No More Learning

The object aimed at
was to make the line more loose and flexible and to gain an effect
of ease and absence of premeditation. No mouthing is possible
in this verse, no rounding off of a description or sentiment with
a period; all is abrupt and almost spasmodic, apparently the out-
come of the moment. The quick and lively action of the later
English stage, with its easy assumption of the ordinary speech of
gentlemen, thus developed a metre which could supply the place of
prose in the lightest interchange of fashionable repartee.
With this freedom in the matter of syllabic measure, Fletcher
combines a singular absence of free movement from verse to verse.
His lines, for the most part, are ‘end-stopped,' that is to say, they
have usually a marked final pause, so that each verse tends to
become an independent unit of expression, and the running-on of
the sentence from line to line is comparatively rare. The free
distribution of pauses in the verse, which is naturally connected
with a periodic structure of sentence, is thus seriously restricted,
and the intention of excluding, so far as possible, the more rhetori-
cal form of expression, and of favouring the use of short sentences
of simple structure, is evident. This, no doubt, conduces to
clearness, and the effect of discontinuity, which is obtained by
coincidence of pause with the end of the loosely constructed line,
helps, perhaps, to suggest a spontaneous development of thoughts
from the circumstances of the moment. But these advantages
are dearly bought by the tiresome monotony which the system
involves, a monotony which is only, to some extent, relieved by
variation of the position of the internal pause and by the frequent


## p. 118 (#136) ############################################

118 Beaumont and Fletcher
use of the so-called 'lyric' caesura. It is by the combination of the
double ending with the stopped line that Fletcher’s verse is
chiefly distinguished from that of Massinger. Jonson's later verse
exhibits, to some extent, the same combination as Fletcher's, and
must, to some extent, have been influenced by it. The informal
character of Fletcher's verse structure enabled him to dispense
entirely with prose in his later work; but it must not be assumed
that he never used it at any period. He seems to have almost
always avoided rime in his ordinary dramatic verse; employing
it occasionally, however, at the end of a scene.
Fletcher's metrical style, generally, is intimately associated with
his endeavour to achieve a more lively and dramatic presentation of
thought. Shakespeare, in his later work, to a great extent dis-
carded the periodic structure of the sentence, and adopted what we
may call the disjointed style, as more dramatic; but his method
was altogether different from that of Fletcher. Instead of strength-
ening the end pause, he, to a great extent, abolished it, and
attained his object by methods which, in the hands of an inferior
writer, would have altogether disorganised the verse. Indeed, a
comparison of Fletcher with Shakespeare generally would tend
chiefly to emphasise the difference of their styles. Shakespeare's
unequalled rapidity of imagination makes him concise even to
obscurity, especially in his later work; he more and more abounds
in metaphor, finding no leisure to do more than indicate his com-
parisons; and this pregnant brevity carries with it extraordinary
force. Fletcher, on the other hand, notwithstanding the rapidity
of action in his dramas, is inclined to move slowly in the expres-
sion of thoughts and feelings. 'He lays line upon line, making up
one after the other, adding image to image so deliberately that
we see where they join. Shakespeare mingles everything, he runs
line into line, embarrasses sentences and metaphors; before one
idea has burst its shell, another is hatched and clamorous for
disclosure But this very quality of Fletcher's style, this
clear presentation of ideas and images in due succession, was
likely to make him the more popular of the two poets upon the
stage, and helps, in some measure, to account for the fact that, in
the latter part of the seventeenth century, two of ‘Beaumont and
Fletcher's' plays were acted for one of Shakespeare's or Jonson's.
In the plays which there is good reason to attribute partly or
entirely to Beaumont, characteristics of style appear that are quite
different from those which we have noticed in Fletcher's work.
1 Lamb, Specimens of the Dramatists.


## p. 119 (#137) ############################################

Style of Beaumont
119
We find here a type of verse which rather resembles that of
Shakespeare's middle period, with a small proportion of double
endings, few redundant syllables in other parts of the verse, no
marked tendency to pause at the end of the line, but a measured
eloquence, and a certain rounded fulness of rhythm, which lend
themselves well to poetical narrative and description. With this,
there are tolerably frequent instances of occasional rime at the end
of speeches and, also, elsewhere, and a free use of prose as the
language of ordinary conversation. In verse passages, instead of
a succession of short sentences, we notice a tendency, rather, to
complex structure, and to enlargement by repetition or parenthe-
sis, though without any failure in lucidity, and usually with a
faultless balance of clauses. Such sentence and verse structure as
we have in the following passage is quite alien to Fletcher's style :
It were a fitter hour for me to laugh,
When at the altar the religious priest
Were pacifying the offended powers
With sacrifice, than now. This should have been
My rite, and all your hands have been employ'd
In giving me a spotless offering
To young Amintor's bed, as we are now
For you. Pardon, Evadne; 'would my worth
Were great as yours, or that the king, or he,
Or both, thought so! perhaps he found me worthless :
But till he did so, in these ears of mine
These credulous ears, he pour'd the sweetest words
That art or love could framel,
In addition to the more external marks of style, we note in
these plays a feature which is hardly to be found in any of
Fletcher's admitted work, namely, the element of burlesque or
mock-heroic. The Woman Hater, which abounds in this form
of humour, is now generally assigned to Beaumont alone, and
The Knight of the Burning Pestle is admitted to be either
entirely, or almost entirely, his.
Apart from these, the dramas which, upon critical grounds, can,
with confidence, be attributed to the joint authorship of Beaumont
and Fletcher are the following: The Scornful Ladie, Philaster,
The Maides Tragedy, Â King and no King, Cupid 8 Revenge,
The Coxcombe and Four Plays in One. A few others, as Wit At
severall Weapons, The Nice Valour, Loves Cure and The Little
French Lawyer, have been assigned partly to Beaumont, not so
much on the evidence of style, as because it has been thought
that, in their original form, they date from a time when Beaumont
1 The Maides Tragedy, act 11, sc. 1.


