No More Learning

While reconnoitring the position he saw some villagers come
I For a-description see G. Yazdani, Mandu, 1929.
2 In 22° 29' N. , 73° 32' E.


## p. 25 (#57) ##############################################

FAILURE TO HOLD GUJARAT
25
out of the woods and as their explanations were not satisfactory he
had them beaten. They then guided the Mughuls to the foot of the
walls. Though these could not be breached Humayun at once devised
a means of scaling them by driving spikes into the mortar between
the stones, and on a moonlight night, while a furious attack was made
on other parts of the fortress 300 men climbed the wall, Humayun
himself being the fortieth. This unexpected attack inside the citadel,
with the news that the emperor himself was in command, terrified
the defenders, who allowed Humayun's party to capture a gate.
Ikhtiyar Khan although safe in the upper fort had not sufficient
munitions there to prolong his resistance and was forced to surrender
on 9 August, 1535. Since its foundation Champaner had been a
repository for the treasure of the Gujarat kings and Humayun's army
was enriched by great booty. One of Bahadur Shah's officers whom
Humayun plied with drink, instead of putting to the torture as his
counsellors advised, revealed great treasures hidden in a reservoir
and well. The capture of the two celebrated forts at Mandu and
Champaner so delighted Humayun that he commemorated his vic-
lories by striking coin at these places.
While Humayun had thus beaten down open resistance, had taken
strongholds and had assumed the outward appearance of sovereignty,
he took no steps to consolidate his rule and wasted months in revelry
and enjoyment of his booty. An army sent by Shah Husain of Sind
to help in his campaign against Gujarat was diverted by a bribe
offered by the governor of Patan in the north of the kingdom who stili
held out for Bahadur Shah, and it finally returned as Shah Husain
feared that his troops might be corrupted by the luxury of the imperial
army. Bahadur Shah in his retreat at Diu was approached by the
chiefs in the north of his lost kingdom, who offered to remit their land
revenue to him as the Mughuls were taking no steps to collect it.
He commissioned 'Imad-ul-Mulk to march to Ahmadabad with full
powers over collection and remission. As the new governor progressed,
taking steps to restore administration, he was joined by considerable
forces and was able to recruit more by using the funds he had col-
lected. Humayun, though he easily fell into habits of sloth and
luxury during success, could always rouse himself when danger was
apparent. He marshalled forces and sending his brother 'Askari in
advance went to meet 'Imad-ul-Mulk. Although the latter was able
to surprise 'Askari at a disadvantage and plunder his camp, the
Mughul army reformed and won the battle which ensued. Humayun
then advanced to and occupied Ahmadabad and at last took steps
to organise the newly acquired province. He placed 'Askari in charge
as viceroy with Hindu Beg, an experienced general, to aid him and
appointed officials to other posts. His advisers pressed him in view
of the disturbances and rebellion which were taking part in the east
of his realm to restore Gujarat to Bahadur Shah. So far was he from


## p. 26 (#58) ##############################################

26
HUMAYUN
taking this sound advice that he planned to attack Diu where Bahadur
Shah was sheltering.
Malwa had been left in such haste, with no arrangements for the
proper government of the province, that it had been invaded by
former officials and the Mughul troops had been driven to Ujjain.
Humayun decided to return to Mandu which had greatly attracted
him, and his arrival there was sufficient for the time to quell opposi-
tion. His departure from Gujarat was, however, the signal for
disaster in that tract; Bahadur Shah still had a fleet, and his people
held one or two ports on the coast. With help from the Portuguese
and a body of African slaves he was able to re-establish a stronger
footing and took town after town. There was no master mind to
direct the sending of reinforcements and 'Askari showed more dis-
position to call in troops to ensure his own safety than to help his
subordinates. Moreover, detachments of Gujarat forces left scattered
in the north and east when Bahadur Shah abandoned Chitor were
now coming together. Ghazanfar, who was a foster brother of
'Askari, deserted after being confined for a rude jest at the viceroy
and offered to disclose to Bahadur Shah full details of the Mughul
position at Ahmadabad, which he described as so precarious thai
*Askari would fly if attacked. The local chiefs in Gujarat, who had
found no reason to prefer the new rulers, also urged their former
king to return, promising him their assistance.
While Bahadur Shah was rallying his former subjects, collecting
troops and approaching Ahmadabad, his opponent 'Askari began to
lose heart. No help was to be expected from Humayun, and a section
of 'Askari's advisers urged him to declare himself independent of his
brother in the hope that such a measure would be popular in the
locality and an encouragement to the troops. Bahadur Shah had
arrived within a few miles of Ahmadabad and the Mughul army
moved out to meet him. Although 'Askari was not prepared to set
himself up against Humayun he was convinced that retreat was
necessary, and his counsellors planned to take what treasure was
left in Champaner and to make for Agra where they still hoped to
persuade 'Askari to assume the royal title. After a bombardment
which nearly led Bahadur Shah to execute Ghazanfar, as he had fore-
told no opposition, the Mughuls abandoned their camp and even
their private baggage and hastened towards Champaner. Their flight
encouraged Bahadur Shah to pursue them rapidly and even to attack
the rear-guard. This, however, turned on the Gujarat force with
such bravery that the Mughuls were able to reach the Mahi river,
and to cross it, though not without loss owing to the hastiness of their
flight. Thirty miles beyond it lay Champaner where 'Askari hoped
to secure treasure and supplies. In this he was disappointed, as Tardi
Beg, the governor, was faithful to Humayun, to whom he had already
sent news of the plan for 'Askari's independence. Accordingly, while


