Those of
their tribesmen who had formerly accompanied Alaric to Transylvania
had joined them and chosen Alaric, whose power at that time, however,
was still limited, as leader in the coming war.
their tribesmen who had formerly accompanied Alaric to Transylvania
had joined them and chosen Alaric, whose power at that time, however,
was still limited, as leader in the coming war.
Cambridge Medieval History - v1 - Christian Roman Empire and Teutonic Kingdoms
With regard to this, however, everything depended upon
the decision of Gratian, of whose doings we shall now have to give a
short account.
We know that Gratian had made efforts long before the catastrophes
to come to his uncle's aid against the Goths. From this he was
prevented by a war with the Alemanni. An Aleman from the country
of the Lentienses (afterwards the Linzgau on the Lake of Constance)
who served in the Roman Guard had returned to his country with the
news that Gratian was shortly going to render assistance to his uncle in
the East. This news had induced his tribesmen to make a raid across
the Rhine in February 378. They were at first repulsed by frontier-
troops ; but when it became known that the greater part of the Roman
army had marched for Illyricum they prevailed upon their tribesmen to
join in a big campaign. It was rumoured in Gaul that 40,000 or even
as many as 70,000 Alemanni were on the war-path. Gratian at once
called back those of his cohorts which were already on the way to
Pannonia and put the comes Brittanniae Nannienus in command of his
troops, together with the brave Mallobaudes, king of the Franks. A
battle was fought at Argentaria (near Colmar), in which the Romans,
## p. 253 (#283) ############################################
379–380]
Appointment of Theodosius
253
thanks to the skill of their generals, won a complete victory, and
Priarius, the chieftain of the Lentienses, was killed. Gratian now
attacked the Alemanni, crossed the Rhine and sent the Lentienses flying
to their mountains. There they were completely hemmed in and had to
surrender, promising to supply recruits to the Romans. After this
Gratian marched from Arbor Felix (near St Gallen) eastwards along the
high-road, passing Lauriacum on the way. As we have already seen, he
did not reach Thrace in time, and on hearing of the defeat at Hadrianople
he withdrew to Sirmium. Here, at the beginning of 379, a great political
event took place. It must be mentioned that Theodosius, who had
formerly been the commander-in-chief in Upper Moesia, and had since
been living in a kind of exile in Spain, had been recalled by Gratian and
entrusted with a new command. Before the end of 378 Theodosius had
already given a proof of his ability by the defeat of the Sarmatians, who
appear to have invaded Pannonia. The success was welcome in a time
so disastrous for the Romans. This is most probably one of the reasons
why Gratian (19 Jan. 379) at Sirmium raised him to be Emperor of the
East and enlarged his dominions by adding to them Dacia, Upper
Moesia, Macedonia, Epirus and Achaia, i. e. Eastern Illyricum.
The Visigoths under Fritigern had without doubt been the moving
spirit in the war, although the Ostrogoths had played a valiant part in
it. After Ermanarich had committed suicide, Withimir had become
king of the Ostrogoths. He lost his life fighting against the Alani, and
seems to have been succeeded by his infant son, in whose name the
princes Alatheus and Saphrax reigned supreme. These, as we saw,
joined forces later on with the Visigoths and contributed largely to the
victory at Hadrianople. It appears that for some time after this, both
tribes of the Goths made common cause against the Romans. At first
the two Emperors were successful in some minor campaigns against the
Goths, and while Gratian went westward against the Franks and perhaps
against the Vandals who had made an invasion across the Rhine, Theodosius
succeeded in creating at Thessalonica, a place which he chose as a strong
and sure base for his further operations, a new and efficient army, into
which he admitted a considerable number of Goths. Before the end of
379 he and his forces gained important successes over the enemy, who
found themselves almost entirely confined to Lower Moesia and, owing to
a lack of supplies, were compelled to renew the war in 380. The
Visigoths under Fritigern advanced in a south-westerly direction towards
Macedonia, whilst the Ostrogoths, Alani and Huns went to the north-
west against Pannonia. Theodosius, who hurried to meet the Visigoths,
suffered a severe defeat in an unexpected night-attack. The Goths,
however, did not follow up their victory, but contented themselves with
pillaging Macedonia and Thessaly, whilst the Emperor Theodosius lay
a prey to a protracted illness at Thessalonica. During this period
Macedonia suffered terribly from the barbarians. At last when Gratian,
a
a
CH, Tx.
## p. 254 (#284) ############################################
254
End of the Gothic War
[380—382
whose assistance Theodosius had implored, sent an army under Bauto
and Arbogast, two Frankish generals, the Goths were compelled to
retreat into Lower Moesia. Gratian himself was at the same time forced
to take command of an army again; for his general Vitalianus had been
unable to prevent the Ostrogoths, Alani, and Huns from invading
Pannonia. As this barbarian invasion was a great danger to the
Western Empire, it was highly important for Gratian to make peace
with the enemy before suffering great losses. This he accomplished by
assigning Pannonia and Upper Moesia to the Ostrogoths and their allies
as foederati. This settlement of the barbarians at its eastern frontier
guaranteed the peace of the Western Empire in the immediate future. For
the Eastern Empire also peace seemed now ensured. When Theodosius,
who as an orthodox ruler commanded greater sympathy from his subjects
than his predecessor, the Arian Valens, had recovered from his illness, he
made a triumphal entry into Constantinople (24 Nov. 380), and here
(11 Jan. 381) the Visigoth Athanarich arrived with his followers. He
had been banished by the Goths whom he had led into Transylvania,
and not desiring to ally himself with Fritigern on account of an old feud,
asked to be admitted into the Empire. He was received with the
greatest honours by Theodosius, but only survived his entrance by a
fortnight. The high honour shewn to Athanarich was evidently intended
to create the impression among the inhabitants of the capital that war
with the Goths was at an end; perhaps it was also hoped to promote
more peaceful feelings among Fritigern's followers. We are also led to
believe that Theodosius soon commenced negotiations with this dreaded
prince, which were brought to a conclusion in 382 by the magister
militum Saturninus. A treaty of peace was concluded at Constantinople
(3 Oct. 382) by which permission was given to Fritigern and all his
Goths to settle as allies in Lower Moesia. They were also to retain
their domestic legislation and the right to elect their own princes. It
was their duty in return to defend the frontier and to furnish troops,
which, however, were to be led by their own chiefs. They obtained the
districts assigned to them free of tribute, and moreover the Romans
agreed to pay them annually a sum of money.
This treaty was, without doubt, at the time a triumph for
Theodosius, and as such it was loudly praised by the Emperor's flatterers.
But on closer examination we shall see that the Romans had only
gained a momentary peace. From the outset it was impossible to
accustom the Goths, proud conquerors of the Roman armies as they
were, to the peaceful occupation of tilling the ground, and, as they had
doubtless been allowed to settle in Moesia in a compact mass, retaining
their domestic government, all efforts to Romanise them could but prove
vain. Besides this the Danube, with the exception of the Dobrudscha,
was stripped of Roman troops, and the ever-increasing number of Goths
who entered the Roman army was naturally a considerable danger to it.
## p. 255 (#285) ############################################
382–388)
The Goths in the Empire
255
a
Moreover the majority of the Goths were Arians, and the rest still
heathens. A year previously, however, Theodosius had not only attacked
heathenism, but had issued a law against heretics, especially Arians. He
had even sent his general Sapor into the East to expel the Arian bishops
from their churches ; only bishops professing the Nicene faith were to
possess the churches. Thus the peace could not possibly be of long
duration
How greatly political questions excited the Goths, and how
passionately their national feeling would sometimes break forth is shewn
by an event which occurred at Constantinople soon after 382. One day
at the royal table two Gothic princes, who were specially honoured by
Theodosius, gave free utterance to their opposed political convictions.
Eriwulf was the leader of the national party among the Goths, which
considered the destruction of the Roman Empire their ultimate object ;
he was an Arian by confession. Fravitta, on the other hand, was the
head of that party which saw their future salvation in a close union with
the Empire. He had married a Roman lady, and had remained a
heathen. The quarrel between the two party-leaders ended by Fravitta
drawing his sword and killing his opponent just outside the palace.
The attempts of Eriwulf's followers to take immediate revenge were met
with armed resistance on the part of the imperial palace-guards. This
incident doubtless helped to strengthen Fravitta's position at the
Emperor's Court, whilst he had made himself impossible to the Goths.
At this time a new danger to the Empire arose from those Goths who
had remained at home and had been conquered by the Huns. As early
as the winter of 384 or 385 they had taken possession of Halmyris (a
town to the south of the estuary of the Danube) which however they left
again, only to return in the autumn of 386 to ask for admission into the
Empire together with other tribes. But the magister militum Promotus,
commander of the troops in Thrace, forbade them to cross the river.
He had the frontier carefully guarded, and met their attack with a ruse,
cleverly conceived and successfully executed, by sending some of his men
to the Ostrogoths under the pretence of betraying the Roman army to
them. In reality however those soldiers of his reported to Promotus the
place and time of the proposed night-attack, and when the barbarians,
led by Odothaeus, crossed the river, the Romans, who were posted on a
large number of anchored boats, made short work of them. This time
the better strategy of the Romans gained a complete victory over the
Goths. To commemorate this victory the Emperor, who subsequently
appeared in person on the battle-field, erected a huge column ornamented
with reliefs in the quarter of the town which is called Taurus.
Meanwhile (25 Aug. 383) Gratian had been killed at Lyons at the
instigation of the usurper Maximus, who had been proclaimed Emperor
by the army in Britain and had found followers in Gaul. At first
Theodosius pretended to accept Maximus for a colleague ; but in 388 he
CB. IX.
## p. 256 (#286) ############################################
256
The Franks
(383–389
a
led his army against him and defeated him at Liscia and Pettau. In the
end the usurper was taken prisoner and killed at Aquileia. Theodosius
now appointed Valentinian II, Gratian's youthful brother, Emperor of
the West, only reserving for himself the co-regency of Italy. He then
sent his experienced general Arbogast into Gaul, where the Teutons
from the right bank of the Rhine had seized the occasion offered by the
quarrel for the throne to extend their power beyond the frontier.
Three chiefs of the Ripuarian Franks, Genobaudes, Marcomir and
Sunno, had indeed crossed the Rhine in the neighbourhood of Cologne
and made a raid upon the Roman territory. When the Roman generals
Nannienus and Quintinus went to meet the raiders at Cologne, one part
of them left the borderland of the province, whilst the others continued
their march into the country, till they were at last beaten back in the
Carbonarian forest (to the east of Tournai). Quintinus now proceeded to
attack the enemy and crossed the Rhine at Novaesium (Neuss). But after
pushing forward for three days into the wild and pathless regions on
the right bank of the Rhine, he was decoyed into an ambush, in which
almost the whole of his army perished. Thus it appeared likely that the
Roman rule in the Rhenish provinces would before long be completely
overthrown; for the generals Carietto and Syrus, whom Maximus had
left behind, found it impossible to put a stop to the barbarian raids.
At this juncture Arbogast was sent by Theodosius to save the West.
His first act was to capture Flavius Victor, the infant son of Maximus, and
to have him put to death. Then he reinforced his army with those
troops which Maximus had left stationed in Gaul, and which together
with their generals Carietto and Syrus were easily won over to his side.
