No More Learning

I will now do my best that Gallienus, more contemptible than any woman, may come to know his father's generals. " 12 And so, with the consent of all p99 the soldiers, Macrianus was made emperor, together with his two sons Macrianus and Quietus, and he immediately proceeded to march against Gallienus, leaving affairs in the East in whatever state he could. 13 But while he was on the march, having with him a force of forty-five thousand soldiers, he met Aureolus in Illyricum or on the borders of Thrace, and there he was defeated and together with his son was slain. 14 Then thirty thousand of his men yielded to Aureolus' power. It was Domitianus,43 indeed, who won this victory, the bravest and most active of Aureolus' leaders, who claimed to be the descendant of the Emperor Domitian and Domitilla.

15 In writing of Macrianus, moreover, it would seem to me wrong to leave out the opinion of Valerian, which he expressed in the message he sent to the senate from the frontier of Persia. A portion of the message of the Deified Valerian: 16 "Being now engaged in the war with the Persians, Conscript Fathers, I have entrusted all public affairs, and even those which concern the war, to Macrianus. He is faithful to you, loyal to me, and both beloved and feared by the soldiers. He with his army will act as the case shall demand. 17 And in this, Conscript Fathers, there is nothing new or unexpected by us. For while a boy in Italy, while a youth in Gaul, while a mature man in Africa, and, finally, while well advanced in years in Illyricum and Dalmatia, his valour has been well proved, for in divers battles he has done brave deeds which may serve as a pattern to others. 18 I will add, besides, that he has young sons, worthy of being our associates p101 in Rome and worthy, too, of our friendship," and so forth.

Macrianus the Younger

13Legamen ad paginam Latinam I have already given a foretaste, in the account of his father's rule, of many details about this man,44 who would never have been chosen emperor, had it not seemed well to trust to his father's wisdom. 2 Many marvellous stories, it is true, are related concerning him, all of which have to do with the bravery of youthful years. But what, after all, does one single man's bravery avail against fate or how much does it profit in war? 3 For, though active himself and accompanied by the wisest of fathers (through whose merits he had begun to rule), he was defeated by Domitianus, and despoiled, as I have previously said, of an army of thirty thousand soldiers, being himself of noble birth through his mother, for his father was merely brave and ready for war, and had risen from the lowest rank in the army with exalted distinction to the highest command.

Quietus

14Legamen ad paginam Latinam This man,45 as we have said,46 was the son of Macrianus and was made emperor, along with his father and brother, in accordance with the judgement of Ballista. But when Odaenathus, who had now for some time held the East, learned that the two Macriani, the father and brother of Quietus, had been p103 defeated by Aureolus, and that their soldiers had yielded to his power in the belief that he was upholding the cause of Gallienus, he put the young man to death and with him Ballista, for a long time prefect. 2 This young man, too, was worthy to hold the power at Rome, so that he seemed to be truly the son of Macrianus and also the brother of Macrianus, who together were well able to govern the commonwealth in its stricken state.

3 It does not seem to me, in telling of the family of the Macriani (which is still flourishing to‑day),47 that I should fail to speak of a peculiar custom which they have always observed. 4 For an embossed head of Alexander the Great of Macedonia was always used by the men on their rings and their silver plate, and by the women on their head-dresses, their bracelets, their rings and ornaments of every kind, so that even to‑day there are still in that family tunics and fillets and women's cloaks which show the likeness of Alexander in threads of divers colours. 5 We, ourselves, recently saw Cornelius Macer, a man of that same family, while giving a dinner in the Temple of Hercules,48 drink the health of a pontiff from a bowl made of electrum,49 which had in the centre the face of Alexander and contained on the circumference his whole history in small and minute figures, and this he caused to be passed around to all the most ardent admirers of that great hero. 6 All this I have included because it is said that those who wear the likeness of Alexander carved in either gold or silver are aided in all that they do. p105

Odaenathus

15Legamen ad paginam Latinam Had not Odaenathus,50 prince of the Palmyrenes, seized the imperial power after the capture of Valerian, with the strength of the Roman state was exhausted, all would have been lost in the East. 2 He assumed, therefore, as the first of his line, the title of King, and after gathering together an army he set out against the Persians, having with him his wife Zenobia,51 his elder son, whose name was Herodes, and his younger sons, Herennianus and Timolaus. 52 3 First of all, he brought under his power Nisibis and most of the East together with the whole of Mesopotamia, next, he defeated the king himself and compelled him to flee. 4 Finally, he pursued Sapor and his children even as far as Ctesiphon, and captured his concubines and also a great amount of booty; then he turned to the oriental provinces, hoping to be able to crush Macrianus,53 who had begun to rule in opposition to Gallienus, but he had already set out against Aureolus and Gallienus. After Macrianus was slain, Odaenathus killed his son Quietus also, while Ballista, many assert, usurped the imperial power54 in order that he, too, might not be slain. 5 Then, after he had for the most part put in order the affairs of the East, he was killed by his cousin p107 Maeonius55 (who had also seized the imperial power), together with his son Herodes, who, also, after returning from Persia along with his father, had received the title of emperor. 6 Some god, I believe, was angry with the commonwealth, who, after Valerian's death, was unwilling to preserve Odaenathus alive. 7 For of a surety he, with his wife Zenobia, would have restored not only the East, which he had already brought back to its ancient condition, but also all parts of the whole world everywhere, since he was fierce in warfare and, as most writers relate, ever famous for his memorable hunts; for from his earliest years he expended his sweat, as is the duty of a man, in taking lions and panthers and bears and other beasts of the forest, and always lived in the woods and the mountains, enduring heat and rain and all other hardships which pleasures of hunting entail. 8 Hardened by these he was able to bear the sun and the dust in the wars with the Persians; and his wife, too, was inured to hardship and in the opinion of many was held to be more brave than her husband, being, indeed, the noblest of all the women of the East, and, as Cornelius Capitolinus56 declares, the most beautiful.

Herodes

16Legamen ad paginam Latinam Herodes,57 who was the son, not of Zenobia, but of a former wife of Odaenathus, received the imperial power along with his father, though he was the most effeminate of men, wholly oriental and given over to Grecian luxury, for he had embroidered tents p109 and pavilions made out of cloth of gold and everything in the manner of the Persians. 2 In fact, Odaenathus, complying with his ways and moved by the promptings of a father's indulgence, gave him all the king's concubines58 and the riches and jewels that he captured. 3 Zenobia, indeed, treated him in a step-mother's way, and this made him all the more dear to his father. Nothing more remains to be said concerning Herodes.

Maeonius

17Legamen ad paginam Latinam This man,59 the cousin of Odaenathus, murdered that excellent emperor, being moved thereto by nothing else than contemptible envy, for he could bring no charge against him save that Herodes was his son. 2 It is said, however, that previously he had entered into a conspiracy with Zenobia, who could not bear that her stepson Herodes should be called a prince in a higher rank than her own two sons, Herennianus and Timolaus. But Maeonius, too, was a filthy fellow, 3 and so, after being saluted as emperor through some blunder, he was shortly thereafter killed by the soldiers, as his excesses deserved.

Ballista

18Legamen ad paginam Latinam As to whether this man60 held the imperial power or not historians do not agree. For many p111 assert that when Quietus was killed by Odaenathus, Ballista was pardoned, but nevertheless took the imperial power, putting no trust in either Gallienus or Aureolus or Odaenathus. 2 Others, again, declare that while still a commoner he was killed on the lands which he had bought for himself near Daphne. 61 3 Many, indeed, have said that he assumed the purple in order to rule in the Roman fashion, and that he took command of the army and made many promises on his own account, but was killed by those despatched by Aureolus for the purpose of seizing Quietus, Macrianus' son, who, Aureolus averred, was his own due prey. 4 He was a notable man, skilled in administering the commonwealth, vehement in counsel, winning fame in campaigns, without an equal in providing for rations, and so highly esteemed by Valerian that in a certain letter he honoured him with the following testimony:

5 "From Valerian to Ragonius Clarus,62 prefect of Illyricum and the provinces of Gaul. If you are a man of good judgement, my kinsman Clarus, as I know that you are, you will carry out the arrangements of Ballista. Model your government on them. 6 Do you see how he refrains from burdening the provincials, how he keeps the horses in places where there is fodder and exacts the rations for his soldiers in places where there is grain, how he never compels the provincials or the land-holders to furnish grain where they have no supply, or horses where they have no pasture? 7 There is no arrangement better than to exact in each place what is there produced, so that the commonwealth may not be burdened by transport or other expenses. 8 Galatia is rich in grain, Thrace is well stocked, and Illyricum is filled with p113 it; so let the foot-soldiers be quartered in these regions, although in Thrace cavalry, too, can winter without damage to the provincials, since plenty of hay can be had from the fields. 9 As for wine and bacon and other forms of food, let them be handed out in those places in which they abound in plenty. 10 All this is the policy of Ballista, who gave orders that any province should furnish only one form of food, namely that in which it abounded, and that from it the soldiers should be kept away. This, in fact, has been officially decreed. "

11 There is also another letter, in which he gives thanks to Ballista, showing that he himself had received from him instruction in governing the state, and expressing his pleasure that he had on his staff no supernumerary tribune (that is, one unassigned to some duty), no one in attendance who did not truly perform some office, and no soldier who was not truly a fighter.