## p. 27 (#59) ##############################################

REVOLT IN THE EASTERN PROVINCES
27
he refreshed the troops he gave no access to the fort and in reply
to demands for its contents urged that he must await Humayun's
orders. Hindered in their plans the officers of the army now proposed
to seize Tardi Beg by stratagem, to take the treasure, and to proclaim
'Askari. Tardi Beg, however, evaded capture and bade them move.
As their camp still surrounded the fort he used his artillery and drove
them off towards Agra. News of their departure drew on Bahadur
Shah, who had halted at the river. Tardi Beg, either on instructions
from Humayun or unwilling in the circumstances to stand a siege,
then carried off as much of the treasure as he could to Mandu where
he was praised for his bravery by the emperor. Thus ended for the
time the Mughul occupation of Gujarat which had lasted barely more
than a year (1535-6).
Impressed by the fuller news which Tardi Beg was able to give
him Humayun was convinced of the necessity for action to save the
centre of his precarious rule. He hastily left Mandu and made for
Agra through Chitor territory where he met the disorganised force
of 'Askari. It was not a suitable time for recriminations and punish-
ment of disaffection. A sterner character might have swept aside a
father's dying injunctions, but Humayun knew that during his idle
sojourn in Malwa rebellion had broken out in the eastern provinces.
A fratricidal struggle would end all his hopes of restoring peace.
He therefore affected forgiveness and even rewarded the plotters,
before he marched with them to Agra. Very soon after his departure
from Malwa that province was seized by Mallu Khan who had once
been in the service of the kings of Malwa, and later governor after
the annexation by Gujarat. Mughul domination in western India
thus ceased entirely.
In the eastern provinces it was also becoming insecure. Muhammad
Sultan, who had been confined, with the additional sentence of
blinding, when he revolted with his cousin Muhammad Zaman
Mirza, had evaded the operation and later made his escape from
prison. He then established himself beyond the Ganges at Bilgram,
a few miles north of Kanauj, which he also took, while one of his
sons secured the country along the river as far as Manikpur and
another marched on Jaunpur. The danger of losing a rich province
led Hindal, the youngest brother of Humayun, who had been left
in charge at Agra, to proceed against the rebels. He soon retook
Kanauj, and though his crossing there was opposed he discovered
a ford higher up the river and passing over it unobserved met
Muhammad Sultan and defeated him before his sons could rejoin
their father. He then pursued the flying rebels as far as Ajodhya
and halted as he felt himself unable to attack the rebel whose forces
had been strengthened by the recall of his sons from their various
enterprises. The deadlock was relieved by news that Humayun was
1 See vol. IV, p. 369.


## p. 28 (#60) ##############################################

28
HUMAYUN
approaching Agra on his return from Malwa, and Muhammad Sultan
Mirza decided that his best chance of success was to fight before the
emperor's forces arrived. In the battle which ensued the rebels fared
the worse and being a collection of mercenaries with no common
bond except the hope of success they lost heart and began to desert.
Muhammad Sultan himself fied with his sons far into Bengal and
Hindal was able to occupy Jaunpur, where he stayed till Humayun
arrived at Agra and then joined him.
When Humayun had made his peace with Sher Khan after his
fruitless siege of Chunar, so that he might be free to pursue his
expedition against Gujarat he had taken with him by way of gua-
rantee a son of Sher Khan variously known as Qutb Khan or ‘Abdur-
Rashid with a small force of Afghans. The alliance was short and
Qutb Khan had deserted with his followers to join his father. And
while the emperor was engaged in what did not amount to more
than military promenades, or was sitting still to enjoy the temporary
gains of his enterprises, Sher Khan had consolidated his hold on
scuth Bihar without the slightest opposition by Mughul forces, whose
able commander Sultan Junaid Barlas was dead. Humayun after
his return to Agra remained there for a wasted year, at times medi-
tating the recovery of Gujarat and Malwa, where he had an offer
of help from the king of Ahmadnagar, but usually occupied with the
pleasures of social life, which were always apt to distract him from
serious affairs. It was not till the rainy season of 1537 had set in that
he started out to crush or at least check Sher Khan, having made
some attempt to settle the administration of the provinces he still
held. His naturally forgiving disposition, aided by the persuasion of his
sister, led him on the way to accept the submission of her husband
Muhammad Zaman, who after his unsuccessful attempt to rouse the
Punjab had also failed to seize the throne of Gujarat after the death
of Bahadur Shah. ? Travelling by boat along the Jumna and Ganges,
Humayun reached the strong fortress of Chunar which he besieged.
This ancient castle, founded on a steep rock jutting into the Ganges,
was built by the Hindus and strengthened by successive Muslim
rulers. It had come into Sher Khan's possession through his marriage
to a daughter of a governor and was held for him at this time by his
son Qutb Khan. As Humayun approached Qutb Khan withdrew
part of his forces to the forest-covered hills in the neighbourhood
from which he could harass the Mughuls. A siege of several months
ensued during which Rumi Khan, the Turkish gunner who had
deserted from the Gujarat army to join Humayun, made many
unsuccessful attempts to force an entry. Finally he obtained certain
information about the state of the defences by stratagem. An African
slave possessed of some ability and willing to endure hardship was
savagely flogged in the Mughul camp and then managed to enter
1 See chap. III, p. 50.
2 Vol. II, p. 334.


## p. 29 (#61) ##############################################

WAR WITH SHER KHAN
29
the fort, where he showed his wounds and offered to help the garrison
by advice on their defence in revenge for the treatment he had
received. He was thus allowed to inspect the fortifications, and
escaping after a few days was able to tell Rumi Khan where to direct
his fire. A floating battery was moved close to the fort and a breach
made. Though the first assault was driven back the garrison, seeing
the battery being repaired for further work, lost heart and yieldeci
under a promise of amnesty, but this was broken by one of the
Mughul leaders who had the hands of several hundred gunners struck
off. Rumi Khan who was appointed commandant for his services
held his post for only a few days, when he died suddenly, probably
poisoned at the instance of jealous rivals.
As an isolated military exploit the capture of Chunar was notable,
but it commanded no land routes and the time occupied in its
reduction was wasted. Sher Khan, having strengthened his position
in Bihar while Humayun was in western India, had advanced into
Bengal. He was held up for a time at the pass of Teliyagarhi by
the forces of Ghiyas-ud-din Mahmud of Bengal, but finally compelled
him to retreat to his capital at Gaur. During the blockade Mahmud
sought help from Humayun and receiving none fled by boat to
Hajipur and the city was taken soon after. Pursued by Sher Khan's
troops Mahmud barely escaped with his life and reached Humayun's
camp severely wounded. Humayun, after moving the short distance
from Chunar to Benares and halting there, had at last made up his
mind to prevent Sher Khan from acquiring further territory. He
therefore began his march eastwards and met Mahmud near the
confluence of the Son and Ganges (1538). Even now, though he
knew that Sher Khan had seized the capital and treasure of Bengal,
he first sent an envoy to Sher Khan offering him a governorship near
his home if he would surrender his new gains. When the envoy after
some delay returned he brought the news that Sher Khan was already
removing his booty to the hills of south Bihar. The rainy season
having set in Humayun's officers suggested a halt until the country
could be more easily traversed" but the emperor accepted the sug-
gestion of Mahmud that it was best to attack before Sher Khan had
consolidated his power. Accordingly the Mughul forces advanced
into a trap devised by the strategy of Sher Khan. When they reached
the difficult pass at Teliyagarhi they found it strongly defended by
Jalal Khan, a son of Sher Khan. Halting to reconnoitre they were
attacked by Jalal Khan, who had orders from his father to delav
the advance till the treasure was secured, and who observed that the
Mughul forces were carelessly disposed. He inflicted considerable
loss and drove the van back on the main army at Kahalgaon. A
heavy storm which sank Humayun's barge and flooded the country
prevented advance for several days. When a scouting party was
1 Colgong in 25° 16' N. and 87° 14' E.