## p. 120 (#138) ############################################

I 20
Beaumont and Fletcher
and Fletcher were working in partnership. But the assumption
of an early date for these plays is extremely doubtful, and, even if
this were admitted, it would not follow that the attribution of part
authorship to Beaumont was correct.
From the above list, the superiority of Beaumont's genius in
'tragedy,' that is to say, drama upon the tragic level of serious-
ness, is apparent, for it includes the three most celebrated plays
of this kind in the whole series. And, when we come to examine
these plays more closely, we find reason to believe that the principal
part in them was decisively taken by the younger writer. The
plotting and construction of Philaster, The Maides Tragedy and
A King and no King, in spite of obvious faults, show a firmer
hand than is visible in any of Fletcher's later work, and it is
significant that no source has been found for the plots of any one
of these three plays, which, not improbably, are of the authors'
Jown invention. In the essential feature of artistic unity, they
suggest the work of the young dramatist who, according to tra-
dition, was consulted by Jonson about his plots, and it seems
probable that, in constructive faculty at least, Beaumont was
markedly superior to his colleague. Beaumont shows much the
same liking for romantic incidents which we find in Fletcher, and
sometimes gives a happy solution of an otherwise tragic plot; but
he has far more intensity of conception, and in some of his work
this is combined with an effective use of tragic irony, such as we
do not find in Fletcher's more loosely constructed drama. His
characters, too, are more original and striking, and it seems
probable that the remarkable creations of Evadne and Arbaces
are to be attributed chiefly to Beaumont. Of the more ordinary
characters, certain particular types seem to belong especially
to him, the love-lorn maiden, for example, as exemplified by
Euphrasia in Philaster and by Aspatia in The Maides Tragedy,
and the poetical and romantic young man, as shown in the
persons of Philaster and Amintor. Fletcher's heroines, however
deep in love, are less poetical, more full of resource and less
pureminded than Beaumont's maidens; while his young men
have more of the fashionable gentleman and less of the idealist
than these rather sentimental heroes. A peculiar vein of tender-
ness and delicacy marks some of Beaumont's delineations of lovers
in the less exalted sphere, as the Gerrard and Violante of The
Triumph of Love, and the Ricardo and Viola of The Coxcombe.
Beaumont, as has been already observed, shows a more distinct
affinity than Fletcher with the older Elizabethan school. In pure


## p. 121 (#139) ############################################

Massinger
I21
a
a
comedy, Jonson is his master; but, even here, the imitation of
Shakespeare is frequent, and still more so in Philaster, which has
many points of contact with Hamlet and with Cymbeline, the
latter of which was produced, perhaps, in the same year! . Fletcher,
also, has imitations of Shakespeare; but they are neither so
numerous nor so close as those of his partner.
As regards the remaining plays, we have to take account of
some other authors, and more especially of Massinger. Massinger
is distinguished by a type of verse which has a large proportion
of double endings (though far fewer than Fletcher's), combined
with a free distribution of pauses and a free running-on from line
to line; he uses a periodic structure of sentence in serious or
poetical passages, and inserts parentheses frequently. He can also
be traced by a habit of repeating certain favourite phrases and
images, and the combination of these characteristic expressions
with the metrical and other indications to which we have referred
may generally be regarded as decisive evidence of his authorship.
The features imported by Massinger into the work which he shares
with Fletcher are a more oratorical style of expression, greater
moral earnestness and, in particular, a tendency to throw scenes
into such a form that they contain pleading both for and against a
given thesis. He is stronger than Fletcher in plotting and construc-
tion, and it is observable that, in several of the plays in which
these two are fellow workers, Massinger supplies a framework which
is filled in by Fletcher, whose strength lies in the management of
particular scenes rather than in the conduct of the drama as a
whole. This seems to be the case, for example, with The False
One, The Beggars Bush and The Elder Brother. On the whole,
it may be said that considerable injustice has been done to Mas-
singer by the popular ascription of much of his work to Fletcher:
several of the best dramas of the collection owe their merit very
largely to Massinger.
Fletcher excelled as a master of immediate stage effect, and
none knew better how to compensate for the want of higher
artistic aims by variety of characters, and by a lively succession
of incidents and actions, which leave the spectator no time to reflect
upon the effect of the whole. His aim was to keep his audience
well entertained, and he was often content to produce a series
· See Leonhardt, B. , in Anglia, vol. VIII, pp. 424 ff. ; and Thorndike, A. H. ,
Influence of Beaumont and Fletcher on Shakespeare. The contention of the latter, that
Cymbeline is an imitation of Philaster, and not vice versa, is rendered less probable
by the fact that there are many undoubted imitatious of Shakespeare in Philister,
as well as elsewhere in Beaumont and Fletcher,
The