12 This man, then, while resting in his tent was slain, it is said, by a certain common soldier, in order to gain the favour of Odaenathus and Gallienus. 13 I, however, have not been able to find out sufficiently the truth concerning him, because the writers of his time have related much about his prefecture but little about his rule.

Valens

19Legamen ad paginam Latinam This man,63 a warrior and at the same time excelling in glory for his qualities as a citizen, was holding the proconsulship of Achaea, an honour conferred on him by Gallienus. 2 Macrianus feared him greatly, both because he had learned that he was distinguished for his whole manner of life and because p115 he knew him to be his enemy out of hatred for his virtues. He therefore despatched Piso, a member of a family then most noble and, in fact, of consular rank, with orders to put him to death. 3 Valens, however, who kept a most careful watch, foreseeing the future and believing that there was no other means of protecting himself, seized the imperial power and soon was slain by the soldiers.

Valens the Elder

20Legamen ad paginam Latinam It has fortunately occurred to us that, in speaking of this Valens, we should make some mention also of the Valens64 who was killed in the time of the earlier emperors. 2 For he, it is said, was the great-uncle of the Valens who seized the power under Gallienus. Others, however, assert that he was only his uncle. 3 But the fate of them both was alike, for he, too, was killed after he had ruled for a few days in Illyricum.

Piso

21Legamen ad paginam Latinam This man65 was despatched by Macrianus to kill Valens, but on learning that he, foreseeing the future, had declared himself emperor, he withdrew into Thessaly; there by consent of a few he assumed the imperial power, taking the surname Thessalicus, but was then slain by violence. He was a man of the utmost righteousness and during his life-time he p117 was given the name Frugi, and he was said to derive his descent from that family of Pisos with which Cicero had formed an alliance for the purpose of entering the nobility. 66 2 He was highly esteemed by all the emperors; in fact, Valens himself, who is said to have sent the assassins against him, declared, it is told, that never could he render account to the gods of the lower world for having given an order to put Piso to death, albeit his enemy, for his like the Roman commonwealth did not contain.

3 I have gladly inserted the senate's decree67 which was passed concerning Piso, in order that his honours may be made known: On the seventh day before the Kalends of July, when word had been brought that Piso was slain by Valens and Valens himself by his own soldiers, Arellius Fuscus,68 the consular whose right it was to give his opinion first, said: "Consul, consult us. " 4 And on being asked his opinion, he said, "I propose divine honours for Piso, Conscript Fathers, and I firmly believe that this will be approved by our emperors, Gallienus, Valerian, and Saloninus; for never was there a better man or a braver. " 5 After him the others also on being consulted voted Piso a statue among the triumphant generals and also a four-horse chariot. 6 His statue is still to be seen, but the chariot which they decreed was erected only to be moved elsewhere, and it has not yet been brought back. 7 For it was set up in the place where the Bath of Diocletian69 was afterwards built, destined to have a name as undying as it is revered. p119

Aemilianus70

22Legamen ad paginam Latinam It is the wont of the people of Egypt that like madmen and fools they are led by the most trivial matters to become highly dangerous to the commonwealth;71 2 for merely because a greeting was omitted, or a place in the baths refused, or meat and vegetables withheld, or on account of the boots of slaves or some other such things, they have broken out into riots, even to the point of becoming highly dangerous to the state, so that troops have been armed to quell them. 3 With their wonted madness, accordingly, on a certain occasion, when the slave of the chief magistrate72 then governing Alexandria had been killed by a soldier for asserting that his sandals were better than the soldier's, a mob gathered together, and, coming to the house of the general Aemilianus, it assailed him with all the implements and the frenzy usual in riots; he was pelted with stones and attacked with swords, and no kind of weapon used in a riot was lacking. 4 And so Aemilianus was constrained to assume the imperial power, knowing well that he would have to die in any event. 5 To this step the army in Egypt agreed, chiefly out of hatred for Gallienus. 6 He did not, indeed, lack energy for administering public affairs. For he marched through the district of Thebes and, in fact, the whole of p121 Egypt, and to the best of his powers drove back the barbarians with courage and firmness. 7 Finally, he won by his merits the name of Alexander, or else Alexandrinus — for this is considered uncertain. 8 But when he was making ready for a campaign against the people of India, the general Theodotus was sent against him by order of Gallienus, and so he suffered punishment, for it is related that, like the captives of old,73 he was strangled in prison.

9 Now, since I am speaking of Egypt, I think I must not fail to relate what the history of former times has suggested and, in connection therewith, a deed of Gallienus. 10 For when he wished to confer proconsular power on Theodotus, the priests forbade it, saying that it was not lawful for the consular fasces to be brought into Alexandria. 11 This, we know well enough, was mentioned by Cicero in his speech against Gabinius,74 and, in fact, it is still remembered that this practice was maintained. 12 Therefore, your75 kinsman Herennius Celsus,76 in seeking the consulship, ought to know that what he desires is not lawful. 13 For at Memphis, they say, it was written on a golden column in Egyptian letters that Egypt would at last regain its freedom when the Roman fasces and the Roman bordered toga had been brought into the land. 14 This may be found in Proculus77 the grammarian, the most learned man of his time, in the place where he tells of foreign countries. p123

Saturninus

23Legamen ad paginam Latinam The best of the generals of the time of Gallienus, though, in fact, he was chosen by Valerian, was Saturninus. 78 2 He also, being unable to endure the loose ways of Gallienus, who revelled all night in public places, and preferring to command the soldiers in his own way rather than in that of his emperor, accepted the imperial power from the army. He was a man unequalled in wisdom, outstanding in dignity, lovable in his ways, and because of his victories well known everywhere, even among the barbarians. 3 On the day on which the soldiers clothed him with the imperial robe he called together an assembly, it is related, and said: Fellow-soldiers, you have lost a good general and made a bad emperor. " 4 Finally, after doing many vigorous deeds during his rule, merely because he was too severe and too harsh to the soldiers he was killed by those very men who had made him emperor. 5 He is famous for having commanded the soldiers, when reclining at table, to wear military cloaks in order that their lower limbs might not be bared, heavy ones in winter and very light ones in summer.

Tetricus the Elder79

24Legamen ad paginam Latinam After Victorinus80 and his son were slain, his mother Victoria (or Vitruvia) urged Tetricus, a Roman senator then holding the governorship of p125 Gaul,81 to take the imperial power, for the reason, many relate, that he was her kinsman; she then caused him to be entitled Augustus and bestowed on his son the name of Caesar. 2 But after Tetricus had done many deeds with success and had ruled for a long time he was defeated82 by Aurelian, and, being unable to bear the impudence and shamelessness of his soldiers, he surrendered of his own free will to this prince most harsh and severe. 3 In fact, a quotation of his is cited, which he secretly sent in writing to Aurelian:—

"Save me, O hero unconquered, from these my misfortunes. "83
4 And so Aurelian, who did not readily plan aught that was guileless or merciful or peaceful, led this man, though he was a senator of the Roman people and a consular and had ruled the provinces of Gaul with a governor's powers, in his triumphal procession at the same time84 as Zenobia, the wife of Odaenathus, and the younger sons of Odaenathus, Herennianus and Timolaus. 85 5 Aurelian, nevertheless, exceedingly stern though he was, overcome by a sense of shame, made Tetricus, whom he had led in triumph, supervisor over the whole of Italy,86 that is, over Campania, Samnium, Lucania, Bruttium, Apulia, Calabria, Etruria and Umbria, Picenum and the Flaminian district, and the entire grain-bearing region, and suffered him not only to retain his life p127 but also to remain in the highest position, calling him frequently colleague, sometimes fellow-soldier, and sometimes even emperor.