## p. 30 (#62) ##############################################

30
HUMAYUN
able to move it was discovered that Jalal Khan, who had now
received news of his father's safe arrival in the fastnesses of south
Bihar, had abandoned the defence. Sher Khan had in fact gained
by stratagem the fort of Rohtas as a place of refuge for his family
and treasure now that Chunar was lost.
While the emperor was at Kahalgaon Mahmud received news that
two of his sons had been killed by the Afghans, and still suffering
from his wounds he died from the effects of this last shock. Humayun
now pressed on to seize what he hoped would be a rich prize. But
Gaur, though entered without further opposition, was a desolate
place with corpses still lying in the streets, and the rich granaries
which Mahmud had promised him were wasted. In spite of these
warnings of the vanity of his hopes, Humayun liked the attractive
fertility of the place and gave it the name of Jannatabad, or abode
of Paradise, on the coins he struck to commemorate his success. The
former government having been destroyed there was no opposition
in the country-side to his officers or to his parcelling out the districts
among his followers. Once more reaction set in after an apparently
successful enterprise, and the whole force from emperor to private
soldier devoted itself to ease and pleasure.
Gaur is about 350 miles east of Benares which was the nearest
place really within the Mughul occupation. To secure communica-
tions and supplies Humayun left his brother Hindal on the north
bank of the Ganges, neglecting all precaution on the south, where
the level alluvial plain soon meets the Kaimur range and its eastern
extension. In these hills covered with thorny jungle and hence
known as Jharkhand, Sher Khan found a convenient base from which
to develop his plan of cutting off Humayun from his capital. Hindal
soon deserted his post in north Bihar and there were grounds for
suspecting his loyalty, while Sher Khan rapidly overran the south
as far as the river, and crossing it took Benares. He sent his son Jalal
Khan to besiege Jaunpur, arrested and imprisoned the families of
the leading men in the district, and invested Chunar. Though the
governor of Jaunpur still held the city, reinforcements which arrived
from Oudh were roughly handled by Jalal Khan owing to the rash-
ness of their leader.
Humayun's officers, who for a time had successfully concealed from
him the serious events which were taking place, were now alarmed.
He himself realised that further delay would entail complete loss
of his position, and he was spurred by finding that the officer whom
he designated to hold Bengal while he attempted to cut his way
through Sher Khan's forces regarded such promotion as equivalent
to a sentence of death. Delay had once more placed him in the
unfavourable position of a campaign during the rainy season and as
his force laboured through the adhesive mud of the Ganges valley
in 1539, he received news that his vanguard had been taken in the


## p. 31 (#63) ##############################################

DISASTROUS RETREAT FROM BENGAL
31
town of Monghyr and its leader captured. In doubt as to the best
method of advance he offered through his brother 'Askari to grant
any boons to those who could suggest suitable plans. 'Askari
'
would have asked for money, silks, slaves and eunuchs, but
the officers of the army, impressed by their critical situation and
perhaps less corrupted by the recent period of sensuality and luxury,
were content with rank, and better pay for themselves and their
troops. When 'Askari advanced he found that Sher Khan had not
only gained the victories already reported, but had also sent troops
as far as Kanauj and had styled himself Shah or King. Humayun
now joined 'Askari on the north bank of the Ganges opposite Monghyr,
and would have been wise to pursue his march on that side. Accepting,
however, the advice of an unworthy favourite against that of more
experienced and reliable officers, he crossed to the south bank, which
was the more usual route. When the Mughul army reached the con-
fluence of the Son and Ganges the Afghan forces of Sher Khan were
in sight, and the great gun made by Rumi Khan for the siege of
Chunar was taken by them in the boat which was conveying it up
the river. So far only slight opposition had been met with and the
army was able to reach Chausa, a short distance from the Karamnasa
which divides Bihar from the territory of Benares.
Here it was necessary to halt in view of the uncertainty as to Sher
Khan's exact position. His near approach was certain and he had
in fact withdrawn his troops from the siege of Jaunpur and arrived
near the western bank of the river as Humayun reached the eastern.
Once again Humayun rejected the sound advice of his officers who
pointed out that his troops were that day comparatively fresh after
a short march, while Sher Khan's cavalry had ridden many miles.
An immediate attack might have given him victory. But he preferred
his favourite's plan merely to cross the river and postpone the struggle.
The delay favoured Sher Khan, who set about fortifying his camp,
knowing that the Mughul army would deteriorate and was already
weakened by its long march and absence of the stimulus of success.
From his brothers Humayun could rely on no help. Hindal had
abandoned his post on the line of communications when Humayun
advanced into Bengal, and was living in the palace at Agra where he
enjoyed the outward forms of power without using them for the
benefit of the state. But while his immediate advisers traded on his
youth and inexperience other officers saw more clearly the dangers
which threatened. Faqr 'Ali, the governor of Delhi, with difficulty
persuaded Hindal to mobilise the troops available at Agra and to
move them east. He also visited Yadgar Nasir at Kalpi lower down
the Jumna and planned a concentration in southern Oudh which
would threaten Sher Khan's designs on Jaunpur. These wise designs
were, however, ruined by the arrival at Kanauj of Mughul officers
who had abandoned Humayun in Bengal, including Zahid Beg, who
>