## p. 122 (#140) ############################################

I 22
Beaumont and Fletcher
of effective situations, with no true principle of unity. Langbaine
says,
I have either read or been informed that it was generally Mr Fletcher's
practice, after he had finished three acts of a play, to show them to the
actors, and after they had agreed upon terms, he huddled up the two last
without that proper care which was requisite.
The statement is either true or well invented; and, if true, it
would account for the phenomena observed in such plays as
The Custome of the Countrey and The Pilgrim. Fletcher's almost
regular practice was to take two separate stories, so that the play
might not be deficient in persons and incidents, and to work them
out side by side, establishing such links between them as he con-
veniently could, but often leaving them without vital connection.
The desire for immediate effect leads to the frequent use of
surprises in the development of the plot, and the introduction
of incidents for which no due preparation has been made. Hence, ,
also, a too great fondness for violent situations, and for the repre
sentation of extreme physical agony, as in Valentinian and A
Wife for a Month. Naturally, stage conventions were utilised by
such a dramatist in every possible manner, and a considerable part
is played by sudden change of feeling, including violent and irre-
sistible love, and dramatically unjustifiable conversion of character.
Characterisation is naturally weakened by the excess of incident
in the plot. As Dryden says, the manners can never be evident
where the surprises of fortune take up all the business of the stage,
and where the poet is more in pain to tell you what happened to
such a man than what he was. ' Fletcher's character drawing, in
fact, is rather superficial, and his tendency is to follow certain
well marked lines, so that types, rather than individuals, are pro-
duced. We have, to some extent, a recurrence of the types already
presented in the Beaumont plays; the wicked and lustful monarch
reappearing in Valentinian, Antigonus and Frederick, the im-
possibly loyal subject in Aecius and Archas, the blunt soldier in
Memnon and Leontius. On the other hand, Fletcher seems
especially responsible for the types of superhuman virtue and
of incredible vice in women, which appear in his serious drama,
Lucina, Ordella and Evanthe, on the one hand, and, on the other,
Brunhalt, Lelia and Hippolyta. About all these there is a certain
element of exaggeration : Fletcher's imagination is not fully to be
trusted to present the simple and natural effects of true modesty
and chastity in women, and this is an undeniable blot upon his
* See John Fletcher by Hatcher, 0. L. , pp. 60 ff. , where this subject is well worked
out in detail.


## p. 123 (#141) ############################################

Fletcher's Dramatic Work
123
1
work in the higher drama. In the characters which properly
belong to comedy, he draws from the life and is often highly
successful. There is the young man of wit and gallantry, brilliant
and irresponsible, who may or may not be in love, but is entirely
free from romantic sensibility: Monsieur Thomas, for example, or
Don John, Mirabel or Valentine. These, we feel, are the men
whom Fletcher has actually known in living society : their pro-
fligacy is rather a matter of fashion than anything else; they are
generous and good-hearted, as a rule, and the vice which colours
their conversation and behaviour is not of a very deep dye. Then,
we have the corresponding young woman, witty and resourceful,
well able to take care of herself for the most part, but wanting in
the poetical tenderness of a Viola or an Aspatia. There is a
certain charm about these girls ; but their chastity is too much of
the formal order, and, if we are to judge them by their speech,
we must condemn them as wanting in delicacy. Nevertheless,
Fletcher's Celia and Oriana, Mary and Alinda, are, to some extent,
akin to Shakespeare's Beatrice and Rosalind.
The stories which Fletcher uses for his plays are, perhaps, never
of his own invention. Occasionally, he draws from historical or
quasi-historical sources, as in Thierry and Theodoret, Valentinian,
Bonduca, The False One, The Island Princesse and The Pro-
phetesse; but he deals with these as with romance. The only
example of a drama in which regard is paid to the truth of history
is afforded by Barnavelt, which is based upon contemporary
events in the Netherlands. He took stories from many various
authors, from Bandello (through Painter's Palace of Pleasure)
from the Astrée of Honoré d'Urfé and from d'Audiguier; but the
material which suited his genius best was that which he derived
directly or indirectly from Spanish sources? To these, he turned
comparatively late in his career ; but, from the year 1619 onwards,
he used them very freely. Among the Spanish stories of which
he is known to have made use are Historia de Aurelio y de
Ysabela, El Español Gerardo, no less than three of the Novelas
Exemplares of Cervantes, and also his romance of Persiles y
Sigismunda. Besides these, very probably, there were others which
have not been distinctly identified. The abundance of incident
and the lively style of narration in these stories exactly suited
Fletcher's purpose; but, even here, he usually follows his method of
combining two stories together, so as to increase the number of
1 Cf. on this subject the chapter on the influence of Spanish upon English literature
in vol. VIII, post.