Tetricus the Younger

25Legamen ad paginam Latinam He,87 when a little lad, received the name of Caesar from Victoria when she herself had been entitled by the army Mother of the Camp. 2 He was, furthermore, led in triumph along with his father, but later he enjoyed all the honours of a senator; nor was his inheritance diminished, and, indeed, he passed it on to his descendants, and was ever, as Arellius Fuscus88 reports, a man of distinction. 3 My grandfather89 used to declare that he was a friend of his own, and that never was any one given preference over him either by Aurelian or by any of the later emperors. 4 The house of the Tetrici is still standing to‑day, situated on the Caelian Hill between the two groves and facing the Temple of Isis built by Metellus;90 and a most beautiful one it is, and in it Aurelian is depicted bestowing on both the Tetrici the bordered toga and the rank of senator and receiving from them a sceptre, a chaplet, and an embroidered robe. This picture is in mosaic, and it is said that the two Tetrici, when they dedicated it, invited Aurelian himself to a banquet. p129

Trebellianus

26Legamen ad paginam Latinam I am by this time ashamed to tell how many tyrants there were in the reign of Gallienus, all on account of the vices of that pestiferous man, for such, indeed, were his excesses that he deserved to have many rebels rise up against him, and such his cruelty that he was rightly regarded with fear. 2 This cruelty he showed also toward Trebellianus,91 who was made ruler in Isauria92 — for the Isaurians desired a leader for themselves. He, though others dubbed him archpirate, gave himself the title of emperor. He even gave orders to strike coins93 and he set up an imperial palace in a certain Isaurian stronghold. 3 Then, when he had betaken himself into the inmost and safest parts of Isauria, where he was protected by the natural difficulty of the ground and by the mountains, he ruled for some time among the Cilicians. 4 Camsisoleus,94 however, Gallienus' general and an Egyptian by race, the brother of that Theodotus who had captured Aemilianus, brought him down to the plains and then defeated and slew him. 5 Never afterwards, however, was it possible to persuade the Isaurians, fearing that Gallienus might vent his anger upon them, to come down to the level ground, not even by any offer of kindness on the part of the emperors. 6 In fact, since the time of Trebellianus they have been considered barbarians; for indeed their district, though in the midst of lands belonging to the Romans, is guarded by a novel kind of defence, comparable to a frontier-wall, for it is protected not by men but by the nature of the country. 7 For the Isaurians are not of noble stature or distinguished courage, not well provided with arms or wise in counsel, but they are kept p131 safe by this alone that, dwelling, as they do, on the heights, no one can approach them. The Deified Claudius did, it is true, almost persuade them to leave their native lands and settle in Cilicia,95 planning to give the entire possessions of the Isaurians to one of his most loyal friends in order that never again might a rebellion arise therein.

Herennianus

27Legamen ad paginam Latinam Odaenathus, when he died, left two little sons, Herennianus and his brother Timolaus,96 in whose name Zenobia seized the imperial power, holding the government longer than was meet for a woman. These boys she displayed clad in the purple robe of a Roman emperor and she brought them to public gatherings which she attended in the fashion of a man, holding up, among other examples, Dido and Semiramis, and Cleopatra, the founder of her family. 97 2 The manner of their death, however, is uncertain; for many maintain that they were killed by Aurelian, and many that they died a natural death, since Zenobia's descendants still remain among the nobles of Rome.

Timolaus

28Legamen ad paginam Latinam With regard to him we consider only those things to be worth knowing which have been told concerning his brother. 2 One thing there is, p133 however, which distinguishes him from his brother, that is, that such was his eagerness for Roman studies that in a short time, it is said, he made good the statement of his teacher of letters, who had said that he was in truth able to make him the greatest of Latin rhetoricians.

Celsus

29Legamen ad paginam Latinam When the various parts of the empire were seized, namely Gaul, the Orient, and even Pontus, Thrace and Illyricum, and while Gallienus was spending his time in public-houses and giving up his life to bathing and pimps, the Africans also, at the instance of Vibius Passienus, the proconsul of Africa, and Fabius Pomponianus, the general in command of the Libyan frontier, created an emperor, namely Celsus,98 decking him with the robe of the goddess Caelestis. 99 2 This man, a commoner and formerly a tribune stationed in Africa, was then living on his own estates, but such was his reputation for justice and such the size of his body that he seemed worthy of the imperial power. 3 Therefore he was made emperor, but on the seventh day of his rule he was killed by a woman named Galliena, a cousin of Gallienus, and so he has scarcely found a place even among the least known of the emperors. 4 His body was devoured by dogs, for such was the command of the people of Sicca,100 who had remained faithful to Gallienus, and then with a new kind of insult his image was set up on a cross, while the mob pranced about, as though they were looking at Celsus himself affixed to a gibbet. p135

Zenobia

30Legamen ad paginam Latinam Now all shame is exhausted, for in the weakened state of the commonwealth things came to such a pass that, while Gallienus conducted himself in the most evil fashion, even women ruled most excellently. 2 For, in fact, even a foreigner, Zenobia101 by name, about whom much has already been said, boasting herself to be of the family of the Cleopatras and the Ptolemies,102 proceeded upon the death of her husband Odaenathus to cast about her shoulders the imperial mantle; and arrayed in the robes of Dido and even assuming the diadem, she held the imperial power in the name of her sons Herennianus and Timolaus,103 ruling longer than could be endured from one of the female sex. 3 For this proud woman performed the functions of a monarch both while Gallienus was ruling and afterwards when Claudius was busied with the war against the Goths,104 and in the end could scarcely by conquered by Aurelian himself, under whom she was led in triumph and submitted to the sway of Rome.

4 There is still in existence a letter of Aurelian's which bears testimony concerning this woman, then in captivity. For when some found fault with him, because he, the bravest of men, had led a woman in triumph, as though she were a general, he sent a letter to the senate and the Roman people, defending himself by the following justification: 5 "I have heard, p137 Conscript Fathers, that men are reproaching me for having performed an unmanly deed in leading Zenobia in triumph. But in truth those very persons who find fault with me now would accord me praise in abundance, did they but know what manner of woman she is, how wise in counsels, how steadfast in plans, how firm toward the soldiers, how generous when necessity calls, and how stern when discipline demands. 6 I might even say that it was her doing that Odaenathus defeated the Persians and, after putting Sapor to flight, advanced all the way to Ctesiphon. 105 7 I might add thereto that such was the fear that this woman inspired in the peoples of the East and also the Egyptians that neither Arabs nor Saracens nor Armenians ever moved against her. 8 Nor would I have spared her life, had I not known that she did a great service to the Roman state when she preserved the imperial power in the East for herself, or for her children. 9 Therefore let those whom nothing pleases keep the venom of their own tongues to themselves. 10 For if it is not meet to vanquish a woman and lead her in triumph, what are they saying of Gallienus, in contempt of whom she ruled the empire well? 11 What of the Deified Claudius, that revered and honoured leader? For he, because he was busied with his campaigns against the Goths, suffered her, or so it is said, to hold the imperial power, doing it of purpose and wisely, in order that he himself, while she kept guard over the eastern frontier of the empire, might the more safely complete what he had taken in hand. " 12 This speech shows what opinion Aurelian held concerning Zenobia.