## p. 32 (#64) ##############################################

32
HUMAYUN
had declined to remain there as governor. They found Nur-ud-din
Muhammad, who was in charge of Kanauj, favourable to their dis-
loyal proposals though he was married to Humayun's sister. Offering
their services to Hindal they at once advanced to Kol ("Aligarh).
where they would be in a position to join Hindal or to move farther
west to Kamran in the Punjab if Hindal did not meet their wishes.
Hindal, though he received their message graciously, was not yet
prepared to declare his own independence and despatched news of
their arrival to Yadgar Mirza. Before it reached its destination the
rebels informed Hindal that while they were prepared to give him
support if he would stand forth as emperor they would join Kamrar.
if he declined. Hindal now decided to revolt, but was for a few days
held back by the remonstrances of Shaikh Phul, whom Humayun
sent from Gaur on first hearing of Hindal's departure from his post.
The Shaikh, like his more celebrated brother Muhammad Ghaus,
was a renowned religious teacher and was Humayun's own spiritual
adviser. His message of remonstrance accompanied by offers of for-
giveness and affection seemed at first likely to recall Hindal to
allegiance. Orders were issued to equip and despatch forces to raise
the siege of Jaunpur. Unfortunately Nur-ud-din arrived while these
measures were being expedited and he was able to destroy the whole
effect of the Shaikh's mission, and Hindal was persuaded once more
to accept the support of the rebel nobles, for which they demander
the sacrifice of Shaikh Phul as he had caused Hindal to break his
former promises to them. They hoped that Hindal, involved in such
a disgraceful crime, would be irretrievably separated from Humayun,
whom they hated and despised. A frivolous charge of conspiracy
with Sher Khan” was laid and the Shaikh was executed under the
orders of Nur-ud-din. Such a crime revolted the ladies of the palace
and all officers who still remained faithful to Humayun. It marked
indeed the destruction of Hindal's ambitious designs, for when he
advanced on Delhi instead of marching to assist the emperor, Yadgar
Nasir and Fagr 'Ali forestalled him by hasty marches and reached
that city before he arrived. While Hindal was unsuccessfully be-
sieging Delhi Kamran arrived from the Punjab. Humayun's genero-
sity had placed him in a commanding position which he had improved
by successful expeditions. The capture of Qandahar completed his
domination over practically the whole of Afghanistan and the Funjab.
He now moved towards Humayun's territory and Hindal, uncertain
as to his intentions, abandoned the siege of Delhi and withdrew to
Agra. If Kamran had really exerted himself and pressed on to attack
Sher Khan it is possible that the emperor might have come out of
his difficulties with some success. But although Kamran was per-
suaded to leave Delhi untouched and to follow Hindal to Agra his
1 Buhlul, according to some writers.
2 He was said to have secretly collected military stores; Humayun-nama. p. 133.


## p. 33 (#65) ##############################################

SHER KHAN DEFEATS HUMAYUN
33
intentions were completely selfish. On Kamran's approach Hindal
withdrew to his own government at Alwar, but soon was persuaded
to offer his submission, together with the rebel officers who were
almost his sole adherents. The brothers did indeed set out as if to
march to Humayun's help, but the ambition of Kamran and the
weakness of Hindal made them yield to the suggestion of the nobles
that if Sher Khan defeated Humayun the empire would fall to his
brother and that if the emperor won he could be persuaded to forgive
them. So after a few marches they turned back to Agra just as
Humayun's affairs reached a crisis.
He was indeed in a critical position, having missed his first oppor-
tunity to engage in battle before Sher Khan was ready. During more
than two months of scorching weather he had lain in an open camp
and now the rainy season had arrived which made military tactics
difficult. Before him was the strongly entrenched camp of the
Afghans; on his right flank lay the Ganges, its stream swelling as
the snows melted in the Himalayas and the monsoon rains added to
its volume; on the left were the hills with Sher Khan's stronghold
of Rohtas. No help was to be expected from his brothers and after
some fruitless skirmishing he made overtures for peace. Sher Khan
at first replied that while the Mughul army wished for peace the
emperor had made war. He himself also desired peace but his army
was for fighting. Later he sent his own spiritual adviser who entered
on negotiations, the terms of which are variously stated. Humayun
was to give up Bihar and, according to some accounts, Bengal and
also the prized fortress of Chunar but was to retain sovereignty, as
shown by the right to strike coin. With their affairs settled to outward
appearance the Mughul forces were negligently disposed, and Sher
Khan had beaten off a Hindu ally who was supporting Humayun.
Seizing his opportunity for destroying his opponent Sher Khan sent
a force across the Karamnasa as if to occupy Bihar and secretly
instructed his main army to attack the Mughul camp in two places
and also to prevent escape across the Ganges. Their surprise was
complete and the attack was well developed before Humayun was
awake (26 June, 1539). He sprang on a horse and collected a small
guard, endeavouring to save his empress, but was unable to reach the
tents and would have been killed but for his own personal bravery.
The royal harem, crowded with fugitive wives of Mughul officers, was
captured and protected by Sher Khan, while Humayun, attempting
to cross the Ganges on horseback, was forced to use the inflated skin
offered him by a water-carrier when he had lost his seat. The rout
was complete and the Mughul army practically destroyed.
Exulting in his victory Sher Khan related that it had been foretold
in a dream the night before, and he promised a safe-conduct to the
ladies of the Mughul court, a promise which he honoured later. While
Humayun and 'Askari made their way with difficulty to Agra, Sher