Last of all he turned against his former tribesmen, the Franks, and
demanded from them the restitution of the booty and surrender of the
originators of the war. When these demands were refused, he hesitated
to begin war by himself. He found it difficult to come to a decision, for
the fate of Quintinus' troops was still fresh in his memory. In these
straits he wrote to the Emperor Valentinian II, who seems to have urged
a friendly settlement of the feuds; for in the autumn of 389 Arbogast
had an interview with Marcomir and Sunno. The Franks, possibly
fearing the mighty Theodosius, gave hostages, and a treaty of peace was
concluded which cannot have been unfavourable to the barbarians.
In this way the Western Empire shewed considerable indulgence in
its treatment of the Teutons. The Eastern Empire on the contrary, and
especially the Emperor, was soon directly and indirectly exposed to
serious troubles from the Visigoths. We know that the Goths had
extended their raids as far as Thessalonica. In this large town, the
second in importance in the Balkan peninsula, there existed a certain
amount of ill-feeling against the barbarians, which was greatly increased
by the fact that the highest offices, both civil and military, were chiefly
held by Teutons; moreover the town was garrisoned by Teuton soldiers.
## p. 257 (#287) ############################################
389–392]
The Massacre at Thessalonica
257
The innate pride of Greeks and Romans alike was deeply wounded by
this situation, and a very insignificant occurrence in the year 390 sufficed
to make their hatred burst into flames. It happened in the following
way. Botherich, the commandant of the town, had imprisoned a very
popular charioteer and refused to set him free, when the people clamoured
for his deliverance because of the approaching circus-games. This caused
a rising against the obnoxious barbarian in which he lost his life. At
the time of this incident the Emperor Theodosius was at Milan where he
had frequent intercourse with the influential bishop Ambrose; this was
not without its effect upon him, though in his innermost heart the
Emperor as a secular autocrat could not but be opposed to ecclesiastical
pretensions. Although Theodosius inclined by nature to leniency, or
at any rate made a show of that quality, in this case at least wrath
overcame every human feeling in him, and he resolved to chastise
the town in a way so cruel, that nothing can be put forward in
defence of it. When the people of Thessalonica were assembled in the
circus and absorbed in contemplation of the games soldiers suddenly
broke in and cut down all whom their swords could reach. For three
hours the slaughter went on, till the victims numbered 7000. The
Emperor himself, urged perhaps to mercy by Ambrose, had at the last
hour revoked his order, but it was too late. Probably Theodosius had
been led to this unspeakable cruelty by persons of his intimate acquaint-
ance among whom Rufinus played a prominent part. It seems that
Rufinus had been magister officiorum since 382; in 392 he rose to the
position of Praefectus Praetorio. When the news of this massacre
reached Milan, the Christian population of the town was paralysed with
terror. Ambrose left the town and addressed a letter of the utmost
gravity to Theodosius. He explained to him that his deed called for
penitence and warned him not to attend at church.
The proud
sovereign perceived that he would have to submit to the penitence
imposed on him, and obeyed the bishop's will. He did not leave Milan
till the following year; but before returning to the Eastern capital he
had to sustain a dangerous attack from the Goths in Thrace.
tähvad
In 390 the Visigoths broke the peace to which they had sworn, and
invaded Thrace; Huns and other tribes from beyond the Danube had
thrown in their lot with them. They were commanded by Alaric, a
prince of the Visigoths, belonging to the family of the Balti. This is
the first appearance of Alaric, who was then about twenty years of age,
,
and whose great campaigns subsequently excited such terror throughout
the Roman Empire. But even then the Thracians appear to have been
in great distress: for (1 July 391) Theodosius issued an edict at Aquileia,
by which the inhabitants of the endangered district received permission
to carry arms and to kill anybody found marauding in the open
country. After Theodosius had entered the province, he took great
pains to destroy the bands of marauders, and himself assisted in their
17
6. HDD. H. v0L. 1. CH. IX.
## p. 258 (#288) ############################################
258
Arbogast
[391–392
pursuit. On the Maritza, however, he fell into an ambush and was
completely defeated. Even his life seems to have been in danger, but he
was rescued by his general Promotus. The latter continued the war
against the Goths till the end of 391, though he had apparently fallen
into disfavour at Court. He lost his life in the war, and public opinion
at the capital attributed his death to Rufinus. Stilicho the Vandal now
became commander of the troops in Thrace. He was born about 360,
and had at an early age been attached to an embassy to Persia. After-
wards Theodosius had given him his niece Serena in marriage and
promoted him step by step. He was considered to be one of the ablest
statesmen in the Eastern Empire, and the military command entrusted
to him in 392 was destined to increase the importance of his position.
For he succeeded at length in defeating the enemy, who for so long a
time had been the terror of the Empire. The Goths were surrounded
on the Maritza. But again the Emperor shewed mercy and gave orders
that the enemy should be permitted to go free. Theodosius' policy may
probably be attributed to a certain fear of revenge, and it was doubtless
influenced by Rufinus, who did not wish Stilicho to become too
powerful. Thus a treaty with the vanquished Goths was concluded.
Meanwhile Arbogast had embarked upon a most ambitious course
of politics. His aim was to get rid of the young and irresolute
Valentinian II. Not indeed that he himself wished for the imperial crown,
for he very likely felt its possession to be®undesirable. His idea was to
get Valentinian II out of the way, and then assist to the imperial throne
some one of his ardent devotees, under whose name he himself hoped to
wield the supreme power. For the attainment of this end, his first
requisite was a trustworthy army. He therefore levied a large number
of Teuton troops, in whose loyalty he could place the utmost confidence.
When Valentinian took up his abode in Gaul, the relations between him
and the powerful Frank became more and more strained, till finally the
Emperor from his throne handed to his rival a written order, demanding
that he should resign his post. Arbogast tore the document in pieces
before the eyes of the Emperor, whose days were thenceforth numbered.
On 15 May 392 the youthful sovereign was assassinated at Vienne; but
whether Arbogast was directly responsible for this deed remains uncer-
tain. The way was now clear for the Frank's ambitious plans. A short
time previously the Frank Richomer had recommended to his tribesman
Arbogast the head of the imperial chancery, the magister scriniorum
Eugenius. This Roman, formerly a rhetorician and grammarian, was
the man whom Arbogast intended to raise to the imperial throne.
Eugenius could not but yield to the mighty man's wish. He therefore
sent an embassy to Theodosius in 392 to obtain his recognition. But
Theodosius gave an evasive answer; and as there was every prospect of a
war, Arbogast deemed it necessary to make provision for a safe retreat.
We know that the neighbourhood of the Franks formed a very vulnerable
## p. 259 (#289) ############################################
392–395]
Battle of the Frigidus
259
1
point of the Roman government in Gaul. For this reason in the winter
of 392 Arbogast undertook a campaign against these dangerous
neighbours. He probably hoped at the same time to reinforce his army
with Frankish troops, should he be successful in this war. He pushed
on through Cologne and the country along the river Lippe into the
territory of the Bructeri and Chamavi, after which he turned eastward
against the Ampsivarii, who had joined forces with the Chatti under
Marcomir. Apparently he met with but little resistance, for in the spring
of 393 Eugenius succeeded in concluding treaties with the Franks and
even the Alemanni, on condition that they supplied him with troops.
The ensuing period was spent in preparation for war in both Empires,
Eugenius having been, thanks to Arbogast's influence, recognised as
Emperor in Italy also. Theodosius had reinforced his army more
especially with Teutons; the Visigoths were again commanded by Alaric,
whilst the leaders of the other foederati were Gaïnas, Saul and the
comes domesticorum Bacurius, an Armenian. The meeting of the two
armies took place 5 Sept. 394 on the Frigidus, a tributary of the
Isonza, probably the Hubel. As the Gothic troops formed the vanguard
and opened the attack on the enemy, who were posted very favourably,
they suffered severe losses on the first day of the battle, which greatly
elated the Westerns. On the second day the battle would in all
probability have been decided in favour of Arbogast, had not his
general Arbitrio, who commanded the Frankish troops, gone over to
Theodosius. It is related besides, that a violent storm from the north-
east—the Bora, as it is called—wrought such havoc in the ranks of
Eugenius' army, that it helped Theodosius to gain a complete victory.
Eugenius was taken prisoner and put to death, and Arbogast escaped
into the mountains, where he died by his own hand (8 Sept. ). But whilst
the relations and followers of Eugenius and Arbogast were pardoned,
Alaric waited in vain for the post in the Roman army, which Theodosius
had promised him; and when (17 Jan. 395) Theodosius died at Milan,
still in the prime of life, the Goths were sent home by Stilicho, who had
been second in command during the war. To make matters worse, the
yearly payments which had hitherto been made to the Goths, were now
injudiciously held back. These various causes combined to disturb the
peace between the Romans and Goths, which had so far been tolerably
well preserved, and the Goths once more commenced hostilities.
The time for a general rising seemed to be well chosen. Theodosius,
whose strong hand had endeavoured to maintain the peace within the
Empire, was now no more, and his sons were yet of tender age.
The
late Emperor had been the last to reign over the whole Empire. And
even he, powerless to stay its decline, had been obliged to cede to the
Goths an extensive district within its borders. How important the
Teutonic element had grown can best be understood from the fact that
the Teutons not only furnished the best part of the troops, but also
SH Ix.
17-2
## p. 260 (#290) ############################################
260
Division of the Empire
[395
ever.
commanded the armies and held the highest appointments, both civil and
military. Now that Theodosius was dead, the Empire was divided for
At an age of hardly eighteen years his son Arcadius received the
Empire of the East under the guidance of Rufinus, who had in 394, during
the absence of Theodosius, been entrusted with the regency as well as
with the supreme direction of Arcadius. On 27 April 395, to Rufinus'
great vexation, the young Emperor married Eudoxia, who had been
brought to him by Eutropius, the eunuch of the palace. She was the
daughter of Bauto, the Frank who had played an important part under
Gratian and Valentinian. In the course of the same year Rufinus was most
cruelly slain by the soldiers whom Gaïnas had but recently led back to
Constantinople. After his death Eutropius stood in high favour with
the Emperor. He received the office of High Chamberlain (praepositus
sacri cubiculi) and later on the title patricius. The younger son
Honorius, who was in his eleventh year, received the Western Empire.
Stilicho was appointed his guardian and also regent. He had been
raised to the rank of magister utriusque militiae by Theodosius before his
death, and, as we saw, had married a niece of the Emperor. This
capable man was no doubt better fitted than any other to rule the
Empire in the spirit of Theodosius, and when the Emperor died it was
he who without delay hurried to the Rhine to receive homage for
Honorius from the Teuton tribes, even as far as the Batavi. Apparently
on this journey King Marcomir was delivered into his hands, and was
sent into exile to Tuscany. After this Stilicho immediately returned to
Italy.
Meanwhile the Visigoths had broken loose from Moesia.
Those of
their tribesmen who had formerly accompanied Alaric to Transylvania
had joined them and chosen Alaric, whose power at that time, however,
was still limited, as leader in the coming war. This war was fraught
with danger for the Eastern Empire, for it appears that in the early
spring of 395 the whole mass of the Visigoths marched south towards
Constantinople. As before, there could of course be no question
of capturing the city, but the surrounding country was mercilessly
devastated. It is most probable that Rufinus, who paid repeated visits
to the hostile camp, bribed the enemy to retire. Alaric now made his way
along the coast to Macedonia and Thessaly. Near Larissa he encountered
Stilicho, who had left Italy with strong forces. These were the victorious
East-Roman soldiers, whom he was leading home to their own country,
hoping at the same time to win back Illyria for the Western Empire.