Such was her continence, it is said, that she would not know even her own husband save for the purpose p139 of conception. For when once she had lain with him, she would refrain until the time of menstruation to see if she were pregnant; if not, she would again grant him an opportunity of begetting children. 13 She lived in regal pomp. It was rather in the manner of the Persians that she received worship and in the manner of the Persian kings that she banqueted; 14 but it was in the manner of a Roman emperor that she came forth to public assemblies, wearing a helmet and girt with a purple fillet, which had gems hanging from the lower edge, while its centre was fastened with the jewel called cochlis,106 used instead of the brooch worn by women, and her arms were frequently bare. 15 Her face was dark and of a swarthy hue, her eyes were black and powerful beyond the usual wont, her spirit divinely great, and her beauty incredible. So white were her teeth that many thought that she had pearls in place of teeth. 16 Her voice was clear and like that of a man. Her sternness, when necessity demanded, was that of a tyrant, her clemency, when her sense of right called for it, that of a good emperor. Generous with prudence, she conserved her treasures beyond the wont of women. 17 She made use of a carriage, and rarely of a woman's coach, but more often she rode a horse; it is said, moreover, that frequently she walked with her foot-soldiers for three or four miles. 18 She hunted with the eagerness of a Spaniard. She often drank with her generals, though at other times she refrained, and she drank, too, with the Persians and the Armenians, but only for the purpose of getting the better of them. 19 At her banquets she used vessels of gold and jewels, and she even used those that had been Cleopatra's. As servants she had eunuchs of advanced age and but p141 very few maidens. 20 She ordered her sons to talk Latin, so that, in fact, they spoke Greek but rarely and with difficulty. 21 She herself was not wholly conversant with the Latin tongue, but nevertheless, mastering her timidity she would speak it; Egyptian, on the other hand, she spoke very well. 22 In the history of Alexandria and the Orient she was so well versed that she even composed an epitome, so it is said; Roman history, however, she read in Greek.

23 When Aurelian had taken her prisoner, he caused her to be led into his presence and then addressed her thus: "Why is it, Zenobia, that you dared to show insolence to the emperors of Rome? " To this she replied, it is said: "You, I know, are an emperor indeed, for you win victories, but Gallienus and Aureolus and the others I never regarded as emperors. Believing Victoria107 to be a woman like me, I desired to become a partner in the royal power, should the supply of lands permit. " 24 And so she was led in triumph with such magnificence that the Roman people had never seen a more splendid parade. For, in the first place, she was adorned with gems so huge that she laboured under the weight of her ornaments; 25 for it is said that this woman, courageous though she was, halted very frequently, saying that she could not endure the load of her gems. 26 Furthermore, her feet were bound with shackles of gold and her hands with golden fetters, and even on her neck she wore a chain of gold, the weight of which was borne by a Persian buffoon. 108 27 Her life was granted her by Aurelian, and they say that thereafter she lived with her children in the manner of a Roman matron on an estate that had been presented to her at Tibur, which even to p143 this day is still called Zenobia, not far from the palace of Hadrian109 or from that place which bears the name of Concha.

Victoria

31Legamen ad paginam Latinam It would, indeed, be an unworthy thing that Vitruvia also, or rather Victoria,110 should be given a place in letters, had not the ways of Gallienus brought it about that women, too, should be deemed worthy of mention. 2 For Victoria, after seeing her son and grandson slain by the soldiers, and also Postumus, then Lollianus, and Marius111 too (whom the soldiers had named emperor) all put to death, urged Tetricus, of whom I have spoken above,112 to seize the power, solely that she might always be daring the deeds of a man. She was distinguished, furthermore, by her title, for she called herself Mother of the Camp. 113 3 Coins, too, were struck in her name,114 of bronze and gold and silver, and even to‑day the type is still in existence among the Treviri. 115 4 She did not, indeed, live long; for during Tetricus' rule she was slain, some say, while others assert that she succumbed to the destiny of fate.

5 This is all that I have deemed worthy of being related concerning the thirty pretenders, all of whom I have gathered into one book, lest the telling of each single detail about each one singly might bring about an aversion that is undeserved and not to be p145 borne by my readers. 6 Now I will return to the Emperor Claudius. Concerning him I think I should publish a special book, short though it be, for his manner of life deserves it, and I must say something, besides, about that peerless man, his brother,116 in order that at least a few facts may be told of so righteous and noble a family.

7 It was with deliberate purpose that I included the women, namely that I might make a mock of Gallienus, a greater monster than whom the Roman state has never endured; now I will add two pretenders besides, supernumeraries, so to speak, for they lived each at a different period, since one was of the time of Maximinus, the other of the time of Claudius, my purpose being to include in this book the lives of thirty pretenders. 8 I ask you, accordingly, you who have received this book now completed, to look on my plan with favour and to consent to add to your volume these two, whom I had purposed to include after Claudius and Aurelian among those who lived between Tacitus and Diocletian, just as I included the elder Valens117 in this present book. 9 This error on my part, however, your accurate learning, mindful of history, prevented. 10 And so I am grateful that the kindliness of your wisdom has filled out my title. Now no one in the Temple of Peace118 will say that among the pretenders I included women, female pretenders, forsooth, or, rather, pretendresses — for this they are wont to bandy about concerning me with merriment and jests. 11 They have now the number complete, gathered into my writings from the secret stores of history. For 12 I will add to my work Titus and Censorinus, the former of whom, as p147 I have said, lived under Maximinus and the latter under Claudius, but both were slain by the very soldiers who clothed them with the purple.

Titus119

32Legamen ad paginam Latinam It is related by Dexippus120 and not left unmentioned by Herodian121 or any of those who have recorded such things for posterity to read, that Titus, once a tribune of the Moors but reduced by Maximinus to the position of a civilian, fearing a violent death, as they narrate, but reluctantly, so most assert, and compelled by the soldiers, seized the imperial power. But within a few days, after the revolt was put down which Magnus,122 a man of consular rank, led against Maximinus, he was slain by his own troops. He reigned, however, for the space of six months. 2 He was one who especially deserved the praise of the commonwealth both at home and abroad, but in his ruling he had ill-fortune. 3 Some say, on the other hand, that he was made emperor by the Armenian123 bowmen, whom Maximinus hated as devoted to Alexander and to whom he had given offence. 4 You will not, indeed, wonder that there is such diversity of statement about this man, for even his name is scarcely known. 5 His wife was Calpurnia, a revered and venerated woman of the stock of the Caesonini (that is, of the Pisos),124 to whom our fathers did reverence as a priestess married but once and among the most holy of women, and whose statue p149 we have seen still standing in the Temple of Venus, its head, hands and feet made of marble but the rest of it gilded. 6 She is said to have owned the pearls that once belonged to Cleopatra and a silver platter weighing •a hundred pounds, of which many poets have made mention and on which was shown wrought in relief the history of her forefathers.

7 I seem to have gone on further than the matter demanded. But what am I to do? For knowledge is ever wordy through a natural inclination. 8 Wherefore I shall now return to Censorinus, a man of noble birth, but said to have ruled for seven days not so much to the welfare as to the hurt of the state.

Censorinus125

33Legamen ad paginam Latinam He was a soldier, indeed, and a man of old-time dignity in the senate-house, having been twice consul, twice prefect of the guard, three times prefect of the city, four times proconsul, three times legate of consular rank, twice of praetorian, four times of aedilician, three times of quaestorian, and having held the post of envoy extraordinary to the Persians and also to the Sarmatians.

2 Nevertheless, after all these offices, while living on his own estates, now an old man and lame in one foot from a wound received in the Persian War under Valerian, he was created emperor and by a jester's witticism given the name of Claudius. 126 3 But when he proceeded to act with the greatest severity and became intolerable to the soldiers because of his rigid discipline, he was put to death by the very men who had made him emperor. 4 His tomb is still in p151 existence near Bologna, and on it are inscribed in large letters all the honours he had held, but in the last line there is added: "Happy in all things, as emperor most hapless. " 5 His family is still in existence,127 well known by the name of Censorini, some of whom, in their hatred of all things Roman, have departed to Thrace, and some to Bithynia. 6 His house, too, is still in existence, and a most beautiful one it is, adjacent to the Flavian House,128 which is said to have once belonged to the Emperor Titus.

7 You have now the complete number of the thirty tyrants, you who used to dispute with those ill disposed to me, though always in a kindly spirit. 8 Now bestow on any one you wish this little book, written not with elegance but with fidelity to truth. Nor, in fact, do I seem to myself to have made any promise of literary style, but only of facts, for these little works which I have composed on the lives of the emperors I do not write down but only dictate, and I dictate them, indeed, with that speed, which, whether I promise aught of my own accord or you request it, you urge with such insistence that I have not even the opportunity of drawing breath.