## p. 34 (#66) ##############################################

34
HUMAYUN
Khan advanced into Bengal and there defeated the governor left by
Humayun and scattered his small force completely. While he was
thus engaged the four brothers had come together.
Humayun either
through a sense of the weakness of his own position or through genuine
fraternal love had forgiven, at once, Kamran's failure to come to his
help and, after a formal rebuke, Hindal's open rebellion. He still
hoped to defeat Sher Khan and refused to accept Kamran's offer,
prompted by ambitious and selfish aims, to lead the fresh troops from
the Punjab against the enemy. Kamran, seeing the failure of his
design to become the master of Hindustan, wished to return to the
Punjab where his rule was undisputed, and in spite of Humayun's
opposition was at last able to depart owing to ill-health which he
attributed openly to the climate of Agra, but secretly believed was
due to poison administered by Babur's widows at the instigation of
Humayun.
Sher Khan, having now consolidated his position in Bengal, re-
turned along the north bank of the Ganges and felt himself strong
enough to attack the Mughuls. A preliminary expedition led by his
son Qutb Khan against Yadgar Mirza, who still held Kalpi, was a
failure and Qutb Khan lost his life. Excited by this success, Humayun
advanced early in 1540 from Agra towards the Ganges and Sher
Khan retreated across it. The Mughul army though probably twice
the size of Sher Khan's was no longer the equal of Babur's trained
forces. Many of its best soldiers had perished in the fruitless expedi-
tion to Bengal. As the force drew near the enemy it was abandoned
by numbers of experienced leaders, especially those who had joined
from Kamran's troops. An exception was that of Mirza Haidar
Dughlat, a first cousin of Babur, who had been greatly trusted by
Kamran and had been left by him in charge of Lahore when he
made his successful raid on Qandahar. Both the brothers sought to
retain his services and he finally decided to serve Humayun, who had
• treated him as a brother, in the honest belief that if Sher Khan were
not defeated he would drive all the Mughuls, including Kamran, out
of India. The two armies lay facing each other near Kanauj with
the broad bed of the Ganges between. As defections continued it was
clear that Humayun must fight or would find himself a leader without
an army. Accordingly the river was crossed and small engagements
took place. Before any general battle had occurred the rainy season
began unduly early and the Mughul camp in the low land near the
river was flooded. Mirza Haidar suggested a bold maneuvre to mask
a change to a better position near the enemy. This was difficult to
carry out as the camp was thronged with many thousands of fol-
lowers and the army would be an easy prey if attacked during the
confusion of a move. On 17 May, 1540, the Mughul artillery was
sent to the front and the guns and wagons were chained together,
so that the camp followers could march behind their protection if an


## p. 35 (#67) ##############################################

2
HUMAYUN FLEES TO THE PUNJAB
35
attack was made. Sher Khan moved out his forces against them,
while the Mughuls were still in confusion with their numerous non-
combatants pressing on behind the guns in such masses that the
chains were broken. The leaders were incapable and cowardly and
many of them fled for their lives as they saw the Afghan troops arrive.
Humayun with his usual personal bravery tried to rally his men, but
was forced to fly. Mirza Haidar laments that 40,000 men in armour
fled before 10,000 without a single cannon being fired. A few miles
behind them lay the river in which many perished, encumbered by
their armour. Humayun crossed with difficulty on an elephant but
only a few of the thousand men immediately accompanying him
succeeded in escaping. As the small band rode towards Agra it was
attacked by Chauhan Thakurs at Bhongaon ? and the refusal of
'Askari to help in chastising the assailants moved Humayun's wrath.
At Agra, the capital, there was no chance of a rally. So great was
their distress that Humayun, who had lost a daughter after the battle
of Chausa, discussed with Hindal the question of killing their female
relations to avoid capture by the Afghans, but was dissuaded and
Hindal conducted them to Lahore, often having to beat off attacks
by the villagers on the route. The emperor's small party rode in
confusion towards Delhi till the news that a party of Afghans was
following roused Humayun to instil some order into his small fol-
lowing. After a couple of days' halt at Delhi he hurried on to Lahore,
forced to cross rivers swollen by rain without the help of boats. Close
behind them came the Afghans, who occupied Agra and Delhi with-
out opposition. At Lahore all four brothers met, Hindal and 'Askari
having visited the headquarters of their charges on the way to collect
what treasure could be recovered. Even in the presence of imminent
danger from the Afghans concord was impossible. With Humayun
driven out of Hindustan Kamran saw that he was likely to have to
give up his own possessions in the Punjab and Afghanistan, and the
danger of this made him disinclined to join in a hazardous resistance
to Sher Khan which might involve the waste of his own resources.
As Sher Khan overran the Punjab the need for action increased.
Humayun sent him a request to allow Sirhind to be the boundary
and received a contemptuous warning that he should withdraw to
Kabul. Kamran hoped that he could at least maintain his hold on
the west if he held the rugged tribal country between India and
Afghanistan. Humayun, while brave in tactical affairs, failed him-
self to produce any strategical plan. He was pressed by Mirza
Haidar to withdraw to the Punjab hills and shelter in Kashmir,
while Hindal and Yadgar Mirza suggested a movement through
Sind to reconquer Gujarat from which Hindustan might be again
invaded. While the brothers wrangled, Kamran treacherously sent
1 The manuscripts read variously hasht=eight, or shast=sixty.
2 In 27° 17' N. and 79° 14' E.


## p. 36 (#68) ##############################################

36
HUMAYUN
a message to offer his assistance to Sher Khan if he were left alone.
An ambassador from Sher Khan was received as if he had come to
the court of Humayun, while secret negotiations continued. Sher
Khan crossed the Beas and the brothers abandoned Lahore in a rout
described as being as confused as the Day of Resurrection. The
treachery of Kamran was now so well known in the Mughul camp that
Humayun was urged to have him killed, but the memory of Babur's
dying wishes was still too fresh on his mind to allow him to agree to
fratricide. He determined to adopt Mirza Haidar's scheme for the con-
quest of Kashmir and moved in that direction. Before he had advanced
far a threatening movement by Kamran was reported and his army,
disgusted with the treachery of the latter, was eager to oppose him
by arms. Humayun in his anxiety to avoid a contest which could
only have weakened the Mughul strength refused to show a hostile
appearance to his brother, and the meeting was thus peaceful. It
ended with the departure of Kamran for his governorship at Kabul
accompanied by his brother 'Askari. But Humayun's clemency con-
vinced Hindal that his brother was wanting in the firmness which at
that time was necessary for one who sought to rule in India. And
just as Kamran had pursued his self-seeking aims by leaving the
emperor when most in need of help, so Hindal abandoned him and
set out on a vain expedition to pursue his scheme of conquering Sind
and then Gujarat again and making it a base for further attacks on
Hindustan. In this expedition he was joined by still more adherents
from Humayun's shrinking forces.
Mirza Haidar's plan for capturing Kashmir was sound in every
way. His previous experience in 1533, when he had raided the
country as a general of the king of Kashghar, had shown him what
little resistance could be expected in a country torn by faction, and
he knew and pointed out that a determined force holding it could
repel any army of men from the plains, hampered by the difficulty
of travel and the absence of supplies. He was, moreover, sure of
support from one of the parties in the state. It had been arranged
that he should enter Kashmir from Naushahra and he marched in
advance of Humayun. When the emperor followed him and reached
Bhera, where he hoped to obtain the assistance of the local governor,
he found that Kamran had already preceded him and forestalled his
hopes. Once more he was urged to assert himself and brush Kamran
from his path, but refused as he had done at Lahore. A proposal
that he should retreat through Kabul to Badakhshan was rejected by
Kamran, whose treacherous nature led him to suspect that Humayun
might dispossess him from Kabul and advance no farther. The road
to Naushahra being blocked and it being impossible for Humayun
to stay between an envious and unscrupulous brother on one hand
and the victorious Sher Khan who was pressing on from Lahore, he
1 Vol. II, p. 287,