This province, though given to Theodosius by Gratian, was said to have
been restored by the former a short time before his death. Apparently
the Goths had first of all tried to gain the valley of the Peneus, the Vale
of Tempe ; but meeting with resistance, they had pushed on across the
eastern slopes of Olympus into Thessaly, where they barricaded them-
selves behind their wagons. Stilicho was on the point of attacking
## p. 261 (#291) ############################################
396–397
Alaric in Greece
261
them when he received a message from Arcadius, ordering him to dismiss
the army of the Eastern Empire, and himself return to Italy. If at
first sight this order seems strange, it is because we have long been
accustomed to see in Stilicho a disinterested statesman and general, who
dedicated his labour and personality to the family of Theodosius. This
disposition of Eastern Illyria, which Theodosius was supposed to have
made shortly before his death, is however very doubtful, and it is certain
that Stilicho had entertained personal ambitions with regard to that
province. Viewed in the light of these circumstances, the order from
Arcadius appears in a very different light, especially if to this is added
the fact that in the same year the Huns had broken through the gates
of the Caucasus at Baku on the Caspian Sea and reached Syria by way of
Armenia. There they laid siege to Antioch and proceeded thence to
Asia Minor. Ravages of every kind marked their way. In this situation
it was an absolute necessity for the welfare of the State that the army
should return to its own country. Stilicho obeyed the order, because, as
has justly been remarked, he was probably uncertain about the future
conduct of the East-Roman troops, a section of whom remained in
Greece under Gerontius' command to cover Thermopylae. Alaric, how-
ever, assisted perhaps by treachery, took possession of this famous pass
without difficulty. After this the Goths marched through Boeotia into
Attica. Here Alaric succeeded in seizing the Piraeus, and forced Athens
to capitulate by cutting off her supplies. It is probable that she escaped
pillage by the payment of a sum of money ; Alaric stayed for a short
time peacefully within her walls. From Athens the march of the Goths
was continued to Eleusis, where they ransacked the temple of Demeter,
and further to Megara, which was quickly taken. Gerontius had left the
entrance to the Peloponnesus undefended, and the Gothic hordes,
meeting with no resistance, broke like a torrent upon Corinth and thence
on Argos and Sparta. Many an ancient work of art must have perished
in this rush, but no mention is made of any systematic and wilful
destruction of the ancient monuments.
It is a curious fact, that after all this the East-Roman government
seems neither to have made war against the Huns, who had invaded
Asia, nor to have lent assistance to the Greeks, when Gerontius had so
utterly failed to do his duty at Thermopylae and the Isthmus. Help
came rather from another quarter, and primarily, it must be owned,
with a different purpose in view. Though Stilicho had returned to
Italy, he had been kept well informed about events in Greece. As he
himself had designs on East-Illyria, to which Epirus and Achaia
belonged, and as Alaric was to all appearances endeavouring to create an
independent sovereignty in these provinces, it was imperative for the
vicegerent of the West to interfere. In 397 he transported an army to
Greece, and, landing on the south side of Corinth, expelled the Goths
from Arcadia and surrounded them at Elis near the Alpheus on the
H. I.
## p. 262 (#292) ############################################
262
Revolt of Gaïnas
(
394-399
plateau of Pholoe. But no decisive battle was fought, for Stilicho was
not sufficiently master of his own troops, and just then the revolt of the
Moorish prince Gildo threatened to become a serious danger to the
Western Empire. Gildo had formerly been praefect of Mauretania and
had subsequently been raised to the office of magister utriusque militiae.
In the year 394 he began his revolt, whereby he intended to secure the
North coast of Africa as a dominion of his own, and in 397 he offered
Africa as a feudal province to the Eastern Empire, hoping thereby to
kindle war between the two Empires. In this predicament Stilicho
avoided a decisive encounter with the Goths. For the second time he
allowed his adversary to escape. He even concluded a treaty with
Alaric, which doubtless contained an alliance against the Eastern
Empire; for in these precarious circumstances the chief of the brave
Goths might possibly prove of great service to Stilicho in his ambitious
private policy. The effect of these conditions on the mutual relations
of the two Empires was soon apparent. At Constantinople Stilicho was
declared an enemy of the State, whilst in the Western Empire the
consulship of Eutropius, who had been nominated for 399 and had
entirely won the favour of Arcadius, was not acknowledged. Before his
death Theodosius had so arranged the division of the Empire that the
cohesion of the whole might for the future be firmly and permanently
secured. Thus the first deep cleft had been made in a union which
was already difficult to maintain. Neither Empire had a permanent
diplomatic representation ; only special embassies were sent from time
to time, so that unfounded suspicions were very likely to arise on
either side.
At this time, while Stilicho was sailing back in haste from Greece to
Italy to prepare for war against Gildo, the Goths made a raid into
Epirus, which they devastated in a terrible manner. At last the
government at Constantinople was roused sufficiently to make proposals
of peace to Alaric. In return for a sum of money and the position of
magister militum in Illyria, Alaric withdrew from the alliance with
Stilicho, made peace with the Eastern Empire and occupied Epirus,
which had been assigned to him, with his Gothic troops. Another
trouble for the Eastern Empire at this time arose from the large number
of Goths who served in the army, and more especially through their
leader Gaïnas. At his command they had killed Rufinus in 395.
When Eutropius did not reward him for his services with the high
military office he coveted, he joined a rebellion of his compatriot
Tribigild in Phrygia, against whom he had been sent out with an army.
For after the fall and execution of the powerful favourite Eutropius in
the summer of 399, a national movement was set on foot at Constan-
tinople, having for its object the abolition of foreign influence in the
high government offices ; Aurelianus, Eutropius' successor, was at the
head of this movement. But the Roman supremacy was not destined to
## p. 263 (#293) ############################################
400]
Revolts of Gaïnas and Gildo
263
be revived. The Gothic rebellion in Asia Minor grew more and more
alarming, and Arcadius was soon obliged to negotiate with Gaïnas.
During an interview with the Emperor, the Goth succeeded in obtaining
his nomination to the post of magister militum praesentalis and the
extradition of the three leaders of the national party, one of whom was
Aurelianus. On his subsequent return to the capital, Gaïnas could
consider himself master of the Empire, and as such demanded of the
Emperor a place of worship for the Arian Goths. But the famous
theologian and bishop, John Chrysostom, contrived to avert this danger
to the orthodox Church. But the power of Gainas was not to be of
long duration. When in July 400 he left the town with the majority
of the Goths, owing to a feeling of insecurity, the inhabitants rose
against those who had been left behind. At last no refuge remained to
them except the church they had lately been given. In its ruins they
were burned, as Gaïnas failed to come to their rescue in time to storm
the city. Gaïnas was declared a public enemy, and the pursuit was
entrusted to his tribesman Fravitta, who so far carried out his order that
he followed Gaïnas to Thrace and the Hellespont, and prevented him
from crossing to Asia. Eventually, at the end of the year 400, Gaïnas
was killed on the further side of the Danube by a chief of the Huns,
called Uldin, who sent his head to Constantinople.
Nothing is more characteristic of the impotence of the Eastern
Empire, than the revolt of this Gothic general, whose downfall was only
secured by a combination of favourable circumstances. The clever and
valiant Goth succumbed only to strangers ; the Empire itself had no
means to overthrow him.
Such were the conditions at the dawn of the new century; the last
twenty-five years of the old having brought nothing but war, poverty,
and depopulation to the Eastern Empire. It is true that for the
Western Empire the century had closed more favourably; the campaign
against Gildo especially had been prepared by Stilicho with characteristic
ability. This Moorish prince, after putting to death the sons of his
brother Mascezel, who had gone to Italy, had proceeded to conquer the
North of Africa. Only the large and fortified towns could resist his
ever-increasing power. He created great anxiety in Rome by cutting
off her African corn-supply; but the danger of a famine was averted by
Stilicho, who succeeded in having corn brought by sea from Gaul and
Spain. When his preparations for war were completed, Stilicho did not
at this critical time put himself at the head of the army, but resigned
the supreme command to Mascezel. The army was not large, but it
seems that Stilicho relied upon the skill of its commander for entering
into secret relations with the leaders of the enemy. Mascezel departed
for Africa, where the campaign was decided between Tebeste and
Ammedera on the Ardalio, a tributary of the Bagradas. Apparently no
real battle was fought, but Gildo's troops went over to the enemy
fled
or
CH. A.
## p. 264 (#294) ############################################
264
Stilicho's Position
[398–401
into the mountains. Gildo himself first tried to escape by sea, but
returned to land and soon after met his death at Tabraca. These wars
against the two rebels Gaïnas and Gildo so excited the imagination of
the contemporary world, that they formed the subject of many poetical
productions. Of these “The Egyptians or On Providence," a novel by
Synesius of Cyrene, and Claudian's “War against Gildo” are preserved.
With the year 401, however, there began for the Western Empire
a period similar to that which the Eastern Empire had already so
long endured. The Teutons began to press forward in dense masses
against the provinces of the Western Empire, which they had so long
spared, and finally effected the complete dissolution of that once so
mighty realm. But this time the disturbance did not proceed from the
Goths only; other tribes also were involved in the movement, which
could no longer be restrained, and the danger to the Empire grew in
proportion. In the first place Alaric had made use of the short time of
his alliance with the Eastern Empire to increase his power, chiefly by
re-arming his Goths from the Roman arsenals. His plan of founding an
independent kingdom for himself in Greece had failed, and it probably
seemed most tempting to him to transfer his attentions to Italy, whose
resources were not yet so completely drained by the Goths. No doubt
Stilicho ruled there with a firm hand. He had in 398 created for
himself an unassailable position by giving his daughter Maria, a mere
child, in marriage to the Emperor Honorius, who was then fourteen
years of age. But apparently Alaric did not fear the power of Stilicho,
.
who had twice allowed him to escape from a most critical position;
furthermore the Western Empire was just now engaged in a different
direction. In the year 401, the Vandals, who had long ago settled in
.
the regions between the Danube and the Theiss, began to grow restless.
On account of their increasing population the majority of them had
resolved to emigrate with their king Godigisel, retaining at the same
time the right of possession over their old dominions. They were joined
by Alani from Pannonia, and in the same year this new wave of migration
reached Rhaetia by way of Noricum. Stilicho at first opposed them,
but was eventually obliged to grant them territories in Noricum and
Vindelicia under the suzerainty of Rome, in return for which they bound
themselves to serve in the Roman army.
By this time Alaric had already left Epirus far behind and reached
Aquileia by way of Aemona and the Birnbaum forest. This invasion of
Italy by the barbarians caused great consternation; the fortifications of
Rome were repaired and strengthened, and the young Emperor Honorius
even contemplated an escape into Gaul. Venetia was already in the
enemy's hands, and the road to Milan was occupied by the Goths.
Honorius was staying in this city, Alaric naturally desired above all to
take possession of it. But Stilicho came to the rescue. He had rein-
forced his army with the Vandals and Alani with whom he had just
## p. 265 (#295) ############################################
402—406]
Battle of Pollentia
265
made
peace, and Alaric was forced to abandon the siege of Milan. He
now tried to gain the coast in order to reach Rome. With Stilicho at
his heels he turned to Ticinum and Hasta and thence to Pollentia.