The Life of Claudius

1 1 [Legamen ad paginam Latinam] I have now come to the Emperor Claudius,1 whose life I must set forth in writing with all due care, out of respect for Constantius Caesar. I could not, indeed, refuse to write of him, inasmuch as I had already written of others, emperors created in tumult, I mean, and princes of no importance, all in that book which I composed about the thirty pretenders and which now includes even a descendant of Cleopatra2 and a Victoria;3 2 for things had come to such a pass that, for the sake of comparison with Gallienus, I was forced to write even the lives of women. 4 3 And, in fact, it would not be right to leave unmentioned an emperor who left us such a scion of his race,5 who ended the war against the Goths by his own valour, p155 who as victor laid a healing hand upon the public miseries, who, though not the contriver of the plan,6 nevertheless thrust Gallienus, that monstrous emperor, from the helm of the state, himself destined to rule for the good of the human race, who, finally, had he but tarried longer in this commonwealth, would by his strength, his counsel, and his foresight have restored to us the Scipios, the Camilli, and all those men of old.

Legamen ad paginam Latinam 2 1 Short, indeed, was the time of his rule — I cannot deny it — but too short would it have been, could such a man as he have ruled even as long as human life may last. 2 For what was there in him that was not admirable? that was not pre-eminent?
that was not superior to the triumphant generals of remote antiquity? 3 The valour of Trajan, the righteousness of Antoninus, the self-restraint of Augustus, and the good qualities of all the great emperors, all these were his to such a degree that he did not merely take others as examples, but, even if these others had never existed, he himself would have left an example to all who came after. 4 Now the most learned of the astrologers hold that one hundred and twenty years have been allotted to man for living and assert that no one has ever been granted a longer span; they even tell us that Moses alone, the friend of God,7 as he is called in the books of the Jews, lived for one hundred and twenty-five years,8 and that when he complained that he was dying in his prime, he received from an unknown god, so they say, the reply that no one should ever live longer. 5 But even if Claudius had lived for one hundred and twenty-five years — as his life, so marvellous and admirable, shows us — we need not, as Tullius says of Scipio,9 have p157 expected for him even a natural death. 6 For what great quality did not that man exhibit both at home and abroad? He loved his parents; what wonder in that? He loved also his brothers; that, indeed, may seem worthy of wonder. He envied none, but he punished evil-doers. 7 Judges guilty of theft he condemned openly and in public; but to the stupid he extended a sort of careless indulgence. He enacted most excellent laws. 8 Indeed, so great a man did he show himself in public affairs, that the greatest princes chose a descendant of his to hold the imperial power, and a bettered senate desired him.

Legamen ad paginam Latinam 3 1 Some one perhaps may believe that I am speaking thus to win the favour of Constantius Caesar, but your sense of justice and my own past life will bear me witness that never have I thought or said or done anything to curry favour. 10 2 I am speaking of the Emperor Claudius, whose manner of life, whose uprightness, and whose whole career in the state have brought him such fame among later generations that after his death the senate and people of Rome bestowed on him unprecedented rewards: 3 in his honour there was set up in the Senate-house at Rome, by desire of the entire senate, a golden clipeus11 — or clipeum, as the grammarians say12 — and even at the present time his likeness may be seen in the bust that stands out in relief; 4 in his honour — and to none before him — the Roman people at their own expense erected a golden statue •ten feet high on the Capitol in front of the Temple of Jupiter, Best and Greatest; 5 in his honour by action of the entire world there was placed on the Rostra a column bearing a silver statue p159 arrayed in the palm-embroidered tunic13 and weighing •fifteen hundred pounds. 6 It was he who, as though mindful of the future, enlarged the Flavian House,14 which had also belonged to Vespasian and Titus, and — I say it reluctantly — toº Domitian as well. It was he who, in a brief space of time, put an end to the war against the Goths. 15 7 Therefore the senate and people of Rome, foreign nations and provinces, too, must all be his flatterers, for indeed all ranks, all ages, and all communities have honoured this noble emperor with statues, banners, and crowns, shrines and arches, altars and temples.

Legamen ad paginam Latinam 4 1 It will be of interest, both to those who imitate righteous princes and to the whole world of mankind as well, to learn the decrees of the senate that were passed about this man, in order that all may know the official opinion concerning him. 2 For when it was announced in the shrine of the Great Mother on the ninth day before the Kalends of April,16 the day of the shedding of blood,17 that Claudius had been created emperor, the senators could not be held together for performing the sacred rites, but donning their togas they set forth to the Temple of Apollo,18 and there, when the letter of the Emperor Claudius was read, the following acclamations were shouted in his honour:19 3 "Claudius Augustus, may the gods preserve you! " said sixty times. "Claudius Augustus, you or such as you we have ever desired for our emperor," said forty times. "Claudius Augustus, the p161 state was in need of you," said forty times. "Claudius Augustus, you are brother, father, friend, righteous senator, and truly prince," said eighty times. 4 "Claudius Augustus, deliver us from Aureolus," said five times. "Claudius Augustus, deliver us from the men of Palmyra," said five times. "Claudius Augustus, set us free from Zenobia and from Vitruvia," said seven times. "Claudius Augustus, nothing has Tetricus accomplished," said seven times.

Legamen ad paginam Latinam 5 1 As soon as he was made emperor, entering into battle against Aureolus,20 who was the more dangerous to the commonwealth because he had found great favour with Gallienus, he thrust him from the helm of the state; then he pronounced him a pretender, sending proclamations to the people and also despatching messages to the senate. 2 It must be told in addition that when Aureolus pleaded with him and sought to make terms, this stern and unbending emperor refused to hearken, but rejected him with a reply as follows: "This should have been sought from Gallienus; for his character was like your own, he, too, could feel fear. " 3 Finally, near Milan, by the judgement of his own soldiers Aureolus met with an end worthy of his life and character. And yet certain historians have tried to praise him, though indeed most absurdly. 4 For Gallus Antipater,21 the handmaiden of honours and the dishonour of historians,22 composed a preface about Aureolus, beginning as follows: "We have now come to an emperor who resembled his own name. " Great virtue, forsooth, to get one's name from gold! 5 I, however, know well that among gladiators this name has often been given to courageous fighters. Indeed, only recently your p163 own announcement of games contained in the list of the combatants this very name.

Legamen ad paginam Latinam 6 1 But let us return to Claudius. For, as we have said before, those Goths who had escaped when Marcianus chastised them23 and those whom Claudius, hoping to prevent what actually came to pass, had not allowed to break forth,24 fired all the tribes of their fellow-countrymen with the hope of Roman booty. 25 2 Finally, the various tribes of the Scythians, the Peucini, Greuthungi, Austrogothi, Tervingi, Visi, and Gepedes, and also the Celts and the Eruli, in their desire for plunder burst into Roman territory and there proceeded to ravage many districts; for meanwhile Claudius was busied with other things and was making preparation, like a true commander, for that war which he finally brought to an end; 3 and so it may seem that the destiny of Rome was retarded by the diligence of an excellent prince, but I, for my part, believe that it so came to pass in order that the glory of Claudius might be enhanced and his victory have a greater renown throughout the whole world. 4 There were then, in fact, three hundred and twenty thousand men of these tribes under arms. 5 Now let him who accuses us of flattery26 say that Claudius was not worthy of being beloved! Three hundred and p165 twenty thousand armed men! What Xerxes,27 pray, had so many? What tale has ever imagined, what poet ever conceived such a number? There were three hundred and twenty thousand armed men! 6 Add to these their slaves, add also their families, their waggon-trains, too, consider the streams they drank dry and the forests they burned, and, finally, the labour of the earth itself which carried such a swollen mass of barbarians!

Legamen ad paginam Latinam 7 1 There is still in existence a letter of his, sent to the senate to be read before the people, in which he tells the number of the barbarians. It is as follows: 2 "From the Emperor Claudius to the senate and people of Rome. " (This letter, it is said, he dictated himself, and I will not demand the version of the secretary of memoranda. )28 3 "Conscript Fathers, you will hear with wonder what is only the truth. Three hundred and twenty thousand barbarians have come in arms into Roman territory. If I defeat them, do you requite my services; if I fail to defeat them, reflect that I am striving to fight after Gallienus' reign. 4 The whole commonwealth is exhausted. We are fighting now after Valerian, after Ingenuus, after Regalianus, after Lollianus, after Postumus, after Celsus, and after a thousand others, who, in their contempt for an evil prince, revolted against the commonwealth. 5 No shields, no swords, no spears are left to us now. The provinces of Gaul and Spain, the sources of strength for the state, are held by Tetricus, and all the bowmen — I blush to say it — Zenobia now possesses. Anything we accomplish will be achievement enough. "

6 These barbarians, then, Claudius overcame by his own inborn valour and crushed in a brief space of time, suffering scarcely any to return to their native p167 soil. What reward for such a victory, I ask you, is a shield29 in the Senate-house? What reward is one golden statue? 7 Of Scipio Ennius wrote:30 "What manner of statue, what manner of column shall the Roman people make, to tell of your deeds? " 8 We can say with truth that Flavius31 Claudius, an emperor without peer upon earth, is raised to eminence not by any columns or statues but by the power of fame.