## p. 124 (#142) ############################################

I 24
Beaumont and Fletcher
characters and the bustle of the action. For the most part, it is
evident that French or English translations of these Spanish
stories were used by Fletcher in the construction of his plots, and
it has been questioned whether he was acquainted with the Spanish
lan ge. The contemporary Spanish stage might have supplied
him with abundant materials, and its methods in comedy were not
very unlike his own; but Spanish plays were not very accessible to
English readers ; and, though the assumption has frequently been
made that the Beaumont and Fletcher plays are partly founded
upon Spanish dramas, it is to be noted that this has in no instance
been actually shown to be the case. A recent attempt to prove
that Loves Cure is taken from a comedy by Guillén de Castro can
hardly be regarded as successful.
Fletcher's rapidity of production, evidently, was very consider-
able, and a tolerably correct estimate may be formed of it from the
work of some of his later years, which, owing to the existence of
official records, may be dated with tolerable accuracy. In the
four years 1619–22, he seems to have produced at least sixteen
plays, six by himself alone and the remainder in combination with
Massinger. The total reckoning of about forty plays for the last
twelve years of his life, of which fourteen or fifteen were written
by himself alone, and the remainder in combination with other
authors, gives a result not very different from this, and implies a
ceaseless activity in production which would leave little leisure for
reflection. He was not a great literary artist, but a highly gifted
craftsman, with much fertility of invention and a thorough mastery
of the practical requirements of the stage; while, at the same time,
his work bears witness to a true vein of poetical feeling, and has
an easy grace of style which must attract even those who are most
repelled by his want of high ideals. In this connection, it seems
opportune to call attention to the exceptional excellence of the
songs which appear throughout this collection of dramas. Mas-
singer does not introduce songs into the plays of which he is sole
author, and, though Beaumont was certainly a song-writer—there
is an excellent song in The Woman Hater, for example, and some
of those in The Maides Tragedy are probably his-yet it is evident
that the songs which we find in the plays must be due, for the
most part, to the lyrical genius of Fletcher. Altogether, there are
upwards of seventy; and, of these, at least twenty are extremely
good. Besides being of exquisite quality, the lyrics have a
remarkable range of subject and treatment: 'Hence all you vain
1 Stiefel, A. L. , in Herrig's Archiv, xcix, pp. 271 ff.
9


## p. 125 (#143) ############################################

6
Classification of the Plays
125
delights,' the poet's celebration of melancholy, is followed, in the
same play, after the lapse of a few scenes, by the spirited laughing-
song 'O how my lungs do tickle’; in Valentinian, ‘Care-charming
Sleep' stands side by side with the drinking song, ‘God Lyaeus,
ever young. ' 'All ye woods and trees and bowers' in The Faithfull
Shepheardesse, 'Tell me, dearest, what is love' in The Captaine and
'Beauty clear and fair' in The Elder Brother are examples of the
more gracefully poetical form of lyric; while a more popular and
spirited kind is exemplified in the battle song 'Arm, Arm,' the
convivial lyrics ‘Sit, soldiers, sit and sing' and ''Tis late and cold,'
the beggars' songs in The Beggars Bush, 'Cast our caps and cares
away,' and the rest, the kitchen song, "Three merry boys,' in The
Bloody Brother, and the spirited ballad 'Let the bells ring' of
The Spanish Curate. It may fairly be said that no dramatist of
the age except Shakespeare has given such undeniable proof of
lyrical inspiration as Fletcher.
6
The plays of Beaumont and Fletcher are traditionally classified
as tragedies, tragicomedies and comedies, and, in the preface to
The Faithfull Shepheardesse, Fletcher defines the second of these
forms in a characteristically superficial manner, as follows:
A tragicomedy is not so called in respect of mirth and killing, but in
respect it wants deaths, which is enough to make it no tragedy, yet brings
some near it, which is enough to make it no comedy, which must be a
representation of familiar people, with such kind of trouble as no life be
questioned.
The happy ending of what Dryden calls 'serious plays' was, as
we have seen, more in accordance with the taste of the public
than the tragic catastrophe, and, like Beaumont and Fletcher,
Shakespeare also accommodated himself to the popular demand.
Of the whole collection which passes under the names of Beaumont
and Fletcher, twelve dramas rank as tragedies, in the strict sense
of the term, and about twenty may be called tragicomedies. There
would, however, be no advantage in attaching importance to this
distinction: the tragedies and tragicomedies belong essentially to
the same class-plays in which the romantic interest predominates;
while, at the same time, though there may be a difficulty, some-
times, in drawing the line between tragicomedy and comedy, the
latter, on the whole, is to be regarded as a distinct genus, and may
,
properly be dealt with separately.
A part, then, from comedy, the first production was probably The
Faithfull Shepheardesse, a pastoral drama by Fletcher alone.
Though superior in liveliness of dramatic action to the Italian


## p. 126 (#144) ############################################

I 26
Beaumont and Fletcher
pastoral dramas which served as its models, it was unsuccessful on
the stage-a fact attributed by its author to the absence of that
peculiar combination of 'mirth and killing' intermixed with
"Whitsun ales and morris-dances' which the public expected from
a 'pastoral tragicomedy. ' In respect of poetical beauty, The
Faithfull Shepheardesse ranks very high, and Milton paid it the
compliment of imitation in Comus! The greater part is in rime;
but the opening scenes are mainly in blank verse, and it is noticeable
that here Fletcher does not display the metrical peculiarities which
are a marked feature of his style elsewhere, a fact which, perhaps,
should make us cautious in the application of metrical tests to
the earliest plays of the series, though in The Maides Tragedy
Fletcher's characteristics are already quite apparent.
Philaster is said by Dryden to have been the first play which
brought Beaumont and Fletcher into notice, and it certainly
enjoyed great popularity. Its merits, both dramatic and poetical,
are undeniable ; but the plot has been justly criticised because of
the too ready credence given by Philaster to the charge against his
mistress. The character of Euphrasia-Bellario, who follows in the
disguise of a page the person to whom she is romantically attached,
is, to some extent, a reproduction of Shakespeare's Viola, and close
resemblances have been noted between this play and others of
Shakespeare; but the use which we have here of surprise as a
means of dramatic effect is highly characteristic of the authors.
The poetical merit of several passages in Philaster is well known,
and especially the description of the first finding of Bellario.
The leading place among the dramas of Beaumont and Fletcher
has always been held by The Maides Tragedy, and the justice of
this popular judgment cannot reasonably be questioned. The plot,
like those of Philaster and A King and no King, seems to be of
the authors' own invention. The tragic situation, unpleasing as it
may be, is admirably developed, and the two principal characters,
the brother and sister Melantius and Evadne, are powerfully pre-
sented and may fairly claim the merits of truth and consistency.
There is a certain weakness, however, in the character of Amintor,
whose reverence for the sacred name of king amounts to a disease;
and Aspatia, in spite of the pathos of her situation and the poetical
attractions with which she is invested, is lacking in reserve and
dignity and displays too much extravagance in seeking her own
death at the hands of Amintor. Little further fault is to be found