Here (6 April 402) a battle was fought in the early stages of which it
seemed likely that the Romans would be defeated, as Saul, the Roman
general of the Alani, had begun the battle prematurely. But the appear-
ance of Stilicho with the main body of infantry changed the aspect of affairs.
The fight was continued until nightfall, but though the Romans were
left in possession of the field and took numerous prisoners, Stilicho can
hardly be said to have gained a victory. For Alaric's forces retreated in
perfect order and were able to continue their march on Rome. In this
crisis Stilicho was obliged to come to terms with Alaric. The Gothic
chief was raised to the rank of magister militum and promised to evacuate
Italy. For the future the two generals arranged to conquer Eastern
Illyria for the Western Empire. This treaty, which put a considerable
check on the movements of the Goths, is explained not only by the state
of affairs at that time, but also by the fact that Alaric's wife and
children had been made prisoners during the battle. The Goths now
left Italy, but remained close to the frontier, and made a fresh invasion
in 403. This time Alaric tried to lay siege to Verona, but was defeated
by Stilicho, and on trying to gain Rhaetia by way of the Brenner again
found himself in a very dangerous plight, from which he could only
extricate himself by concluding a new treaty with Stilicho against the
Eastern Empire. Probably it was at this juncture that Sarus the
Visigothic prince with his followers went over to Stilicho, a desertion
which must be ascribed to Stilicho's diplomatic skill. The uncertainty
of the situation may account for the very remarkable fact that Stilicho
suffered the enemy to escape so often from his fatal embrace. Be that
as it may, the Goths withdrew, and Stilicho could celebrate a brilliant
triumph with Honorius. Alaric, however, does not appear to have
returned to Epirus till much later, but remained for some time in the
neighbourhood of Illyria.
In the following year (405) the Ostrogoths and Vandals, the Alani
and the Quadi under the leadership of Radagaisus left their homes,
crossed the Alps, and descended into Italy. Their number, though much
exaggerated by contemporary historians, must have been considerable ;
for the hostile army marched through the North of the peninsula in
several divisions. Stilicho seems to have collected his troops at Pavia ;
the invasion happened at a very inopportune moment, as he was about to
carry out his designs on Eastern Illyria. This time, however, he quickly
succeeded in ridding himself of the enemy. He surrounded Radagaisus
who had attacked Florence, in the narrow valleys of the Apennines near
Faesulae, and destroyed a large part of his army. Radagaisus himself
was captured with his sons whilst trying to escape, and was shortly
afterwards executed. For this victory Stilicho's thanks were chiefly due
SH.
## p. 266 (#296) ############################################
266
Barbarian Invasion of Gaul
[
406
to two foreign generals, Sarus the Goth, and Uldin the Hun. In this
manner Italy had indeed been speedily saved from great danger, but at the
end of the next year (406) hostile hordes broke into Gaul with so much
the greater violence. It is very probable that this invasion, which was
undertaken by the Vandals, had some connexion with that of Radagaisus.
In conjunction with the Vandals were the Alani, who had recently formed
an alliance with them, and the Suevi, by whom we must understand the
Quadi, who had formerly dwelt north of the Vandals. This great tribal
migration, following the road along the Roman frontier (limes), reached
the river Main, where they met the Silingi, a Vandal tribe which had
gone westward with the Burgundians in the third century. These now
helped to swell the Vandal hordes, whilst a part of the Alani under the
leadership of Goar enlisted in the Roman army on the Rhine. Near this
river the Vandals were attacked by some Frankish tribes, who were
keeping guard on the frontier, in accordance with their treaty with
Stilicho. In the ensuing fight the Vandals suffered severe losses, their
king Godigisel being among the slain. On receiving this news the Alani
immediately turned about, and, led by their king Respendial, they
completely routed the Franks. On the last day of 406 this mass of
people crossed the Rhine at Mainz, which they invested and destroyed.
The march was continued by Trèves to Rheims, where the bishop
Nicasius was slain in his own church; thence to Tournai, Terouenne, Arras
and Amiens. From this point the journey proceeded through Gallia
Lugdunensis to Paris, Orleans, and Tours, and, passing through Aquitania
into Novempopulana, by Bordeaux to Toulouse, which the bishop
Exuperius saved from falling into the enemies' hands. But the fortified
passes of the Pyrenees put a stop to their further advance. Thus Spain
remained unconquered for the present, and the Vandals now made their
way into the rich province of Narbonensis. The devastation of the
extensive provinces and the conquered cities of Gaul was terrible;
contemporary writers of prose and verse alike complain bitterly of the
atrocities committed by the barbarians in this unhappy country. The
oldest people could not remember so disastrous an invasion. The
weakness of the Empire is revealed by the absence of a Roman army to
oppose the Germans. Stilicho's policy was at that time directed towards
Illyria, and for this reason he probably found it impossible to come to
the assistance of Gaul.
This first great danger was soon followed by a second. The migration
of the Vandals had very likely caused the Burgundians along the middle
course of the Main to become restless ; they now began to bear down
upon the Alemanni on the lower Main. A part of the Burgundians had
perhaps intended to join the great migration of 406, for shortly after we
meet with them on the west side of the Rhine. The most important
result, however, was, that the Alemanni now entered on a campaign
against Roman Upper Germany, and conquered Worms, Speier, and
## p. 267 (#297) ############################################
406–407]
The usurper Constantine
267
a
The new
Strassburg. Here again the Empire failed to send help, and the allied
Franks remained quiet. Stilicho meanwhile collected an army in 406
and arranged a plan with Alaric, by which he could carry out his Illyrian
projects from Epirus. Already a Praefectus Praetorio for Illyria had
been nominated in the person of Jovius, when in the year 407 an event
occurred which threw everything else into the background. A new
emperor appeared on the scene. When a rumour had spread, that
Alaric was dead, the legions in Britain after two unsuccessful attempts?
proclaimed Constantine emperor. According to Orosius, he was
common soldier, but his name excited hopes for better times.
Emperor crossed over to Gaul without delay, where he was recognised by
the Roman troops throughout the country. He immediately pushed
forward into the districts along the Rhone, where, though he probably
concluded treaties with the Alemanni, Burgundians and Franks, he made
but little impression on the Teutons who had invaded the land. But
Stilicho had already sent the experienced general Sarus with an army
against him. In the neighbourhood of Valence, which Constantine had
made his temporary abode, his general Justinian was defeated and killed
in battle by Sarus. Another of the usurper's generals met his death soon
afterwards during an interview with the crafty Goth. When, however,
Constantine sent against him his newly appointed generals, the Frank
Edobic and the Briton Gerontius, Sarus abandoned the siege of Valence
and effected a passage into Italy by paying a sum of money to the
fugitive peasants called Bagaudae, who at that time held the passes of
the Western Alps. Stilicho joined Honorius at Rome to discuss the
serious situation. Constantine, however, directed his attention towards
Spain, evidently with a view to protect his rear before attacking Italy.
At the passes across the Pyrenees he met with energetic resistance from
Didymus, Verenianus, Theodosius, and Logadius, all relatives of the
Emperor. But Constantine’s son Constans soon overcame the enemy;
he captured Verenianus and Didymus, whilst Theodosius and Logadius
fed, the former to Italy, the latter to the East. After this, when
Constans had returned to Gaul in triumph, he entrusted the passes to
Gerontius, who was in command of the Honorians, a troop of barbarian
foederati. These, it appears, fulfilled their duty but indifferently, for
during the quarrels which ensued in the borderlands the Vandals, Alani
and Suevi, who had pushed on as far as southern Gaul, saw an oppor-
tunity of executing their design on Spain.
With these disturbances in Spain is generally connected a great rising
of the Celts in Britain and Gaul, which was directed against the
advancing Teutonic tribes as well as against the Roman rule, and in
which the Gaulish district of Armorica was specially concerned. Thus
1 First a man named Marcus and after him Gratian, a British official, had
been declared emperors ; both however were after a short time put to death by the
soldiers.
a
m. IX.
## p. 268 (#298) ############################################
268
Alaric
[408
was prepared in these provinces the separation from the Roman govern-
ment which had lasted for centuries, and at the same time Teutonic rule
superseded that of the Romans in Spain.
Meanwhile Alaric had not failed to profit by the violent disturbances
within the Western Empire. As Stilicho had neither undertaken the
campaign against Illyria nor met the demands of the Gothic soldiers
for their pay, Alaric believed himself entitled to deal a powerful blow
,
at the Western Empire. Stilicho had recently strengthened his relations
with the imperial house by a new link. The Empress Maria had died
.
early, still a virgin as rumour went, and Stilicho succeeded in persuading
the Emperor to marry his second daughter Thermantia. Now Alaric
tried to force his way into Italy. He had left Epirus and reached
Aemona. There he probably found the roads to the South barred; he
therefore crossed the river Aquilis and made his way to Virunum in
Noricum, whence he sent an embassy to Stilicho at Ravenna. The
ambassadors demanded the enormous sum of four thousand pounds of
gold as compensation for the long delay in Epirus and the present
campaign of the Goths. Stilicho went to Rome to discuss the matter
with the Emperor and the Senate. The majority of the Senate was
opposed to the concession of this demand and would have preferred war
with the Goths, but Stilicho's power in the assembly was still so great
that his opinion prevailed and the huge sum was paid. At this juncture
the rumour spread that the Emperor of the East was dead. Arcadius
had indeed died (1 May 408). This greatly altered the situation, for
Theodosius II, the heir to the Eastern throne, was but a child of seven.
Honorius now decided to go to Ravenna, but was opposed by Stilicho,
who wanted himself to inspect the troops there. But neither did
Stilicho succeed in dissuading Honorius nor could a mutiny among
the soldiers at Ravenna, which Sarus had promoted, induce the
Emperor to desist from his plan. Nevertheless he eventually diverged
from the route to Ravenna, and went to Bologna, where he ordered
Stilicho to meet him for the purpose of discussing the situation in
the East.
Stilicho's first concern at Bologna was to calm the agitation amongst
the soldiers and recommend the ringleaders to the Emperor's mercy ;
then he took counsel with Honorius. It was the Emperor's wish to go
in person to Constantinople and settle the affairs of the Eastern Empire,
but Stilicho tried to turn him from this purpose, pointing out that the
journey would cause too much expense, and that the Emperor could not
well leave Italy whilst Constantine was as yet powerful and residing
at Arles. Honorius bent his will to the prudent counsel of his great
statesman, and it was resolved that Stilicho should go to the East, whilst
Alaric was sent with an army to Gaul against Constantine. Stilicho,
however, neither departed for the East nor did he gather together the
troops which remained assembled at Pavia, and were ill-disposed towards
a
## p. 269 (#299) ############################################
408]
Fall of Stilicho
269
him. Meanwhile a cunning Greek, the chancellor Olympius, profited by
the change in the Emperor's feelings towards his great minister. Under
the mask of Christian piety he secretly intrigued against Stilicho in
order to undermine his position. Thus Olympius accompanied the
Emperor to Pavia and on this occasion spread the calumnious report,
that Stilicho intended to kill the child Theodosius and put his own son
Eucherius on the throne. The storm now gathered over Stilicho's head.
The prelude to the catastrophe, however, took place at Pavia.