Legamen ad paginam Latinam 8 1 They had, furthermore, two thousand ships, twice as many, that is, as the number with which all Greece and all Thessaly together once sought to conquer the cities of Asia. 32 This number, however, was devised by the pen of a poet, while ours is found in truthful history. 2 And so do we writers flatter Claudius! 33 the man by whom two thousand barbarian ships and three hundred and twenty thousand armed men were crushed, destroyed and blotted out, and by whom a waggon-train, as great as this host of armed men could fit out and make ready, was in part consigned to the flames and in part delivered over, along with the families of all, to Roman servitude. 3 This is shown by the following letter of his, written to Junius Brocchus,34 then in command of Illyricum:

4 "From Claudius to Brocchus. We have destroyed three hundred and twenty thousand Goths, we have sunk two thousand ships. 5 The rivers are covered over with their shields, all the banks are buried under their swords and their spears. The fields are hidden beneath their bones, no road is clear, their mighty waggon-train has been abandoned. 6 We have captured so many women that the victorious soldiers can take for themselves two or three apiece. Legamen ad paginam Latinam 9 1 And would that the commonwealth had not had to endure Gallienus! Would that it had not had to bear six p169 hundred pretenders! Had but those soldiers been saved who fell in divers battles, those legions saved which Gallienus destroyed, disastrously victorious,35 how much strength would the state have gained! 2 Now, indeed, my diligence has but gathered together for the preservation of the Roman commonwealth the scattered remains of the shipwrecked state. "

3 For there was fighting in Moesia and there were many battles near Marcianopolis. 36 4 Many perished by shipwreck, many kings were captured, noble women of divers tribes taken prisoner, and the Roman provinces filled with barbarian slaves and Scythian husbandmen. 37 The Goth was made the tiller of the barbarian frontier, 5 nor was there a single district which did not have Gothic slaves in triumphant servitude. 6 How many cattle takenº from the barbarians did our forefathers see? How many ships? How many Celtic mares, which fame has rendered renowned? All these redound to the glory of Claudius. For Claudius gave the state both security and an abundance of riches. 7 There was fighting, besides, at Byzantium,38 for those Byzantines who survived acted with courage. 8 There was fighting at Thessalonica, to which the barbarians had laid siege while Claudius was far away. 9 There was fighting in divers places, and in all of them, under the auspices of Claudius, the Goths were defeated, so that even then he seemed to be making the commonwealth safe in days to come for his nephew Constantius Caesar. 39

p171 10 1 Legamen ad paginam Latinam It has fortunately come into my mind, and so I must relate the oracle given to Claudius in Comagena,40 so it is said, in order that all may know that the family of Claudius was divinely appointed to bring happiness to the state. 2 For when he inquired, after being made emperor, how long he was destined to rule, there came forth the following oracle:41

3 "Thou, who dost now direct thy fathers' empire,
Who dost govern the world, the gods' viceregent,
Shalt surpass men of old in thy descendants;
For those children of thine shall rule as monarchs,
And make their children into monarchs also. "
4 Similarly, when once in the Apennines he asked about his future, he received the following reply:

"Three times only shall summer behold him a ruler in Latium. "42
5 Likewise, when he asked about his descendants:

"Neither a goal nor a limit of time will I set for their power. "43
6 Likewise, when he asked about his brother Quintillus,44 whom he was planning to make his associate in the imperial power, the reply was:

"Him shall Fate but display to the earth. "45
7 These oracles I have included, in order that it may be clear to all that Constantius, scion of a family divinely appointed, our most venerated Caesar, himself springs from a house of Augusti and will give us, likewise, many Augusti of his own — with all safety to the Augusti Diocletian and Maximian and his brother Galerius.

p173 Legamen ad paginam Latinam 11 1 While these things were being done by the Deified Claudius, the Palmyrenes, under the generals Saba and Timagenes, made war against the Egyptians,46 who defeated them with true Egyptian pertinacity and unwearied continuance in fighting. 2 Probatus, nevertheless, the leader of the Egyptians, was killed by a trick of Timagenes'. All the Egyptians, however, submitted to the Roman emperor, swearing allegiance to Claudius although he was absent.

3 In the consulship of Antiochianus and Orfitus the favour of heaven furthered Claudius' success. For a great multitude, the survivors of the barbarian tribes, who had gathered in Haemimontum,47 were so stricken with famine and pestilence that Claudius now scorned to conquer them further. 4 And so at length that most cruel of wars was brought to an end, and the Roman nation was freed from its terrors. 48

5 Now good faith forces me to speak the truth, and also the desire of showing to those who wish me to appear as a flatterer49 that I am not concealing what history demands should be told: 6 namely, that at the time when the victory was won in full, a number of Claudius' soldiers, puffed up with success — which "weakens the mind of even the wise"50 — turned to plundering; for they did not reflect that, while busied p175 in mind and in body, they gave themselves up to seizing their prey, a very few could put them to flight. 7 And so, at the very moment of victory, about two thousand soldiers were slain by a few barbarians, who had already been routed. 8 When Claudius learned this, however, he assembled his army and seized all those who had shown a rebellious spirit, and he even sent them to Rome in chains to be used in the public spectacles. So, whatever damage either fortune or the soldiers had caused was made good through the courage of the excellent prince, and not only was victory won from the enemy, but revenge was taken as well. 9 In this war, throughout its whole length, the valour of the Dalmatian horsemen stood out as especially great, because it was thought that Claudius claimed that province as his original home;51 others, however, declared that he was a Dardanian and derived his descent from Ilus, a king of the Trojans and, in fact, even from Dardanus himself.

Legamen ad paginam Latinam 12 1 During this same period the Scythians attempted to plunder in Crete and Cyprus as well, but everywhere their armies were likewise stricken with pestilence and so were defeated. 52

2 Now when the war with the Goths was finished, there spread abroad a most grievous pestilence, and then Claudius himself was stricken by the disease, and, leaving mankind, he departed to heaven, an abode befitting his virtues. 53 3 He, then, moved away p177 to the gods and the stars, and his brother Quintillus,54 a righteous man and the brother indeed, as I might truly say, of his brother, assumed the imperial power, which was offered him by the judgement of all, not as an inherited possession, but because his virtues deserved it; for all would have made him emperor, even if he had not been the brother of theº Claudius their prince. 4 In his time those barbarians who still survived endeavoured to lay waste Anchialus55 and even to seize Nicopolis,56 but they were crushed by the valour of the provincials. 5 Quintillus, however, could do naught that was worthy of the imperial power because his rule was so short, for on the seventeenth day of his reign57 he was killed, as Galba58 had been and Pertinax59 also, because he had shown himself stern and unbending toward the soldiers and promised to be a prince in very truth. 6 Dexippus,60 to be sure, does not say that Quintillus was killed, but merely that he died. He does not, however, relate that he died of an illness, and so he seems to feel doubt.

Legamen ad paginam Latinam 13 1 Since we have now described his achievements in war, we must tell a few things, at least, concerning the kindred and the family of Claudius, lest we seem to omit what all should know: 2 now Claudius, Quintillus, and Crispus were brothers, and Crispus had a daughter Claudia; of her and Eutropius, the noblest man of the Dardanian folk, was born Constantius p179 Caesar. 61 3 There were also some sisters, of whom one, Constantina by name, was married to a tribune of the Assyrians, but died at an early age. 4 Concerning his grandparents we know all too little, for varying statements have been handed down by most of the writers.