## p. 37 (#69) ##############################################

ATTEMPTS TO TAKE SIND
37
decided to abandon the hope of Kashmir and to follow Hindal to
Sind (end of 1540). He had hardly started when again a collision
with Kamran was imminent. Their forces met in a defile of the Salt
Range near Khushab, at the end of which the roads towards Sind
and Kabul diverged, and a dispute arose as to which should pass
through it first. Kamran's thinly veiled intention of assuming the
headship of the family appeared more clearly than ever when he
asserted his own right of precedence, and for once Humayun's pride
was stung and battle seemed inevitable. It was averted only by the
remonstrances of a man of saintly reputation in the train of Kamran.
Thus began a wearying exile which lasted for nearly 15 years and
was endured only by the greatest fortitude and perseverance, though
it was constantly prolonged by Humayun's inability to command
respect and faithful allegiance. Before he could join Hindal news
came that the country round Multan, which had been ceded to Babur
by the Arghun ruler of Sind, was in a state of anarchy. Hindal's
force had met and overwhelmed a small escort of Afghans accom-
panying Kamran's messenger to Sher Khan, but was unable to face
the Baloch raiders who had overrun the country and cut off what
scanty supplies were available. Hindal was thus compelled to return
and the brothers met, but were almost immediately faced with the
danger of attack by Khavass Khan, an Afghan general who had taken
Multan and was searching for them, but retired to headquarters
as he could get no news of them. While Humayun thus marched or
lay in great discomfort in the most inhospitable part of the Indian
plain his faithful general Mirza Haidar had carried out the plan of
seizing Kashmir with a minute force, and was so successful in estab-
lishing himself that he ruled till his death in action ten years later.
Humayun's first experiences in Sind illustrate his lack of skill in
the conduct of a difficult campaign, against an opponent so able as
Shah Husain, the ruler of the country. Making his toilsome journey
down the Indus he reached Rohri on the left bank not far from the
island fortress of Bhakkar. Shah Husain had strengthened the gar-
rison and bidden the governor lay waste the country round so that
the Mughul forces would be unable to obtain supplies. This was
easily effected as population was scanty and cultivation sparse and
only possible where land could be irrigated from the river. To relieve
the pressure of want Humayun divided his troops, himself remaining
in fairly comfortable quarters to prosecute the siege, while Hindal
and Yadgar advanced towards Sehwan where they hoped to obtain
better supplies. In reply to the emperor's summons to surrender the
fortress the governor replied that he was subordinate to Shah Husain
and could obey only him, though he sent a small supply of grain to
relieve the immediate wants of Humayun's camp. Envoys were then
despatched to Shah Husain, who detained them for months by holding
out promises he had no intention of fulfilling. He thus reduced the


## p. 38 (#70) ##############################################

38
HUMAYUN
Mughul forces to such extreme want that many of the soldiers killed
their horses and camels for food. When the emperor at last made
up his mind to recall the envoys Shah Husain sent with them an
ambassador with the cunning suggestion that Humayun should
occupy a tract described as rich which lay east of Sind and would
prove a convenient place from which Gujarat could be conquered.
Though Humayun was easily dazzled by this prospect, his followers
realised that it wanted in substance, as the inhabitants of the area
named had never been subdued by Shah Husain and were not likely
to allow the Mughuls to occupy their country. Humayun's delay at
Bhakkar and the indulgence of hopes which were patently empty
in the eyes of all his advisers disgusted Hindal, who had long been
demanding permission to attack Sehwan, a richer portion of Sind
lying south of Bhakkar, and had some intentions of deserting his
brother and capturing Qandahar. When finally Hindal was allowed
to move against Sehwan Shah Husain had strengthened its garrison
and repeated his scheme of destroying the villages and cultivation
in its neighbourhood. To ensure his brother's good faith Humayun
marched to join him and while in his camp nearly caused an irre-
vocable breach by insisting on marrying (in 1541) Hamida Begam,
the daughter of Hindal's spiritual guide, who afterwards became
the mother of the emperor Akbar. The girl was probably in love
with somebody else and herself displayed the strongest objection
to the match. Sickness breaking out in the camp, Humayun left
it to return to Bhakkar, and Hindal in disgust abandoned his task
and left for Qandahar, sending messages to Yadgar Mirza to invite
him to follow. Once more Humayun's vacillation had brought him
into serious trouble and to secure Yadgar Mirza's adherence he made
promises of considerable grants to be conferred when he regained
power. Realising too late that Shah Husain had been merely playing
with him, he decided to attack Shah Husain's capital city Tatta near
the mouth of the Indus, and set out on this enterprise. But on the
way he was again persuaded to turn aside and besiege Sehwan, a
hopeless task in view of the defensive plans which had been carried
out. As he entered on this futile operation Shah Husain, judging
that the time had arrived for a more active policy, collected a fleet
of boats and advanced up the river. Humayun's unwieldy force,
swollen by fugitives of his own race who had fled from the Afghan
supremacy in Hindustan, was driven to great extremities by the lack
of food. An appeal made to Hindal for assistance was disregarded.
Yadgar Mirza, who was also directed to attack Shah Husain, had
already been seduced by that astute monarch, and had received
favourably a suggestion that he should himself become emperor by
conquering Gujarat with help from Sind and might have the rever-
sion of Sind itself by marrying Shah Husain's daughter. Thus de-
prived of any hope of assistance and alarmed by the proximity of Shah