When the Emperor had arrived with Olympius at this town, the
latter made an exhibition of his philanthropy by visiting the sick
soldiers; probably his real object was to gather the threads of the
conspiracy which he had already spun and to weave them further.
the decision of Gratian, of whose doings we shall now have to give a
short account.
We know that Gratian had made efforts long before the catastrophes
to come to his uncle's aid against the Goths. From this he was
prevented by a war with the Alemanni. An Aleman from the country
of the Lentienses (afterwards the Linzgau on the Lake of Constance)
who served in the Roman Guard had returned to his country with the
news that Gratian was shortly going to render assistance to his uncle in
the East. This news had induced his tribesmen to make a raid across
the Rhine in February 378. They were at first repulsed by frontier-
troops ; but when it became known that the greater part of the Roman
army had marched for Illyricum they prevailed upon their tribesmen to
join in a big campaign. It was rumoured in Gaul that 40,000 or even
as many as 70,000 Alemanni were on the war-path. Gratian at once
called back those of his cohorts which were already on the way to
Pannonia and put the comes Brittanniae Nannienus in command of his
troops, together with the brave Mallobaudes, king of the Franks. A
battle was fought at Argentaria (near Colmar), in which the Romans,
## p. 253 (#283) ############################################
379–380]
Appointment of Theodosius
253
thanks to the skill of their generals, won a complete victory, and
Priarius, the chieftain of the Lentienses, was killed. Gratian now
attacked the Alemanni, crossed the Rhine and sent the Lentienses flying
to their mountains. There they were completely hemmed in and had to
surrender, promising to supply recruits to the Romans. After this
Gratian marched from Arbor Felix (near St Gallen) eastwards along the
high-road, passing Lauriacum on the way. As we have already seen, he
did not reach Thrace in time, and on hearing of the defeat at Hadrianople
he withdrew to Sirmium. Here, at the beginning of 379, a great political
event took place. It must be mentioned that Theodosius, who had
formerly been the commander-in-chief in Upper Moesia, and had since
been living in a kind of exile in Spain, had been recalled by Gratian and
entrusted with a new command. Before the end of 378 Theodosius had
already given a proof of his ability by the defeat of the Sarmatians, who
appear to have invaded Pannonia. The success was welcome in a time
so disastrous for the Romans. This is most probably one of the reasons
why Gratian (19 Jan. 379) at Sirmium raised him to be Emperor of the
East and enlarged his dominions by adding to them Dacia, Upper
Moesia, Macedonia, Epirus and Achaia, i. e. Eastern Illyricum.
The Visigoths under Fritigern had without doubt been the moving
spirit in the war, although the Ostrogoths had played a valiant part in
it. After Ermanarich had committed suicide, Withimir had become
king of the Ostrogoths. He lost his life fighting against the Alani, and
seems to have been succeeded by his infant son, in whose name the
princes Alatheus and Saphrax reigned supreme. These, as we saw,
joined forces later on with the Visigoths and contributed largely to the
victory at Hadrianople. It appears that for some time after this, both
tribes of the Goths made common cause against the Romans. At first
the two Emperors were successful in some minor campaigns against the
Goths, and while Gratian went westward against the Franks and perhaps
against the Vandals who had made an invasion across the Rhine, Theodosius
succeeded in creating at Thessalonica, a place which he chose as a strong
and sure base for his further operations, a new and efficient army, into
which he admitted a considerable number of Goths. Before the end of
379 he and his forces gained important successes over the enemy, who
found themselves almost entirely confined to Lower Moesia and, owing to
a lack of supplies, were compelled to renew the war in 380. The
Visigoths under Fritigern advanced in a south-westerly direction towards
Macedonia, whilst the Ostrogoths, Alani and Huns went to the north-
west against Pannonia. Theodosius, who hurried to meet the Visigoths,
suffered a severe defeat in an unexpected night-attack. The Goths,
however, did not follow up their victory, but contented themselves with
pillaging Macedonia and Thessaly, whilst the Emperor Theodosius lay
a prey to a protracted illness at Thessalonica. During this period
Macedonia suffered terribly from the barbarians. At last when Gratian,
a
a
CH, Tx.
## p. 254 (#284) ############################################
254
End of the Gothic War
[380—382
whose assistance Theodosius had implored, sent an army under Bauto
and Arbogast, two Frankish generals, the Goths were compelled to
retreat into Lower Moesia. Gratian himself was at the same time forced
to take command of an army again; for his general Vitalianus had been
unable to prevent the Ostrogoths, Alani, and Huns from invading
Pannonia. As this barbarian invasion was a great danger to the
Western Empire, it was highly important for Gratian to make peace
with the enemy before suffering great losses. This he accomplished by
assigning Pannonia and Upper Moesia to the Ostrogoths and their allies
as foederati. This settlement of the barbarians at its eastern frontier
guaranteed the peace of the Western Empire in the immediate future. For
the Eastern Empire also peace seemed now ensured. When Theodosius,
who as an orthodox ruler commanded greater sympathy from his subjects
than his predecessor, the Arian Valens, had recovered from his illness, he
made a triumphal entry into Constantinople (24 Nov. 380), and here
(11 Jan. 381) the Visigoth Athanarich arrived with his followers. He
had been banished by the Goths whom he had led into Transylvania,
and not desiring to ally himself with Fritigern on account of an old feud,
asked to be admitted into the Empire. He was received with the
greatest honours by Theodosius, but only survived his entrance by a
fortnight. The high honour shewn to Athanarich was evidently intended
to create the impression among the inhabitants of the capital that war
with the Goths was at an end; perhaps it was also hoped to promote
more peaceful feelings among Fritigern's followers. We are also led to
believe that Theodosius soon commenced negotiations with this dreaded
prince, which were brought to a conclusion in 382 by the magister
militum Saturninus. A treaty of peace was concluded at Constantinople
(3 Oct. 382) by which permission was given to Fritigern and all his
Goths to settle as allies in Lower Moesia. They were also to retain
their domestic legislation and the right to elect their own princes. It
was their duty in return to defend the frontier and to furnish troops,
which, however, were to be led by their own chiefs. They obtained the
districts assigned to them free of tribute, and moreover the Romans
agreed to pay them annually a sum of money.
This treaty was, without doubt, at the time a triumph for
Theodosius, and as such it was loudly praised by the Emperor's flatterers.
But on closer examination we shall see that the Romans had only
gained a momentary peace. From the outset it was impossible to
accustom the Goths, proud conquerors of the Roman armies as they
were, to the peaceful occupation of tilling the ground, and, as they had
doubtless been allowed to settle in Moesia in a compact mass, retaining
their domestic government, all efforts to Romanise them could but prove
vain. Besides this the Danube, with the exception of the Dobrudscha,
was stripped of Roman troops, and the ever-increasing number of Goths
who entered the Roman army was naturally a considerable danger to it.
## p. 255 (#285) ############################################
382–388)
The Goths in the Empire
255
a
Moreover the majority of the Goths were Arians, and the rest still
heathens. A year previously, however, Theodosius had not only attacked
heathenism, but had issued a law against heretics, especially Arians. He
had even sent his general Sapor into the East to expel the Arian bishops
from their churches ; only bishops professing the Nicene faith were to
possess the churches. Thus the peace could not possibly be of long
duration
How greatly political questions excited the Goths, and how
passionately their national feeling would sometimes break forth is shewn
by an event which occurred at Constantinople soon after 382. One day
at the royal table two Gothic princes, who were specially honoured by
Theodosius, gave free utterance to their opposed political convictions.
Eriwulf was the leader of the national party among the Goths, which
considered the destruction of the Roman Empire their ultimate object ;
he was an Arian by confession. Fravitta, on the other hand, was the
head of that party which saw their future salvation in a close union with
the Empire. He had married a Roman lady, and had remained a
heathen. The quarrel between the two party-leaders ended by Fravitta
drawing his sword and killing his opponent just outside the palace.
The attempts of Eriwulf's followers to take immediate revenge were met
with armed resistance on the part of the imperial palace-guards. This
incident doubtless helped to strengthen Fravitta's position at the
Emperor's Court, whilst he had made himself impossible to the Goths.
At this time a new danger to the Empire arose from those Goths who
had remained at home and had been conquered by the Huns. As early
as the winter of 384 or 385 they had taken possession of Halmyris (a
town to the south of the estuary of the Danube) which however they left
again, only to return in the autumn of 386 to ask for admission into the
Empire together with other tribes. But the magister militum Promotus,
commander of the troops in Thrace, forbade them to cross the river.
He had the frontier carefully guarded, and met their attack with a ruse,
cleverly conceived and successfully executed, by sending some of his men
to the Ostrogoths under the pretence of betraying the Roman army to
them. In reality however those soldiers of his reported to Promotus the
place and time of the proposed night-attack, and when the barbarians,
led by Odothaeus, crossed the river, the Romans, who were posted on a
large number of anchored boats, made short work of them. This time
the better strategy of the Romans gained a complete victory over the
Goths. To commemorate this victory the Emperor, who subsequently
appeared in person on the battle-field, erected a huge column ornamented
with reliefs in the quarter of the town which is called Taurus.
Meanwhile (25 Aug. 383) Gratian had been killed at Lyons at the
instigation of the usurper Maximus, who had been proclaimed Emperor
by the army in Britain and had found followers in Gaul. At first
Theodosius pretended to accept Maximus for a colleague ; but in 388 he
CB. IX.
## p. 256 (#286) ############################################
256
The Franks
(383–389
a
led his army against him and defeated him at Liscia and Pettau. In the
end the usurper was taken prisoner and killed at Aquileia. Theodosius
now appointed Valentinian II, Gratian's youthful brother, Emperor of
the West, only reserving for himself the co-regency of Italy. He then
sent his experienced general Arbogast into Gaul, where the Teutons
from the right bank of the Rhine had seized the occasion offered by the
quarrel for the throne to extend their power beyond the frontier.
Three chiefs of the Ripuarian Franks, Genobaudes, Marcomir and
Sunno, had indeed crossed the Rhine in the neighbourhood of Cologne
and made a raid upon the Roman territory. When the Roman generals
Nannienus and Quintinus went to meet the raiders at Cologne, one part
of them left the borderland of the province, whilst the others continued
their march into the country, till they were at last beaten back in the
Carbonarian forest (to the east of Tournai). Quintinus now proceeded to
attack the enemy and crossed the Rhine at Novaesium (Neuss). But after
pushing forward for three days into the wild and pathless regions on
the right bank of the Rhine, he was decoyed into an ambush, in which
almost the whole of his army perished. Thus it appeared likely that the
Roman rule in the Rhenish provinces would before long be completely
overthrown; for the generals Carietto and Syrus, whom Maximus had
left behind, found it impossible to put a stop to the barbarian raids.
At this juncture Arbogast was sent by Theodosius to save the West.
His first act was to capture Flavius Victor, the infant son of Maximus, and
to have him put to death. Then he reinforced his army with those
troops which Maximus had left stationed in Gaul, and which together
with their generals Carietto and Syrus were easily won over to his side.