5 Now Claudius himself was noted for the gravity of his character, and noted, too, for his matchless life and a singular purity; he was sparing in his use of wine, but was not averse to food; he was tall of stature, with flashing eyes and a broad, full face, and so strong were his fingers that often by a blow of his fist he would dash out the teeth of a horse or a mule. 6 He even performed a feat of this kind as a youth in military service, while taking part in a wrestling-match between some of the strongest champions at a spectacle in the Campus Martius held in honour of Mars. 7 For, becoming angry at one fellow who grasped at his private parts instead of his belt, he dashed out all the man's teeth with one blow of his fist. This action won him favour for thus protecting decency; 8 for the Emperor Decius, who was present when this was done, publicly praised his courage and modesty and presented him with arm-rings and collars,62 but bade him withdraw from the soldiers' contests for fear he might do some more violent deed than the wrestling required.

p181 9 Claudius himself had no children, but Quintillus left two sons, and Crispus, as I have said, a daughter.

Legamen ad paginam Latinam 14 1 Let us now proceed to the opinions that many emperors expressed about him, and in such wise, indeed, that it became apparent that he would some day be emperor.

2 A letter from Valerian to Zosimio, the procurator of Syria:63 "We have named Claudius, a man of Illyrian birth, as tribune of our most valiant and loyal Fifth Legion, the Martian,64 for he is superior to all the most loyal and most valiant men of old. 3 By way of supplies you will give him each year out of our private treasury three thousand pecks of wheat, six thousand pecks of barley, two thousand pounds of bacon, three thousand five hundred pints of well-aged wine, one hundred and fifty pints of the best oil, six hundred pints of oil of the second grade, twenty pecks of salt, one hundred and fifty pounds of wax, and as much hay and straw, cheap wine, greens and herbs as shall be sufficient, thirty half-score of hides for the tents; also six mules each year, three horses each year, fifty pounds of silverware each year, one hundred and fifty Philips,65 bearing our likeness, each year, and as a New-year's gift forty-seven Philips and one hundred and sixty third-Philips. 4 Likewise in cups and tankards and pots eleven pounds. 5 Also p183 two red military tunics each year, two military cloaks each year, two silver clasps gilded, one golden clasp with a Cyprian pin, one sword-belt of silver gilded, one ring with two gems to weigh an ounce, one armlet to weigh seven ounces, one collar to weigh a pound, one gilded helmet, two shields inlaid with gold, one cuirasse, to be returned. 6 Also two Herculian66 lances, two javelins, two reaping-hooks, and four reaping-hooks for cutting hay. 7 Also one cook, to be returned, one muleteer, to be returned, two beautiful women taken from the captives. 8 One white part-silk67 garment ornamented with purple from Girba,68 and one under-tunic with Moorish purple. 9 One secretary, to be returned, and one server at table, to be returned. 10 Two pairs of Cyprian couch-covers, two white under-garments, a pair of men's leg-bands,69 one toga, to be returned, one broad-striped tunic, to be returned. 11 Two huntsmen to serve as attendants, one waggon-maker, one headquarters-steward,70 one waterer, one fisherman, one confectioner. 12 One thousand pounds of fire-wood each day, if there is an abundant supply, but if not, as much as there is and wherever it is, and four braziers of charcoal each day. 13 One bath-man and firewood for the bath, but if there is none, he shall bathe in the public bath. 14 All else, which cannot be enumerated p185 here because of its insignificance you will supply in due amount, but in no case shall the equivalent in money be given, and if there should be a lack of anything in any place, it shall not be supplied, nor shall the equivalent be exacted in money. 15 All these things I have allowed him as a special case, as though he were not a mere tribune but rather a general, because to such a man as he an even larger allowance should be made. "

Legamen ad paginam Latinam 15 1 Likewise in another letter of Valerian's, addressed to Ablavius Murena, the prefect of the guard, among other statements the following: "Cease now your complaints that Claudius is still only a tribune and has not been appointed the leader of our armies, about which, you were wont to declare, the senate and people also complain. 2 He has been made a general, and, in fact, the general in command of all Illyricum. He has under his rule the armies of Thrace, Moesia, Dalmatia, Pannonia, and Dacia. 3 Indeed, this man, eminent in my estimation as well, may hope for the consulship, and, if it accords with his wishes, he may receive the prefecture of the guard whenever he desires. 4 I would have you know, moreover, that we have allotted to him the same amount of supplies that the prefect of Egypt receives, the same amount of clothing that we have allowed to the proconsulate of Africa, the same amount of silver that the procurator of the mines in Illyricum71 receives, and the same number of servants that we allot to ourselves in each and every community; for I wish all to know my opinion of such a man. "

Legamen ad paginam Latinam 16 1 Likewise a letter of Decius' concerning this same Claudius:
"From Decius to Messalla, the governor of Achaea, p187 greetings. " Among other orders the following: "But to our tribune Claudius, an excellent young man, a most courageous soldier, a most loyal citizen, necessary alike to the camp, the senate, and the commonwealth, we are giving instructions to proceed to Thermopylae, entrusting to his care the Peloponnesians also, for we know that no one will carry out more carefully all our injunctions. 2 You will assign him from the district of Dardania72 two hundred foot-soldiers, one hundred cuirassiers,73 sixty horsemen, sixty Cretan archers, and one thousand new recruits, all well armed. 3 For it is well to entrust new troops to him, inasmuch as none can be found more loyal, more valiant, or more earnest than he. "
Legamen ad paginam Latinam 17 1 Likewise a letter of Gallienus', written when he was informed by his private agents74 that Claudius was angered by his loose mode of life: 2 "Nothing has grieved me more than what you have stated in your report, namely, that Claudius, my kinsman and friend, has been made very angry by certain false statements that have reached his ears. 3 I request you, therefore, my dear Venustus, if you are faithful to me, to have him appeased by Gratus and Herennianus,75 while the Dacian troops, even now in a state of anger, are still in ignorance, for I fear there may be some serious outbreak. 4 I myself am sending him gifts, and you will see to it that he accepts them willingly. You will take care, furthermore, that he shall not become aware that I know all this and so suppose that I am incensed against him, and, accordingly, out of necessity adopt some desperate plan. 5 I am sending to him, moreover, two sacrificial saucers studded with gems three pounds in weight, two golden tankards studded with gems three pounds in weight, a silver disk-shaped p189 platter with an ivy-cluster pattern twenty pounds in weight, a silver dish with a vine-leaf pattern thirty pounds in weight, a silver bowl with an ivy-leaf pattern twenty-three pounds in weight, a silver vessel for fish twenty pounds in weight, two silver pitchers embossed with gold six pounds in weight and smaller vessels of silver amounting to twenty-five pounds in weight, ten cups of Egyptian and other workmanship, 6 two cloaks with purple borders of the true brilliance, sixteen garments of various kinds, a white one of part-silk, one tunic with bands of embroidery76 three ounces in weight, three pairs of Parthian shoes from our own supply, ten Dalmatian77 striped tunics, one Dardanian great-coat, one Illyrian mantle, 7 one hooded-cloak,78 two shaggy hoods, four handkerchiefs from Sarepta;79 also one hundred and fifty aurei with the likeness of Valerian and three hundred third-aurei with that of Saloninus. "80

Legamen ad paginam Latinam 18 1 He had also the approval of the senate before he became emperor, and weighty, indeed, it was. For when the announcement was made that he, together with Marcianus,81 had fought valiantly against the barbarian tribes in Illyricum, the senate acclaimed him thus:82 2 "Claudius, our most valiant leader, hail! Hail to your courage, hail to your loyalty! Let us all decree a statue to Claudius. We all desire Claudius as consul. 3 So acts he who loves the commonwealth, so acts he who loves the emperors, so acted the soldiers of old. Happy are you, Claudius, in the approval of princes, happy are you in your own valour, you our consul, you our p191 prefect! Long may you live, Valerius,83 and enjoy the love of your prince! "

4 It would be too long to set forth all the many honours that this man earned; one thing, however, I must not omit, namely, that both the senate and people held him in such affection both before his rule and during his rule and after his rule that it is generally agreed among all that neither Trajan nor any of the Antonines nor any other emperor was so beloved.