1 As to the place of The Faithfull Shepheardesse in English pastoral drama, cf. post,
chap. xiu.


## p. 127 (#145) ############################################

Tragedies and Romantic Dramas 127
with The Maides Tragedy, of which the action is developed in a
series of scenes of great dramatic effectiveness, culminating in that
between Melantius and Evadne at the crisis of the plot. The
dramatists exhibit a true knowledge of human nature in showing
us how the profligate effrontery of Evadne, against which the pure-
minded Amintor is powerless, breaks down when confronted with her
brother's ruthless determination. Her sensuous nature is, at first,
capable of being influenced only by physical terror, and it is through
this motive that she is brought to realise the depth of infamy to
which she has fallen. With equal truth, she is represented as
readily accepting the idea of blotting out her guilt by a deed of
violent revenge, and as imagining that she will pave the way to a
reconciliation with Amintor by a deed which merely strikes him
with new horror. Some of the minor characters are excellently
drawn, and the scene in which Melantius urges Callianax in the
very presence of the king to yield up to him the keys of the fort
has true comic humour, while, at the same time, it is strictly
appropriate to the plot and the characters. A good deal of
imitation of Shakespeare is again apparent—especially in the cele-
brated quarrel between Melantius and Amintor, which is partly
suggested by that between Brutus and Cassius in Julius Caesar.
A King and no King, licensed for the stage in 1611, was
hardly less celebrated than The Maides Tragedy, and undoubtedly
it displays dramatic power of a very high order. The praise of
this play must be qualified, however, by consideration of one capital
fault. The supposed incestuous passion, with which the plot deals,
instead of leading to a tragic catastrophe, is fully condoned on the
strength of a merely accidental discovery. Apart from this, the
drama is admirable. In the vainglorious and passionate character
of Arbaces, we have an original creation of great merit, to which the
blunt Mardonius, with his fearless plainspeaking, serves as an ad-
mirable foil; while Bessus, imitated, to some extent, from Bobadill,
is one of the most amusing specimens of his class. There is a
concentrated power in the development of this drama which creates
a strong impression as to the dramatic ability of the authors,
though, for the reason which has been stated, the total result
remains not altogether satisfactory.
Cupid's Revenge was, perhaps, acted in 1612. The plot has been
found fault with as based upon mythology; but this does not seem to
be a valid objection here. Whatever the machinery may be, we accept
the actual results as the natural punishment of youthful arrogance,
the brother and sister who have planned to put down the worship


## p. 128 (#146) ############################################

128
Beaumont and Fletcher
6
of love being themselves involved in ruin through their passion for
unworthy objects. The real weakness of the drama lies in the want
of concentration: the death of Hidaspes occurs in the second act,
before the main complication has been fully developed, and the
death of her brother Leucippus at the end of the fifth act is, after
all, accidental and unnecessary. The characters of Leucippus and
of Bacha are well sustained, and the scenes between them are
effectively conducted. In the disguises of Urania and in the
rescue of Leucippus by the citizens, we have a repetition of devices
already used in Philaster.
Four Plays in One, of uncertain date, consists of an induction
and four 'Triumphs'—'of Honour,' 'of Love,' 'of Death' and 'of
Time? '—the former two, probably, by Beaumont and the latter two
by Fletcher. Beaumont's contributions are here distinctly the
more interesting and valuable.
The Captaine is an ill constructed drama (as the authors seem
to be aware), having two sets of characters with little connection
between them. It has no merits sufficient to compensate for the
odiousness of the character of Lelia, whose conversion is not ren-
dered in the least credible. The play, however, contains two charming
songs, ‘Tell me, dearest, what is love,' and 'Away delights. '
The Honest mans Fortune was played in 1613; but it contains
no apparent trace of Beaumont's style. Several authors-probably
Tourneur, Massinger and Field-were here concerned with Fletcher,
and, between them, they produced a piece of patchwork which is
far from satisfactory as a drama, though particular scenes and
speeches deserve praise. Fletcher’s part, apparently, is confined to
the fifth act. To nearly the same date belongs the first production
of King Henry VIII, in which we find excellent work by Fletcher
in combination with that of Shakespeare? .
Bonduca, for which Fletcher was mainly responsible, is one
of the most effective of the tragic romances.
It is founded upon
ancient British history; but the materials are very freely handled,
the stories of Boadicea and Caractacus being brought into com-
bination. The play presents a spirited succession of camp and
battle scenes, made interesting, first, by the figures of Bonduca and
her daughters, and then by those of the heroic Caractacus and the
brave boy Hengo—the latter an original creation of the dramatist,
which strongly engages our sympathies.
1 Cf. ante, chap. IV, as to Five Plays in One assigned on insufficient grounds to
Thomas Heywood.
2 Cf. ante, vol. v, chap. VIII, p. 195.