Last of all he turned against his former tribesmen, the Franks, and
demanded from them the restitution of the booty and surrender of the
originators of the war. When these demands were refused, he hesitated
to begin war by himself. He found it difficult to come to a decision, for
the fate of Quintinus' troops was still fresh in his memory. In these
straits he wrote to the Emperor Valentinian II, who seems to have urged
a friendly settlement of the feuds; for in the autumn of 389 Arbogast
had an interview with Marcomir and Sunno. The Franks, possibly
fearing the mighty Theodosius, gave hostages, and a treaty of peace was
concluded which cannot have been unfavourable to the barbarians.
In this way the Western Empire shewed considerable indulgence in
its treatment of the Teutons. The Eastern Empire on the contrary, and
especially the Emperor, was soon directly and indirectly exposed to
serious troubles from the Visigoths. We know that the Goths had
extended their raids as far as Thessalonica. In this large town, the
second in importance in the Balkan peninsula, there existed a certain
amount of ill-feeling against the barbarians, which was greatly increased
by the fact that the highest offices, both civil and military, were chiefly
held by Teutons; moreover the town was garrisoned by Teuton soldiers.
## p. 257 (#287) ############################################
389–392]
The Massacre at Thessalonica
257
The innate pride of Greeks and Romans alike was deeply wounded by
this situation, and a very insignificant occurrence in the year 390 sufficed
to make their hatred burst into flames. It happened in the following
way. Botherich, the commandant of the town, had imprisoned a very
popular charioteer and refused to set him free, when the people clamoured
for his deliverance because of the approaching circus-games. This caused
a rising against the obnoxious barbarian in which he lost his life. At
the time of this incident the Emperor Theodosius was at Milan where he
had frequent intercourse with the influential bishop Ambrose; this was
not without its effect upon him, though in his innermost heart the
Emperor as a secular autocrat could not but be opposed to ecclesiastical
pretensions. Although Theodosius inclined by nature to leniency, or
at any rate made a show of that quality, in this case at least wrath
overcame every human feeling in him, and he resolved to chastise
the town in a way so cruel, that nothing can be put forward in
defence of it. When the people of Thessalonica were assembled in the
circus and absorbed in contemplation of the games soldiers suddenly
broke in and cut down all whom their swords could reach. For three
hours the slaughter went on, till the victims numbered 7000. The
Emperor himself, urged perhaps to mercy by Ambrose, had at the last
hour revoked his order, but it was too late. Probably Theodosius had
been led to this unspeakable cruelty by persons of his intimate acquaint-
ance among whom Rufinus played a prominent part. It seems that
Rufinus had been magister officiorum since 382; in 392 he rose to the
position of Praefectus Praetorio. When the news of this massacre
reached Milan, the Christian population of the town was paralysed with
terror. Ambrose left the town and addressed a letter of the utmost
gravity to Theodosius. He explained to him that his deed called for
penitence and warned him not to attend at church.
The proud
sovereign perceived that he would have to submit to the penitence
imposed on him, and obeyed the bishop's will. He did not leave Milan
till the following year; but before returning to the Eastern capital he
had to sustain a dangerous attack from the Goths in Thrace.
tähvad
In 390 the Visigoths broke the peace to which they had sworn, and
invaded Thrace; Huns and other tribes from beyond the Danube had
thrown in their lot with them. They were commanded by Alaric, a
prince of the Visigoths, belonging to the family of the Balti. This is
the first appearance of Alaric, who was then about twenty years of age,
,
and whose great campaigns subsequently excited such terror throughout
the Roman Empire. But even then the Thracians appear to have been
in great distress: for (1 July 391) Theodosius issued an edict at Aquileia,
by which the inhabitants of the endangered district received permission
to carry arms and to kill anybody found marauding in the open
country. After Theodosius had entered the province, he took great
pains to destroy the bands of marauders, and himself assisted in their
17
6. HDD. H. v0L. 1. CH. IX.
## p. 258 (#288) ############################################
258
Arbogast
[391–392
pursuit. On the Maritza, however, he fell into an ambush and was
completely defeated. Even his life seems to have been in danger, but he
was rescued by his general Promotus. The latter continued the war
against the Goths till the end of 391, though he had apparently fallen
into disfavour at Court. He lost his life in the war, and public opinion
at the capital attributed his death to Rufinus. Stilicho the Vandal now
became commander of the troops in Thrace. He was born about 360,
and had at an early age been attached to an embassy to Persia. After-
wards Theodosius had given him his niece Serena in marriage and
promoted him step by step. He was considered to be one of the ablest
statesmen in the Eastern Empire, and the military command entrusted
to him in 392 was destined to increase the importance of his position.
For he succeeded at length in defeating the enemy, who for so long a
time had been the terror of the Empire. The Goths were surrounded
on the Maritza. But again the Emperor shewed mercy and gave orders
that the enemy should be permitted to go free. Theodosius' policy may
probably be attributed to a certain fear of revenge, and it was doubtless
influenced by Rufinus, who did not wish Stilicho to become too
powerful. Thus a treaty with the vanquished Goths was concluded.
Meanwhile Arbogast had embarked upon a most ambitious course
of politics. His aim was to get rid of the young and irresolute
Valentinian II. Not indeed that he himself wished for the imperial crown,
for he very likely felt its possession to be®undesirable. His idea was to
get Valentinian II out of the way, and then assist to the imperial throne
some one of his ardent devotees, under whose name he himself hoped to
wield the supreme power. For the attainment of this end, his first
requisite was a trustworthy army. He therefore levied a large number
of Teuton troops, in whose loyalty he could place the utmost confidence.
When Valentinian took up his abode in Gaul, the relations between him
and the powerful Frank became more and more strained, till finally the
Emperor from his throne handed to his rival a written order, demanding
that he should resign his post. Arbogast tore the document in pieces
before the eyes of the Emperor, whose days were thenceforth numbered.
On 15 May 392 the youthful sovereign was assassinated at Vienne; but
whether Arbogast was directly responsible for this deed remains uncer-
tain. The way was now clear for the Frank's ambitious plans. A short
time previously the Frank Richomer had recommended to his tribesman
Arbogast the head of the imperial chancery, the magister scriniorum
Eugenius. This Roman, formerly a rhetorician and grammarian, was
the man whom Arbogast intended to raise to the imperial throne.
Eugenius could not but yield to the mighty man's wish. He therefore
sent an embassy to Theodosius in 392 to obtain his recognition. But
Theodosius gave an evasive answer; and as there was every prospect of a
war, Arbogast deemed it necessary to make provision for a safe retreat.
We know that the neighbourhood of the Franks formed a very vulnerable
## p. 259 (#289) ############################################
392–395]
Battle of the Frigidus
259
1
point of the Roman government in Gaul. For this reason in the winter
of 392 Arbogast undertook a campaign against these dangerous
neighbours. He probably hoped at the same time to reinforce his army
with Frankish troops, should he be successful in this war. He pushed
on through Cologne and the country along the river Lippe into the
territory of the Bructeri and Chamavi, after which he turned eastward
against the Ampsivarii, who had joined forces with the Chatti under
Marcomir. Apparently he met with but little resistance, for in the spring
of 393 Eugenius succeeded in concluding treaties with the Franks and
even the Alemanni, on condition that they supplied him with troops.
The ensuing period was spent in preparation for war in both Empires,
Eugenius having been, thanks to Arbogast's influence, recognised as
Emperor in Italy also. Theodosius had reinforced his army more
especially with Teutons; the Visigoths were again commanded by Alaric,
whilst the leaders of the other foederati were Gaïnas, Saul and the
comes domesticorum Bacurius, an Armenian. The meeting of the two
armies took place 5 Sept. 394 on the Frigidus, a tributary of the
Isonza, probably the Hubel. As the Gothic troops formed the vanguard
and opened the attack on the enemy, who were posted very favourably,
they suffered severe losses on the first day of the battle, which greatly
elated the Westerns. On the second day the battle would in all
probability have been decided in favour of Arbogast, had not his
general Arbitrio, who commanded the Frankish troops, gone over to
Theodosius. It is related besides, that a violent storm from the north-
east—the Bora, as it is called—wrought such havoc in the ranks of
Eugenius' army, that it helped Theodosius to gain a complete victory.
Eugenius was taken prisoner and put to death, and Arbogast escaped
into the mountains, where he died by his own hand (8 Sept. ). But whilst
the relations and followers of Eugenius and Arbogast were pardoned,
Alaric waited in vain for the post in the Roman army, which Theodosius
had promised him; and when (17 Jan. 395) Theodosius died at Milan,
still in the prime of life, the Goths were sent home by Stilicho, who had
been second in command during the war. To make matters worse, the
yearly payments which had hitherto been made to the Goths, were now
injudiciously held back. These various causes combined to disturb the
peace between the Romans and Goths, which had so far been tolerably
well preserved, and the Goths once more commenced hostilities.
The time for a general rising seemed to be well chosen. Theodosius,
whose strong hand had endeavoured to maintain the peace within the
Empire, was now no more, and his sons were yet of tender age.
The
late Emperor had been the last to reign over the whole Empire. And
even he, powerless to stay its decline, had been obliged to cede to the
Goths an extensive district within its borders. How important the
Teutonic element had grown can best be understood from the fact that
the Teutons not only furnished the best part of the troops, but also
SH Ix.
17-2
## p. 260 (#290) ############################################
260
Division of the Empire
[395
ever.
commanded the armies and held the highest appointments, both civil and
military. Now that Theodosius was dead, the Empire was divided for
At an age of hardly eighteen years his son Arcadius received the
Empire of the East under the guidance of Rufinus, who had in 394, during
the absence of Theodosius, been entrusted with the regency as well as
with the supreme direction of Arcadius. On 27 April 395, to Rufinus'
great vexation, the young Emperor married Eudoxia, who had been
brought to him by Eutropius, the eunuch of the palace. She was the
daughter of Bauto, the Frank who had played an important part under
Gratian and Valentinian. In the course of the same year Rufinus was most
cruelly slain by the soldiers whom Gaïnas had but recently led back to
Constantinople. After his death Eutropius stood in high favour with
the Emperor. He received the office of High Chamberlain (praepositus
sacri cubiculi) and later on the title patricius. The younger son
Honorius, who was in his eleventh year, received the Western Empire.
Stilicho was appointed his guardian and also regent. He had been
raised to the rank of magister utriusque militiae by Theodosius before his
death, and, as we saw, had married a niece of the Emperor. This
capable man was no doubt better fitted than any other to rule the
Empire in the spirit of Theodosius, and when the Emperor died it was
he who without delay hurried to the Rhine to receive homage for
Honorius from the Teuton tribes, even as far as the Batavi. Apparently
on this journey King Marcomir was delivered into his hands, and was
sent into exile to Tuscany. After this Stilicho immediately returned to
Italy.
Meanwhile the Visigoths had broken loose from Moesia.
Those of
their tribesmen who had formerly accompanied Alaric to Transylvania
had joined them and chosen Alaric, whose power at that time, however,
was still limited, as leader in the coming war. This war was fraught
with danger for the Eastern Empire, for it appears that in the early
spring of 395 the whole mass of the Visigoths marched south towards
Constantinople. As before, there could of course be no question
of capturing the city, but the surrounding country was mercilessly
devastated. It is most probable that Rufinus, who paid repeated visits
to the hostile camp, bribed the enemy to retire. Alaric now made his way
along the coast to Macedonia and Thessaly. Near Larissa he encountered
Stilicho, who had left Italy with strong forces. These were the victorious
East-Roman soldiers, whom he was leading home to their own country,
hoping at the same time to win back Illyria for the Western Empire.
