't go for that.