## p. 39 (#71) ##############################################

HOPES OF AID IN RAJPUTANA
39
Husain, Humayun gave up his siege operations so suddenly that his
retreat towards Bhakkar was almost a rout, and much loss was
experienced on the march. With the connivance of Yadgar Mirza
all the boats on the river near Bhakkar had been seized or sunk by
Sind officers and on his arrival at the bank Humayun was forced
to kill cattle and prepare skin floats for rafts to make the crossing.
He now perceived that Yadgar Mirza was no longer faithful and his
followers, already reduced in number, began to desert either to Yadgar
Mirza or to more distant supporters. When finally Yadgar Mirza
proposed to attack Humayun openly, and was only dissuaded after
he had actually left his camp, the emperor's despair almost impelled
him to resign all hope and withdraw to a religious exile in Mecca.
.
As a last resource he accepted an invitation from Raja Maldeo of
Marwar, who promised him assistance, and made his way to Rajputana,
suffering great privations on the march,
The raja's object in offering help to Humayun is doubtful. Since
the battle of Khanua the Rajputs had had no desire for friendship
with the Mughuls. But Sher Khan's success had increased the
possible danger of further incursions into Rajputana and Maldeo
appears to have hoped that aid to Humayun, who had shown himself
generous, if not mighty, would be repaid. From the miserable
handful of refugees who were now painfully approaching his capital
he saw that he could expect nothing, and he therefore decided to
seize and give up Humayun to Sher Khan. Humayun discovered
this intention through his spies and again retreated, suffering even
greater hardships than before. On one occasion the small band of
fugitives had to march for more than three days without water as the
wells had been filled in or destroyed. Their sufferings in the Indian
desert at the hottest period of the year were terrible and many died
of thirst. So reduced in circumstances was the emperor himself that
he had to play a disgraceful trick on his own few officers by having
their baggage searched in their absence in order to obtain a few
presents for the Rana of 'Umarkot, who gave him shelter on his
arrival there.
For a time prosperity seemed about to dawn, as the Rana offered
help to conquer the south-eastern part of Sind, which had once
belonged to his ancestors. An expedition started in November, 1542,
and a few days later news came that the empress, who had remained
at 'Umarkot, had borne a son who later became the emperor Akbar.
So poor had Humayun become that he had to borrow from his
brother the means to provide a meagre feast for his nobles. While
the attack on what was a rich area succeeded at first it was soon met
by Shah Husain with his powerful resources of diplomacy and arms.
The arrogance of the Mughuls towards Hindus also operated in his
favour, and Humayun lost the support of his new aīlies. Though
he was now joined by Bairam Khan, one of the best and most faithful


## p. 40 (#72) ##############################################

40
HUMAYUN
soldiers of the time, who had escaped from Sher Khan with great
difficulty, his staff had decreased, and a fresh disaster impelled him
to make up his mind to risk all on a final decisive battle. Shah
Husain, though stronger in every way, preferred negotiation and
offered Humayun passage through his country to Qandahar with
supplies and money for the journey. The terms were accepted and
the emperor departed (1543).
Any hopes he had entertained of safety in his brother's territory
were soon destroyed. Kamran assumed the royal title, and struck
coin in his own name at Kabul and Qandahar, invaded Badakhshan,
as the ruler of that tract still recognised Humayun, and when his
governor at Qandahar made over that place to Hindal on his flight
from Sind, he besieged the town and on obtaining its surrender
despatched Hindal as prisoner to Kabul and appointed 'Askari as
ruler in his place. He even tried to establish relationship with Shah
Husain by proposing to marry the Shah's daughter. With these
unfavourable prospects before him Humayun entered on a difficult
wintry march in no way rendered easier by the transport and guides
whom Shah Husain had sent with him. Many of the camels supplied
were untrained and threw off their loads or riders at the start; while
the guides misled the troops. 'Askari set the defences of Qandahar
in order and wrote to the Baloch chiefs to arrest the emperor, who
had a narrow escape and was obliged to abandon his infant son to
the precarious mercy of faithless brothers. Avoiding Qandahar he
made his way into Persia with many doubts whether a friendless
Sunni ruler who had lost every vestige of sovereignty would find
refuge with a bigoted Shiah.
His reception, though splendid, was in fact more designed to
exhibit the magnificence of his host than to do honour to an emperor
of India, and when he joined the Shah's camp he was subjected to
many insults and hardly veiled threats of violence if he did not
change his religious practices. These were borne with quiet patience
and at last in 1545 Shah Tahmasp offered him a force with which
to contend against Kamran, a condition of success being the promise
to restore Qandahar to Persia. Passing through Sistan he laid siege
to Qandahar and sent Bairam Khan to Kabul to gain adherents
there. After an obstinate resistance for several months 'Askari sur-
rendered Qandahar. He and his amirs came out with swords hanging
round their necks to show their complete submission. Humayun for-
gave his brother as usual, but at the feast to celebrate the capture
of the town he had 'Askari's letters to the Baloches placed in front
of him. Qandahar was reluctantly made over to the Persians and
designs begun for an attack on Kabul. The Persian allies, however,
having attained their object, declined to advance and the cold of
1 His sister's account in the Humayun-nama omits all mention of this
ill-treatment.


## p. 41 (#73) ##############################################

CAPTURE OF QANDAHAR AND KABUL
41
winter and the smallness of his force prevented Humayun from
moving, though Kamran had been deserted by many adherents.
Pressed by his necessity he overcame his reluctance to break his
promises to the Shah, and when the Persian prince died who had
accompanied him in command of his allies, he reoccupied Qandahar
and was at last able to set out for Kabul. During the absence of
Kamran in the Hazara country Yadgar and Hindal escaped from
Kabul and joined the emperor. Though he was impeded and faced
near the city by Kamran he pressed on, gaining more and more
deserters, and was able to enter the camp of Kamran, who fled into
Kabul and then escaped towards Ghazni and finally into Sind, so
that Humayun was able to enter the city and again meet his son
Akbar (November, 1544).
He spent the rest of the winter in settling the affairs of southern
Afghanistan, which now recognised his rule, and some advance in a
spirit of resolution is marked by his directing the execution of his
cousin Yadgar Mirza who had been so faithless in Sind. In the
spring of 1545 he crossed the Hindu Kush to reduce the northern
part of the country and made a successful campaign. While here an
unfortunate illness in which his life was despaired of gave the signal
for plots and insubordination. Although his recovery stopped these
dissensions among his immediate adherents Kamran took advantage
of his absence north of the mountains to surprise Kabul with help
from Shah Husain (1546). Arriving unexpectedly in the early
morning he found the garrison off their guard and slipped in with
the crowd of early grass-cutters and water-carriers. There he behaved
with great cruelty towards all who had helped the emperor and fell
into his hands. Humayun hastened to recover his capital, crossing
the mountains with difficulty, and again losing many officers who
deserted, fearing that Kamran would massacre their families in
Kabul. The town was blockaded and warfare continued with greater
bitterness than had yet been shown in the contests between the
brothers. It is even stated by some writers that the infant Akbar
was exposed on the ramparts to the fire of his father's cannon. The
siege was pressed so strongly that Kamran contemplated surrender
but was persuaded that his brother's patience must now be exhausted
and he escaped in the hope of avoiding death (1547). As he fled he
was actually captured by Hindal but was allowed to escape. He
sought refuge with Sulaiman the ruler of Badakhshan and, being
spurned by one who had already suffered at the hands of the Mughuls,
fled to the Uzbegs in Balkh who received him favourably in the hope
of keeping alive dissensions between the brothers. For a time it
appeared probable that Kamran would again rise to power. With
Uzbeg help he invaded Badakhshan and gaining some success was
joined by many of his former supporters, who were always more
disposed to side with a successful prince than to keep faith with one