## p. 129 (#147) ############################################

Tragedies and Romantic Dramas 129
Valentinian, by Fletcher alone, is, in some respects, the most
typical example of his work in tragedy. The situation is admirably
prepared in the first act, and the events are successfully conducted
through the scenes of the second to a tragic climax in the third.
From this point, however, the author's desire to rouse interest by
new and surprising developments gets the better of his feeling for
dramatic propriety. A new series of events is introduced, for
which we are totally unprepared; and the revolting treachery of
Maximus towards his friend, together with the revelation of his
selfish designs, turns our sympathy away from the quarter to which
it was at first directed, and leaves us finally puzzled and dissatisfied.
Aecius, perfectly plainspoken to his sovereign on the subject of
his vices, but steadily maintaining the principle of loyalty and
discipline, is an excellent character, and by no means deserves
the reproach of servility which was cast upon him by Coleridge and
has been repeated by other critics. It may be added that this
tragedy is exceptionally rich in beautiful lyrics.
The date of The Bloody Brother, or Rollo, Duke of Normandy
is uncertain; but it was probably produced about the year 1616.
It is an effective drama, and was reckoned by Rymer with Philaster,
The Maides Tragedy and A King and no King, as among the most
celebrated tragedies of its age. Four authors seem to have been
concerned in this play, and it is probable that the remarkable
political reflections in the first scene of the fourth act are
to be ascribed to Jonson. A small part only is by Fletcher,
to whom, however, are due the striking scenes between Rollo and
Edith in the third and fifth acts. Of the former of these scenes,
Coleridge remarks that it exhibits 'probably the grandest working
of passion in all Beaumont and Fletcher's dramas'; the latter he
criticises severely because of the momentary weakening of Edith's
resolve, comparing her with lady Anne in Richard III. But it is
one thing for a woman to hesitate in the execution of her purpose
to kill, because of the apparent repentance of her victim, and quite
another for her to yield to flattery and accept as a lover the
murderer of her husband. Fletcher, Massinger and a third author,
apparently, took part in the tragedy of Thierry and Theodoret,
which probably belongs to the year 1617. Here, the purity and
self-sacrifice of Ordella are well contrasted with the wantonness
and cruelty of Brunhalt, and the scene in the fourth act
between Thierry and Ordella has been justly admired.
'I have
always considered this to be the finest scene in Fletcher,'
is Lamb's remark, followed, nevertheless, by criticisms of the
E. L. VI.
9
>
CH, V.


## p. 130 (#148) ############################################

130
Beaumont and Fletcher
conduct of it, as slow and languid compared with Shakespeare's
best.
The Queene of Corinth is a poor play. The sympathy which
Merione at first excites is totally destroyed by her subsequent
behaviour. The Loyal Subject, licensed in the autumn of 1618,
exhibits, in the person of its hero Archas, a partial repetition
of Aecius. Like many of Fletcher's plays, this is simply a
dramatised romance, with no proper complication or resolution.
The story is interesting enough; but the disguise of young
Archas serves no such useful purpose as to compensate for its
improbability, and the conversion of Boroskie can hardly be called
natural.
The Knight of Malta has many of the elements of a fine drama,
especially in the first and fifth acts, which are by an unknown
author. The character of Oriana is exalted and yet human ;
while Mountferrat is a genuinely romantic villain. But the de-
vice of Miranda in fighting against Oriana's champion, in order
to save her credit by voluntary defeat, has no merit except that
of surprise.
The plot of The Mad Lover is hopelessly absurd, and very
deficient in respect of unity; but the courtship of Memnon is
certainly amusing, and the conclusion of the play is well managed.
There is a poor attempt at a fool, the only character of the kind
in Beaumont and Fletcher's plays. Women pleas'd is still more
faulty in construction. It contains two very distinct plots, with
two separate sets of characters, which have little or nothing to do
with one another, a practice too often followed in the later plays.
There are some interesting scenes, but the drama cannot be said
to be of much value as a whole.
The tragedy of Sir John van Olden Barnavelt, by Fletcher and
Massinger, has special interest as a dramatisation of contemporary
history, and is remarkable as an indication of the readiness with
which these authors were able to utilise such materials as
presented themselves. It is a somewhat hasty piece of work,
produced in August 1619, and dealing with events which had
taken place in May of the same year. The trial scene is
rhetorically effective; but the character of Barnavelt is not
represented in a sufficiently consistent manner, and the necessity
of reproducing the actual course of events was not favourable to
a strictly dramatic development.
The Custome of the Countrey, by Fletcher and Massinger, founded
on the Persiles y Sigismunda of Cervantes, is a drama of consider-
a