The Life of Aurelian
Part 1

1 1 [Legamen ad paginam Latinam] At the festival of the Hilaria1 — when, as we know, everything that is said and done should be of a joyous nature — when the ceremonies had been completed, Junius Tiberianus,2 the prefect of the city, an illustrious man and one to be named only with a prefix of deep respect, took me up into his carriage, that is to say, his official coach. 2 There his mind being now at leisure, relaxed and freed from law-pleas and public business, he engaged in much conversation all the way from the Palatine Hill to the Gardens of Varius,3 his theme being chiefly the lives of the emperors. 3 And when we had reached the Temple of the Sun,4 consecrated by the Emperor Aurelian, he asked me — for he derived his descent in some degree from him — who had written down the record of the life of that prince. 4 When I replied that I had read none in Latin, though several in p195 Greek, that revered man poured forth in the following words the sorrow that his groan implied: 5 "And so Thersites5 and Sinon6 and other such monsters of antiquity are well known to us and will be spoken of by our descendants; but shall the Deified Aurelian, that most famous of princes, that most firm of rulers, who restored the whole world to the sway of Rome, be unknown to posterity? God prevent such madness! 6 And yet, if I am not mistaken, we possess the written journal of that great man and also his wars recorded in detail in the manner of a history, and these I should like you to procure and set forth in order, adding thereto all that pertains to his life. 7 All these things you may learn in your zeal for research from the linen books,7 for he gave instructions that in these all that he did each day should be written down. I will arrange, moreover, that the Ulpian Library8 shall provide you with the linen books themselves. 8 It would be my wish that you write a work on Aurelian, representing him, to the best of your ability, just as he really was. " 9 I have carried out these instructions, my dear Ulpianus,9 I have procured the Greek books and laid my hands on all that I needed, and from these sources I have gathered together into one little book all that was worthy of mention. 10 You I should wish to think kindly of my work, and, if you are not content therewith, to study the Greeks and even to demand the linen books themselves, which the Ulpian Library will furnish you whenever you desire.

p197 2 1 Legamen ad paginam Latinam Now, when in the same carriage our talk had fallen on Trebellius Pollio,a who has handed down to memory all the emperors, both illustrious and obscure, from the two Philips10 to the Deified Claudius and his brother Quintillus, Tiberianus asserted that much of Pollio's work was too careless and much was too brief; but when I said in reply that there was no writer, at least in the realm of history, who had not made some false statement, and even pointed out the places in which Livy and Sallust, Cornelius Tacitus, and, finally, Trogus11 could be refuted by manifest proofs, he came over wholly to my opinion, and, throwing up his hands, he jestingly said besides: 2 "Well then, write as you will. You will be safe in saying whatever you wish, since you will have as comrades in falsehood those authors whom we admire for the style of their histories. "

Legamen ad paginam Latinam 3 1 So then — lest I become tiresome by weaving too many trifles into my preface — the Deified Aurelian12 was born of a humble family,13 at Sirmium14 according to most writers, but in Dacia Ripensis15 according to some. 2 I remember, moreover, having read one author who declared that he was born in Moesia; and, indeed, it often comes to pass that we are ignorant of the birthplaces of those who, born in a humble position, frequently invent a birthplace for themselves, that they may give their descendants a glamour derived from the lustre of the locality. 3 However, in writing of the deeds of a great emperor, the p199 chief thing to be known is not in what place he was born, but how great he was in the State. 4 Do we value Plato more highly because he was born at Athens than because he stands out illumined as the peerless gift of philosophy? 5 Or do we hold Aristotle of Stagira or Zeno of Elea16 or Anacharsis17 of Scythia in less esteem because they were born in the tiniest villages, when the virtue of philosophy has exalted them all to the skies?

Legamen ad paginam Latinam 4 1 And so — to return to the course of events — Aurelian, born of humble parents and from his earliest years very quick of mind and famous for his strength, never let a day go by, even though a feast-day or a day of leisure, on which he did not practise with the spear, the bow and arrow, and other exercises in arms. 2 As to his mother, Callicrates of Tyre,18 by far the most learned writer of the Greeks, says that she was a priestess of the temple of his own Sun-god19 in the village in which his parents lived; 3 she even had the gift of prophecy to a certain extent, for once, when she was quarrelling with her husband and reviling him for his stupidity and low estate, she shouted at him, "Behold the father of an emperor! " From which it is clear that the woman knew something of fate. 4 The same writer says also that there were the following omens of the rule of Aurelian: First of all, when he was a child, a serpent wound itself many times around his wash-basin, and no one was able to kill it; finally, his mother, who had seen the occurrence, refused to have the serpent killed, saying that it was a member p201 of the household. 20 5 Furthermore, it is said, the priestess made swaddling-clothes for her son from a purple cloak,21 which the emperor of the time had dedicated to the Sun-god. 6 This, too, is related, that Aurelian, while wrapped in his swaddling-clothes, was lifted out of his cradle by an eagle, but without suffering harm, and was laid on an altar in a neighbouring shrine which happened to have no fire upon it. 7 The same writer asserts that on his mother's land a calf was born of marvellous size, white but with purple spots, which formed on one side the word "hail," on the other a crown. Legamen ad paginam Latinam 5 1 I remember also reading in this same author much that has no importance; he even asserts that where Aurelian was born there sprang up in this same woman's courtyard roses of a purple colour, having the fragrance of the rose but a golden centre. 2 Later, when he was in military service, there were also many omens predicting, as events showed, his future rule. 3 For instance, when he entered Antioch in a carriage, for the reason that because of a wound he could not ride his horse, a purple cloak, which had been spread out in his honour, fell down on him in such a way as to cover his shoulders. 4 Then, when he desired to change to a horse, because at that time the use of a carriage in a city was attended with odium,22 a horse belonging to the emperor was led up to him, and in Thracia he mounted it. But when he discovered to whom it belonged, he changed to one of his own. 5 Furthermore, when he had gone as envoy to the Persians, he was presented with a sacrificial saucer, of the kind that the king of the Persians is wont to present to the emperor, on which was engraved the Sun-god in the same attire in which he was worshipped in the very temple where the mother p203 of Aurelian had been a priestess. 6 He was also presented with an elephant of unusual size, which he then gave to the emperor, and Aurelian was the only commoner of them all who ever owned an elephant. 23

Legamen ad paginam Latinam 6 1 But, to omit these and similar details, he was a comely man, good to look upon because of his manly grace, rather tall in stature, and very strong in his muscles; he was a little too fond of wine and food, but he indulged his passions rarely; he exercised the greatest severity and a discipline that had no equal, being extremely ready to draw his sword. 2 And, in fact, since there were in the army two tribunes, both named Aurelian, this man and another, who later was captured with Valerian, the soldiers gave him the nickname of "Sword-in‑hand,"24 so that, if anyone chanced to ask which Aurelian had done anything or performed any exploit, the reply would be made "Aurelian Sword-in‑hand," and so he would be identified.

3 Many of the remarkable deeds which he did as a commoner are still well known: For instance, he and three hundred men of his garrison alone destroyed the Sarmatians when they burst into Illyricum. 4 Theoclius,25 who wrote of the reigns of the Caesars, relate that in the war against the Sarmatians Aurelian with his own hand slew forty-eight men in a single day and that in the course of several days he slew over nine hundred and fifty, so that the boys even composed in his honour the following jingles and dance-ditties, to which they would dance on holidays in soldier fashion:

5 "Thousand, thousand, thousand we've beheaded now.
One alone, a thousand we've beheaded now.
He shall drink a thousand who a thousand slew.
So much wine is owned by no one as the blood which he has shed. "
p205 6 I perceive, indeed, that these verses are very trivial, but since the author mentioned before has included them in his writings, in Latin just as they are here, I have thought they ought not to be omitted. Legamen ad paginam Latinam 7 1 Likewise, when at Mainz as tribune of the Sixth Legion, the Gallican,26 he completely crushed the Franks, who had burst into Gaul and were roving about through the whole country, killing seven hundred of them and capturing three hundred, whom he then sold as slaves. 2 And so a song was again composed about him:

"Franks, Sarmatians by the thousand, once and once again we've slain.
Now we seek a thousand Persians. "
3 He was, moreover, so feared by the soldiers, as I have said before, that, after he had once punished offences in the camp with the utmost severity, no one offended again. 4 In fact, he alone among all commanders inflicted the following punishment on a soldier who had committed adultery with the wife of the man at whose house he was lodged: bending down the tops of two trees, he fastened them to the soldier's feet and then let them fly upward so suddenly that the man hung there torn in two27 — a penalty which inspired great terror in all.

5 There is a letter of his, truly that of a soldier, written to his deputy, as follows: "If you wish to be tribune, or rather, if you wish to remain alive, restrain the hands of your soldiers. None shall steal another's fowl or touch his sheep.