## p. 42 (#74) ##############################################

42
HUMAYUN
>
who seemed to be losing power. It was too late in the year for
Humayun to cross the passes and in the following spring he was
delayed by a foolish quarrel between high officers at Kabul, which
led to other defections. When he did advance the Uzbegs, who had
,
no wish to see any of the brothers supreme, refused to give further help
to Kamran and after some inconclusive fighting Kamran submitted
(1548), relying on Humayun's generosity to forgive him. He was
received in public audience and hung a whip round his neck to
signify his sense of criminal guilt and began to express regret.
Humayun cut short his confessions and calling him brother seized
him in his arms and wept. Kamran was then appointed to govern
a tract north of the Oxus, and was disgusted with its remoteness and
inadequacy.
When in the following year (1549) Humayun marched into Balkh
Kamran was summoned to join with his forces against the Uzbegs,
but failed to attend. The emperor gained some successes and actually
reached the city of Balkh which he probably would have taken.
But a sudden panic seized his army through fear that Kamran might
slip past them and again occupy Kabul. A hasty withdrawal became
a rout and the shattered army reached Kabul with difficulty. Once
more Kamran abandoned his post, attacked Badakhshan and failing
there tried to seduce Hindal from allegiance to the emperor, but failed
and was severely handled by the Uzbegs. Though he withdrew he
was invited to Kabul by malcontents in Humayun's army and
marched towards it making false professions of fealty to his brother.
These were at first accepted by Humayun till the advice of his
officers convinced him of their unreliability, and Humayun made up
his mind to capture Kamran. In the battle which ensued Humayun's
troops failed him. He was severely wounded and had to fly while
Kamran was able to occupy Kabul and enrich himself by plundering
the treasury and country. After several months' painful convalescence
in the mountains during which he was believed at Kabul to be dead,
Humayun took the field again with the help of a force raised by the
wife of Sulaiman, ruler of Badakhshan. He attempted to bind his
adherents by a solemn oath of fealty. Advancing to Kabul he met
Kamran in battle and defeated him. “Askari, who had sided with
Kamran, was captured and after confinement for a time was sent
on pilgrimage and never returned, while Kamran escaped to pursue
for some time his schemes for power.
Humayun had now realised the folly of indiscriminate forgiveness
of rebels, and set himself to consolidate his position in Afghanistan.
In this he was ably helped by Bairam Khan who received the title
of Khan Khanan. Kamran was followed up as he tried to rouse the
country between Kabul and India and in a night attack Hindal
was killed by an Afghan. It was characteristic of the attitude of
1 He died in Mecca in 1558.


## p. 43 (#75) ##############################################

CHARACTER OF HUMAYUN
43
Mughul princes to each other that the news of the death caused a
paroxysm of grief to Kamran though Hindal was then opposing him.
For some time Kamran suffered hardships wandering among the
border Afghan tribes and then he sought refuge with Islam Shah in
India (1552), where his reception was as contemptuous as that of
Humayun during his exile in Persia. Escaping to the Khokar country
he was surrendered to Humayun, who had come in pursuit of him.
And now the emperor was strongly pressed by all his advisers,
military, civil and religious, to execute his brother to prevent further
evil to the state. Though his heart had become tougher during his
recent trials Humayun was still far from seeking his brother's life,
but he agreed so far that he ordered him to be blinded. An affecting
farewell took place between the brothers in which Humayun expressed
his sympathy with Kamran's sufferings and Kamran admitted his
own misconduct and fault. Abandoned by all his nearest friends but
accompanied by a faithful wife Kamran travelled to Sind and thence
to Mecca where he died (1557).
Humayun was now free from the most dangerous rivals of his own
house and the generals of his race who had aided or opposed him as
seemed most to their personal interests were dead or scattered. How
he regained some part of his former possession in India will be related
in the next chapter. Like most Mughal princes Humayun, who was
born in 1508, was placed in nominal charge of a province at an early
age. He was only twelve when Badakhshan was made over to him in
1520, and he remained there almost continuously till he assisted in
Babur's conquest of northern India, after which he was allowed to
return. On his journey back an incident occurred which throws light
on his character. Halting at Delhi he robbed the government treasury
though he had been amply rewarded by his father and had received a
territorial grant. His experience of the pleasures to be enjoyed in India
then made the isolation of Badakhshan irksome to him, and Babur in
his Memoirs records a letter rebuking his son for his discontent, and
criticising the carelessness of his spelling and composition. When
Babur's strenuous mode of living had sapped his health Humayun
abandoned his post and came to India to be near his father.
The defects thus noted in his early life, carelessness, unreliability
and self-indulgence, persisted in his maturity. They were accom-
panied by an excess of kindliness which often led to lack of decision,
when promptness and even ruthlessness were needed. The tradition
of his race was one of conquest rather than consolidation or adminis-
trative development. Transoxiana and Afghanistan were hard schools
in which a rigorous climate and barren soil bred warriors who excelled
in forays but developed no skill in peaceful administration. It was
not till his final recovery of India that he really planned a scheme for
ruling it, and his death occurred before it could be carried out.
Though possessed of high personal courage and endurance in distress


## p. 44 (#76) ##############################################

44
HUMAYUN
Humayun, like many of his descendants, found the softer climate of
India corrupting.