## p. 131 (#149) ############################################

Tragedies and Romantic Dramas 131
able merit, but unfortunately marred by grossness in some of the
scenes. The scene in which Guiomar conceals the supposed slayer
of her son is admirably managed, and the contrast of Zenocia and
Hippolyta is effective; but the conversion of Hippolyta is one
of those sudden turns to which Fletcher too frequently sacrifices
consistency of character.
It is doubtful whether Fletcher had any hand in The Lawes of
Candy, and certainly no scene can be attributed to him as a whole.
Massinger probably was the principal author, and the judicial
pleading between father and son is quite characteristic of him.
The double Marriage, by Fletcher and Massinger, is a poor play,
with a confused plot and no sufficient reason for the catastrophe.
On the other hand, The False One, produced by the same authors
at about the same time, is a drama of considerable interest, and
contains much brilliant rhetoric, especially in the speeches of Caesar
in the second act. At the same time, it cannot be said to have a
genuinely dramatic structure, and, though the conclusion involves
the death of several persons, the play, properly speaking, is not a
tragedy.
In the plays which immediately follow, romantic interest de-
cidedly predominates. The Pilgrim, usually classed as a comedy,
is, in fact, as Coleridge calls it, a 'romantic entertainment,' and one
of considerable merit, though the high promise of the opening
scenes is not fully kept. We could very well dispense with the
madhouse; but the public of that day evidently found such repre-
sentations attractive. The Prophetesse, The Island Princesse and
The Sea Voyage have little merit as dramas, and such interest
as they possess is due partly to the remoteness from ordinary
experience of the circumstances and localities represented.
In The Beggars Bush, on the other hand, though the plot is
romantic, the interest of the play depends not on this, but upon
the attempt at a realistic representation of vagabond life. In this
it has distinct originality, and the authors have gone direct to
native English sources. The liveliness and truth to nature of these
scenes are sufficient to account for the exceptional popularity of
the play.
The Lovers Progress is an interesting drama, originally,
perhaps, by Fletcher, but extensively revised and altered by
Massinger. The play exhibits love and friendship in an exalted
and poetical manner : the speech of Clarange near the beginning
of the second act, describing his friendship with Lidius, reads like
a personal reminiscence by Fletcher of his own relations with
9_2


## p. 132 (#150) ############################################

132
Beaumont and Fletcher
Beaumont. The ghost scene at the inn, which was greatly admired
by Scott, has some comic humour, but serves chiefly to show how
incapable Fletcher was of dealing with the supernatural. The later
appearance of the ghost, which is more impressive, occurs in a
scene which, in its present form, is due to Massinger.
The Maid in the Mill, by Fletcher and William Rowley, is an
ill constructed play, with some poetry, and some fairly good comic
business
A Wife for a Month, by Fletcher alone, has an ingeniously
complicated plot, and is far superior in construction to most of the
author's dramatic romances. The rather unpleasant situation is
developed with considerable power and skill, and the play contains
many poetical passages. The immodest speeches of the 'chaste
wife' Evanthe, and the easy forgiveness of Frederick and his
instruments of villainy, are characteristic of Fletcher.
The vexed question of authorship connected with The Two
Noble Kinsmen cannot here be discussed. Fletcher's contribution
to this fine heroic romance is, on the whole, of secondary import-
ance; but one of his scenes, the last in the third act, is, dramatically,
perhaps the most effective in the play? Loves Pilgrimage is
a romance from Cervantes, apparently rewritten by Shirley with
insertions from Jonson's New Inne. It has some merit as a story,
and the serious scenes are unusually thoughtful. The Faire Maide
of the Inne was produced after Fletcher's death, and it is doubtful
whether he had any hand in it, for his style is not clearly per-
ceptible in any scene. The plot, derived from Spanish sources, is
badly put together and extremely improbable. Another example
of a drama wrongly ascribed to Beaumont and Fletcher in the
seventeenth century is The Coronation, which is contained in
the folio of 1679, but is known to be by Shirley. On the other
hand, A Very Woman, or The Prince of Tarent, ascribed to
Massinger, is, apparently, in part by Fletcher, to whom we
may reasonably ascribe the whole of the third act, including
the lively slavemarket scene, and a part of the fourth. The
Faithful Friends, printed for the first time in 1812, has no
sufficient claim to be included among Beaumont and Fletcher's
works.
The list of comedies begins with The Woman Hater, which,
apparently, is by a single author, and is now generally attributed
1 As to the distinctness of the shares of Fletcher and Rowley in this play, see ante,
chap. in.
2 Compare ante, vol. v, chap. 2.


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Comedies
133
to Beaumont alone. It exhibits strongly the influence of Jonson,
and, though not a comedy of humours, in the full sense of the
term, turns entirely upon the ‘humorous' eccentricity of the
principal character. This feature is still discernible, though
much less obvious, in The Scornful Ladie, an excellent comedy
of its kind, dealing with English domestic manners. This was one
of the most popular plays of the series, and exercised a considerable
influence on the later comedy, especially by virtue of the character
of the steward Savile, and his relations with his masters. The
conversion of Morecraft, which is criticised by Dryden as un-
natural, is not really open to this objection. The usurer has
become convinced by experience that what pays best is extrava-
gance, and, therefore, he is following his natural instincts in
becoming a prodigal. The mock heroic style, which is one of
Beaumont's characteristics, appears, to some extent, in these
comedies, and reaches full development in The Knight of the
Burning Pestle, a masterpiece in its own kind. The idea sug-
gested by Don Quixote was here ingeniously and brilliantly applied
to the purpose of ridiculing the taste of the city in drama-a fact
which probably accounts for its being coldly received by the
popular audience before which it was first acted. Its comic merits
are, undoubtedly, of a high order, especially in the characteristic
figures of the citizen and his wife and in their criticisms of the
performance.
In The Coxcombe, we have a romantic comedy with two distinct
plots. For the Ricardo and Viola story, Beaumont is mainly
responsible, and this little romance is treated in a charming
manner. The tinker and his trull are represented, probably by
Fletcher, with effective realism, and the scenes at the farmhouse
are interesting and natural. Side by side with this, we have a
comedy of intrigue, taken, perhaps, from the Curioso Impertinente
of Cervantes. Some of Antonio's tricks recall those of Loveless
in The Scornful Ladie.
It cannot be said with certainty that Beaumont had a part
in any of the remaining comedies, and the genius of Fletcher is
decisively dominant from this point onwards, though other writers
sometimes worked with him. The faults of Fletcher as a dramatist-
looseness of construction and superficiality in character—are less
fatal in comedy than in serious drama, while his abundance of
lively incident and his brilliant dialogue produce their full effect.
Nevertheless, his comedies suffer too frequently from want of vital
connection between the various intrigues utilised by the plot, and