This province, though given to Theodosius by Gratian, was said to have
been restored by the former a short time before his death. Apparently
the Goths had first of all tried to gain the valley of the Peneus, the Vale
of Tempe ; but meeting with resistance, they had pushed on across the
eastern slopes of Olympus into Thessaly, where they barricaded them-
selves behind their wagons. Stilicho was on the point of attacking
## p. 261 (#291) ############################################
396–397
Alaric in Greece
261
them when he received a message from Arcadius, ordering him to dismiss
the army of the Eastern Empire, and himself return to Italy. If at
first sight this order seems strange, it is because we have long been
accustomed to see in Stilicho a disinterested statesman and general, who
dedicated his labour and personality to the family of Theodosius. This
disposition of Eastern Illyria, which Theodosius was supposed to have
made shortly before his death, is however very doubtful, and it is certain
that Stilicho had entertained personal ambitions with regard to that
province. Viewed in the light of these circumstances, the order from
Arcadius appears in a very different light, especially if to this is added
the fact that in the same year the Huns had broken through the gates
of the Caucasus at Baku on the Caspian Sea and reached Syria by way of
Armenia. There they laid siege to Antioch and proceeded thence to
Asia Minor. Ravages of every kind marked their way. In this situation
it was an absolute necessity for the welfare of the State that the army
should return to its own country. Stilicho obeyed the order, because, as
has justly been remarked, he was probably uncertain about the future
conduct of the East-Roman troops, a section of whom remained in
Greece under Gerontius' command to cover Thermopylae. Alaric, how-
ever, assisted perhaps by treachery, took possession of this famous pass
without difficulty. After this the Goths marched through Boeotia into
Attica. Here Alaric succeeded in seizing the Piraeus, and forced Athens
to capitulate by cutting off her supplies. It is probable that she escaped
pillage by the payment of a sum of money ; Alaric stayed for a short
time peacefully within her walls. From Athens the march of the Goths
was continued to Eleusis, where they ransacked the temple of Demeter,
and further to Megara, which was quickly taken. Gerontius had left the
entrance to the Peloponnesus undefended, and the Gothic hordes,
meeting with no resistance, broke like a torrent upon Corinth and thence
on Argos and Sparta. Many an ancient work of art must have perished
in this rush, but no mention is made of any systematic and wilful
destruction of the ancient monuments.
It is a curious fact, that after all this the East-Roman government
seems neither to have made war against the Huns, who had invaded
Asia, nor to have lent assistance to the Greeks, when Gerontius had so
utterly failed to do his duty at Thermopylae and the Isthmus. Help
came rather from another quarter, and primarily, it must be owned,
with a different purpose in view. Though Stilicho had returned to
Italy, he had been kept well informed about events in Greece. As he
himself had designs on East-Illyria, to which Epirus and Achaia
belonged, and as Alaric was to all appearances endeavouring to create an
independent sovereignty in these provinces, it was imperative for the
vicegerent of the West to interfere. In 397 he transported an army to
Greece, and, landing on the south side of Corinth, expelled the Goths
from Arcadia and surrounded them at Elis near the Alpheus on the
H. I.
## p. 262 (#292) ############################################
262
Revolt of Gaïnas
(
394-399
plateau of Pholoe. But no decisive battle was fought, for Stilicho was
not sufficiently master of his own troops, and just then the revolt of the
Moorish prince Gildo threatened to become a serious danger to the
Western Empire. Gildo had formerly been praefect of Mauretania and
had subsequently been raised to the office of magister utriusque militiae.
In the year 394 he began his revolt, whereby he intended to secure the
North coast of Africa as a dominion of his own, and in 397 he offered
Africa as a feudal province to the Eastern Empire, hoping thereby to
kindle war between the two Empires. In this predicament Stilicho
avoided a decisive encounter with the Goths. For the second time he
allowed his adversary to escape. He even concluded a treaty with
Alaric, which doubtless contained an alliance against the Eastern
Empire; for in these precarious circumstances the chief of the brave
Goths might possibly prove of great service to Stilicho in his ambitious
private policy. The effect of these conditions on the mutual relations
of the two Empires was soon apparent. At Constantinople Stilicho was
declared an enemy of the State, whilst in the Western Empire the
consulship of Eutropius, who had been nominated for 399 and had
entirely won the favour of Arcadius, was not acknowledged. Before his
death Theodosius had so arranged the division of the Empire that the
cohesion of the whole might for the future be firmly and permanently
secured. Thus the first deep cleft had been made in a union which
was already difficult to maintain. Neither Empire had a permanent
diplomatic representation ; only special embassies were sent from time
to time, so that unfounded suspicions were very likely to arise on
either side.
At this time, while Stilicho was sailing back in haste from Greece to
Italy to prepare for war against Gildo, the Goths made a raid into
Epirus, which they devastated in a terrible manner. At last the
government at Constantinople was roused sufficiently to make proposals
of peace to Alaric. In return for a sum of money and the position of
magister militum in Illyria, Alaric withdrew from the alliance with
Stilicho, made peace with the Eastern Empire and occupied Epirus,
which had been assigned to him, with his Gothic troops. Another
trouble for the Eastern Empire at this time arose from the large number
of Goths who served in the army, and more especially through their
leader Gaïnas. At his command they had killed Rufinus in 395.
When Eutropius did not reward him for his services with the high
military office he coveted, he joined a rebellion of his compatriot
Tribigild in Phrygia, against whom he had been sent out with an army.
For after the fall and execution of the powerful favourite Eutropius in
the summer of 399, a national movement was set on foot at Constan-
tinople, having for its object the abolition of foreign influence in the
high government offices ; Aurelianus, Eutropius' successor, was at the
head of this movement. But the Roman supremacy was not destined to
## p. 263 (#293) ############################################
400]
Revolts of Gaïnas and Gildo
263
be revived. The Gothic rebellion in Asia Minor grew more and more
alarming, and Arcadius was soon obliged to negotiate with Gaïnas.
During an interview with the Emperor, the Goth succeeded in obtaining
his nomination to the post of magister militum praesentalis and the
extradition of the three leaders of the national party, one of whom was
Aurelianus. On his subsequent return to the capital, Gaïnas could
consider himself master of the Empire, and as such demanded of the
Emperor a place of worship for the Arian Goths. But the famous
theologian and bishop, John Chrysostom, contrived to avert this danger
to the orthodox Church. But the power of Gainas was not to be of
long duration. When in July 400 he left the town with the majority
of the Goths, owing to a feeling of insecurity, the inhabitants rose
against those who had been left behind. At last no refuge remained to
them except the church they had lately been given. In its ruins they
were burned, as Gaïnas failed to come to their rescue in time to storm
the city. Gaïnas was declared a public enemy, and the pursuit was
entrusted to his tribesman Fravitta, who so far carried out his order that
he followed Gaïnas to Thrace and the Hellespont, and prevented him
from crossing to Asia. Eventually, at the end of the year 400, Gaïnas
was killed on the further side of the Danube by a chief of the Huns,
called Uldin, who sent his head to Constantinople.
Nothing is more characteristic of the impotence of the Eastern
Empire, than the revolt of this Gothic general, whose downfall was only
secured by a combination of favourable circumstances. The clever and
valiant Goth succumbed only to strangers ; the Empire itself had no
means to overthrow him.
Such were the conditions at the dawn of the new century; the last
twenty-five years of the old having brought nothing but war, poverty,
and depopulation to the Eastern Empire. It is true that for the
Western Empire the century had closed more favourably; the campaign
against Gildo especially had been prepared by Stilicho with characteristic
ability. This Moorish prince, after putting to death the sons of his
brother Mascezel, who had gone to Italy, had proceeded to conquer the
North of Africa. Only the large and fortified towns could resist his
ever-increasing power. He created great anxiety in Rome by cutting
off her African corn-supply; but the danger of a famine was averted by
Stilicho, who succeeded in having corn brought by sea from Gaul and
Spain. When his preparations for war were completed, Stilicho did not
at this critical time put himself at the head of the army, but resigned
the supreme command to Mascezel. The army was not large, but it
seems that Stilicho relied upon the skill of its commander for entering
into secret relations with the leaders of the enemy. Mascezel departed
for Africa, where the campaign was decided between Tebeste and
Ammedera on the Ardalio, a tributary of the Bagradas. Apparently no
real battle was fought, but Gildo's troops went over to the enemy
fled
or
CH. A.
## p. 264 (#294) ############################################
264
Stilicho's Position
[398–401
into the mountains. Gildo himself first tried to escape by sea, but
returned to land and soon after met his death at Tabraca. These wars
against the two rebels Gaïnas and Gildo so excited the imagination of
the contemporary world, that they formed the subject of many poetical
productions. Of these “The Egyptians or On Providence," a novel by
Synesius of Cyrene, and Claudian's “War against Gildo” are preserved.
With the year 401, however, there began for the Western Empire
a period similar to that which the Eastern Empire had already so
long endured. The Teutons began to press forward in dense masses
against the provinces of the Western Empire, which they had so long
spared, and finally effected the complete dissolution of that once so
mighty realm. But this time the disturbance did not proceed from the
Goths only; other tribes also were involved in the movement, which
could no longer be restrained, and the danger to the Empire grew in
proportion. In the first place Alaric had made use of the short time of
his alliance with the Eastern Empire to increase his power, chiefly by
re-arming his Goths from the Roman arsenals. His plan of founding an
independent kingdom for himself in Greece had failed, and it probably
seemed most tempting to him to transfer his attentions to Italy, whose
resources were not yet so completely drained by the Goths. No doubt
Stilicho ruled there with a firm hand. He had in 398 created for
himself an unassailable position by giving his daughter Maria, a mere
child, in marriage to the Emperor Honorius, who was then fourteen
years of age. But apparently Alaric did not fear the power of Stilicho,
.
who had twice allowed him to escape from a most critical position;
furthermore the Western Empire was just now engaged in a different
direction. In the year 401, the Vandals, who had long ago settled in
.
the regions between the Danube and the Theiss, began to grow restless.
On account of their increasing population the majority of them had
resolved to emigrate with their king Godigisel, retaining at the same
time the right of possession over their old dominions. They were joined
by Alani from Pannonia, and in the same year this new wave of migration
reached Rhaetia by way of Noricum. Stilicho at first opposed them,
but was eventually obliged to grant them territories in Noricum and
Vindelicia under the suzerainty of Rome, in return for which they bound
themselves to serve in the Roman army.
By this time Alaric had already left Epirus far behind and reached
Aquileia by way of Aemona and the Birnbaum forest. This invasion of
Italy by the barbarians caused great consternation; the fortifications of
Rome were repaired and strengthened, and the young Emperor Honorius
even contemplated an escape into Gaul. Venetia was already in the
enemy's hands, and the road to Milan was occupied by the Goths.
Honorius was staying in this city, Alaric naturally desired above all to
take possession of it. But Stilicho came to the rescue. He had rein-
forced his army with the Vandals and Alani with whom he had just
## p. 265 (#295) ############################################
402—406]
Battle of Pollentia
265
made
peace, and Alaric was forced to abandon the siege of Milan. He
now tried to gain the coast in order to reach Rome. With Stilicho at
his heels he turned to Ticinum and Hasta and thence to Pollentia.
Here (6 April 402) a battle was fought in the early stages of which it
seemed likely that the Romans would be defeated, as Saul, the Roman
general of the Alani, had begun the battle prematurely. But the appear-
ance of Stilicho with the main body of infantry changed the aspect of affairs.
The fight was continued until nightfall, but though the Romans were
left in possession of the field and took numerous prisoners, Stilicho can
hardly be said to have gained a victory. For Alaric's forces retreated in
perfect order and were able to continue their march on Rome. In this
crisis Stilicho was obliged to come to terms with Alaric. The Gothic
chief was raised to the rank of magister militum and promised to evacuate
Italy. For the future the two generals arranged to conquer Eastern
Illyria for the Western Empire. This treaty, which put a considerable
check on the movements of the Goths, is explained not only by the state
of affairs at that time, but also by the fact that Alaric's wife and
children had been made prisoners during the battle. The Goths now
left Italy, but remained close to the frontier, and made a fresh invasion
in 403. This time Alaric tried to lay siege to Verona, but was defeated
by Stilicho, and on trying to gain Rhaetia by way of the Brenner again
found himself in a very dangerous plight, from which he could only
extricate himself by concluding a new treaty with Stilicho against the
Eastern Empire. Probably it was at this juncture that Sarus the
Visigothic prince with his followers went over to Stilicho, a desertion
which must be ascribed to Stilicho's diplomatic skill. The uncertainty
of the situation may account for the very remarkable fact that Stilicho
suffered the enemy to escape so often from his fatal embrace. Be that
as it may, the Goths withdrew, and Stilicho could celebrate a brilliant
triumph with Honorius. Alaric, however, does not appear to have
returned to Epirus till much later, but remained for some time in the
neighbourhood of Illyria.
In the following year (405) the Ostrogoths and Vandals, the Alani
and the Quadi under the leadership of Radagaisus left their homes,
crossed the Alps, and descended into Italy. Their number, though much
exaggerated by contemporary historians, must have been considerable ;
for the hostile army marched through the North of the peninsula in
several divisions. Stilicho seems to have collected his troops at Pavia ;
the invasion happened at a very inopportune moment, as he was about to
carry out his designs on Eastern Illyria. This time, however, he quickly
succeeded in ridding himself of the enemy. He surrounded Radagaisus
who had attacked Florence, in the narrow valleys of the Apennines near
Faesulae, and destroyed a large part of his army. Radagaisus himself
was captured with his sons whilst trying to escape, and was shortly
afterwards executed. For this victory Stilicho's thanks were chiefly due
SH.
## p. 266 (#296) ############################################
266
Barbarian Invasion of Gaul
[
406
to two foreign generals, Sarus the Goth, and Uldin the Hun. In this
manner Italy had indeed been speedily saved from great danger, but at the
end of the next year (406) hostile hordes broke into Gaul with so much
the greater violence. It is very probable that this invasion, which was
undertaken by the Vandals, had some connexion with that of Radagaisus.
In conjunction with the Vandals were the Alani, who had recently formed
an alliance with them, and the Suevi, by whom we must understand the
Quadi, who had formerly dwelt north of the Vandals. This great tribal
migration, following the road along the Roman frontier (limes), reached
the river Main, where they met the Silingi, a Vandal tribe which had
gone westward with the Burgundians in the third century. These now
helped to swell the Vandal hordes, whilst a part of the Alani under the
leadership of Goar enlisted in the Roman army on the Rhine. Near this
river the Vandals were attacked by some Frankish tribes, who were
keeping guard on the frontier, in accordance with their treaty with
Stilicho. In the ensuing fight the Vandals suffered severe losses, their
king Godigisel being among the slain. On receiving this news the Alani
immediately turned about, and, led by their king Respendial, they
completely routed the Franks. On the last day of 406 this mass of
people crossed the Rhine at Mainz, which they invested and destroyed.
The march was continued by Trèves to Rheims, where the bishop
Nicasius was slain in his own church; thence to Tournai, Terouenne, Arras
and Amiens. From this point the journey proceeded through Gallia
Lugdunensis to Paris, Orleans, and Tours, and, passing through Aquitania
into Novempopulana, by Bordeaux to Toulouse, which the bishop
Exuperius saved from falling into the enemies' hands. But the fortified
passes of the Pyrenees put a stop to their further advance. Thus Spain
remained unconquered for the present, and the Vandals now made their
way into the rich province of Narbonensis. The devastation of the
extensive provinces and the conquered cities of Gaul was terrible;
contemporary writers of prose and verse alike complain bitterly of the
atrocities committed by the barbarians in this unhappy country. The
oldest people could not remember so disastrous an invasion. The
weakness of the Empire is revealed by the absence of a Roman army to
oppose the Germans. Stilicho's policy was at that time directed towards
Illyria, and for this reason he probably found it impossible to come to
the assistance of Gaul.
This first great danger was soon followed by a second. The migration
of the Vandals had very likely caused the Burgundians along the middle
course of the Main to become restless ; they now began to bear down
upon the Alemanni on the lower Main. A part of the Burgundians had
perhaps intended to join the great migration of 406, for shortly after we
meet with them on the west side of the Rhine. The most important
result, however, was, that the Alemanni now entered on a campaign
against Roman Upper Germany, and conquered Worms, Speier, and
## p. 267 (#297) ############################################
406–407]
The usurper Constantine
267
a
The new
Strassburg. Here again the Empire failed to send help, and the allied
Franks remained quiet. Stilicho meanwhile collected an army in 406
and arranged a plan with Alaric, by which he could carry out his Illyrian
projects from Epirus. Already a Praefectus Praetorio for Illyria had
been nominated in the person of Jovius, when in the year 407 an event
occurred which threw everything else into the background. A new
emperor appeared on the scene. When a rumour had spread, that
Alaric was dead, the legions in Britain after two unsuccessful attempts?
proclaimed Constantine emperor. According to Orosius, he was
common soldier, but his name excited hopes for better times.
Emperor crossed over to Gaul without delay, where he was recognised by
the Roman troops throughout the country. He immediately pushed
forward into the districts along the Rhone, where, though he probably
concluded treaties with the Alemanni, Burgundians and Franks, he made
but little impression on the Teutons who had invaded the land. But
Stilicho had already sent the experienced general Sarus with an army
against him. In the neighbourhood of Valence, which Constantine had
made his temporary abode, his general Justinian was defeated and killed
in battle by Sarus. Another of the usurper's generals met his death soon
afterwards during an interview with the crafty Goth. When, however,
Constantine sent against him his newly appointed generals, the Frank
Edobic and the Briton Gerontius, Sarus abandoned the siege of Valence
and effected a passage into Italy by paying a sum of money to the
fugitive peasants called Bagaudae, who at that time held the passes of
the Western Alps. Stilicho joined Honorius at Rome to discuss the
serious situation. Constantine, however, directed his attention towards
Spain, evidently with a view to protect his rear before attacking Italy.
At the passes across the Pyrenees he met with energetic resistance from
Didymus, Verenianus, Theodosius, and Logadius, all relatives of the
Emperor. But Constantine’s son Constans soon overcame the enemy;
he captured Verenianus and Didymus, whilst Theodosius and Logadius
fed, the former to Italy, the latter to the East. After this, when
Constans had returned to Gaul in triumph, he entrusted the passes to
Gerontius, who was in command of the Honorians, a troop of barbarian
foederati. These, it appears, fulfilled their duty but indifferently, for
during the quarrels which ensued in the borderlands the Vandals, Alani
and Suevi, who had pushed on as far as southern Gaul, saw an oppor-
tunity of executing their design on Spain.
With these disturbances in Spain is generally connected a great rising
of the Celts in Britain and Gaul, which was directed against the
advancing Teutonic tribes as well as against the Roman rule, and in
which the Gaulish district of Armorica was specially concerned. Thus
1 First a man named Marcus and after him Gratian, a British official, had
been declared emperors ; both however were after a short time put to death by the
soldiers.
a
m. IX.
## p. 268 (#298) ############################################
268
Alaric
[408
was prepared in these provinces the separation from the Roman govern-
ment which had lasted for centuries, and at the same time Teutonic rule
superseded that of the Romans in Spain.
Meanwhile Alaric had not failed to profit by the violent disturbances
within the Western Empire. As Stilicho had neither undertaken the
campaign against Illyria nor met the demands of the Gothic soldiers
for their pay, Alaric believed himself entitled to deal a powerful blow
,
at the Western Empire. Stilicho had recently strengthened his relations
with the imperial house by a new link. The Empress Maria had died
.
early, still a virgin as rumour went, and Stilicho succeeded in persuading
the Emperor to marry his second daughter Thermantia. Now Alaric
tried to force his way into Italy. He had left Epirus and reached
Aemona. There he probably found the roads to the South barred; he
therefore crossed the river Aquilis and made his way to Virunum in
Noricum, whence he sent an embassy to Stilicho at Ravenna. The
ambassadors demanded the enormous sum of four thousand pounds of
gold as compensation for the long delay in Epirus and the present
campaign of the Goths. Stilicho went to Rome to discuss the matter
with the Emperor and the Senate. The majority of the Senate was
opposed to the concession of this demand and would have preferred war
with the Goths, but Stilicho's power in the assembly was still so great
that his opinion prevailed and the huge sum was paid. At this juncture
the rumour spread that the Emperor of the East was dead. Arcadius
had indeed died (1 May 408). This greatly altered the situation, for
Theodosius II, the heir to the Eastern throne, was but a child of seven.
Honorius now decided to go to Ravenna, but was opposed by Stilicho,
who wanted himself to inspect the troops there. But neither did
Stilicho succeed in dissuading Honorius nor could a mutiny among
the soldiers at Ravenna, which Sarus had promoted, induce the
Emperor to desist from his plan. Nevertheless he eventually diverged
from the route to Ravenna, and went to Bologna, where he ordered
Stilicho to meet him for the purpose of discussing the situation in
the East.
Stilicho's first concern at Bologna was to calm the agitation amongst
the soldiers and recommend the ringleaders to the Emperor's mercy ;
then he took counsel with Honorius. It was the Emperor's wish to go
in person to Constantinople and settle the affairs of the Eastern Empire,
but Stilicho tried to turn him from this purpose, pointing out that the
journey would cause too much expense, and that the Emperor could not
well leave Italy whilst Constantine was as yet powerful and residing
at Arles. Honorius bent his will to the prudent counsel of his great
statesman, and it was resolved that Stilicho should go to the East, whilst
Alaric was sent with an army to Gaul against Constantine. Stilicho,
however, neither departed for the East nor did he gather together the
troops which remained assembled at Pavia, and were ill-disposed towards
a
## p. 269 (#299) ############################################
408]
Fall of Stilicho
269
him. Meanwhile a cunning Greek, the chancellor Olympius, profited by
the change in the Emperor's feelings towards his great minister. Under
the mask of Christian piety he secretly intrigued against Stilicho in
order to undermine his position. Thus Olympius accompanied the
Emperor to Pavia and on this occasion spread the calumnious report,
that Stilicho intended to kill the child Theodosius and put his own son
Eucherius on the throne. The storm now gathered over Stilicho's head.
The prelude to the catastrophe, however, took place at Pavia.
When the Emperor had arrived with Olympius at this town, the
latter made an exhibition of his philanthropy by visiting the sick
soldiers; probably his real object was to gather the threads of the
conspiracy which he had already spun and to weave them further.