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134
Beaumont and Fletcher
even the best of them succeed rather by clever stagecraft than
by genuinely artistic merit.
Several of these plays may be classed together as exhibiting
the Jonsonian principle of 'humour,' though hardly in the Jon-
sonian manner. These are, especially, The Little French Lawyer,
The Nice Valour and The Humorous Lieutenant. In the first, by
Fletcher and Massinger, the character of La Writ, who gives a
title to the play, is genuinely comic, but not absolutely necessary
to the plot. The Nice Valour is a poor play, notwithstanding
a confident assertion to the contrary in the epilogue; but it
contains several good lyrics, including the song, 'Hence all you
vain delights. ' The Humorous Lieutenant, by Fletcher alone, takes
its name, like The Little French Lawyer, from a character which
has no very essential connection with the principal plot. The part
which concerns the lieutenant is pure farce, lively and amusing
enough; while, in the main plot, we have the romance of an un-
usually attractive pair of lovers, though it must be remarked that
their situation is a very improbable one.
This combination, or juxtaposition, of a romantic with a comic
plot, which has been noted as a frequent feature of the so-called
tragicomedies, is exemplified, also, in The Spanish Curate, which
consists, in fact, of a romance and a comedy, combined under
a title which belongs properly to the comedy. We have here two
distinct stories with very small connection between them, though
an attempt is made at the conclusion to unite them under a
single moral lesson. Roughly speaking, it may be said that the
romance is by Massinger and the comedy by Fletcher : each is
excellent, but the comedy is the better of the two. The character
of the curate and his relations with his parishioners are presented
with the greatest comic vigour, and the intrigue of Leandro and
Amaranta furnishes a good example of the manner in which
Fletcher anticipated the comedy of the Restoration.
The cooperation of two or more dramatists was evidently
favourable to the production of this class of drama. But there is to
be found, chiefly among the plays which are ascribed to Fletcher
alone, a type of pure comedy which is less liable to the charge of
want of unity. Some of these plays, as Wit At severall Weapons,
Wit Without Money, The Womans Prize and The Night-Walker
have London for their locality and represent, more or less, the
manners of contemporary English life. Wit At severall Weapons
is a poor play, and the authorship is very uncertain. Wit Without
Money, by Fletcher alone, is much better, having, at least, a


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Comedies
135
tolerably well connected plot and lively dialogue. The Womans
Prize: or, The Tamer Tamed is a supposed continuation of the
marriage experiences of Petruchio, the tamer of the shrew. His
Katharine being dead, he has been transplanted to English ground
and is united in marriage to an English wife, who turns the tables
upon him in an exhilarating manner. This comedy is a good
example of Fletcher's more farcical style. The Night-Walker, or
the Little Theife has more of London local colour than any of the
rest, but this is probably to a great extent due to Shirley, who
worked upon the play after Fletcher's death. It is a lively
comedy, but the plot is a tissue of improbable incidents, with
melodramatic scenes of coffins and graveyards.
Fletcher's best comedies, however, are to be found among those
of which the scenes are laid abroad and the plots taken from foreign
sources, while the manners are those of the society with which he is
familiar. Monsieur Thomas can hardly be called a good play, though
it has good scenes. The dilemma of the travelled young gentleman,
who is obliged, at the same time, to convince his father that he
is a rake and his mistress that he is a reformed character, has
comic possibilities which are not quite effectively worked out. On
the other hand, The Chances and The Wild-Goose Chase stand in
the first rank among Fletcher's comedies, and in them we see, in
full perfection, that lively and brilliant style of dialogue which
gained him the reputation of understanding the conversation of
gentlemen better than any other dramatist of his time. In The
Chances, there is a series of highly improbable incidents, derived
from a novel of Cervantes; but the very name of the comedy
suggests the idea of fortuitous complications, and the treatment is
in accordance with this idea. The two young gentlemen, Don John
and Don Frederick, are presented in a very lively and natural
manner, and their landlady is a decidedly happy creation, for
which, however, hints had been given by Cervantes. The
Wild-Goose Chase, again, has good characterisation and a well
managed plot, though the tricks to catch Mirabel are rather
too palpable, and his final yielding not quite natural. Of this play,
the actors who first published it record that, notwithstanding his
innate modesty, the author, when he saw it performed, could not
forbear to join in the general applause. It is the original of
Farquhar's comedy The Inconstant. Of all Fletcher's comedies,
Rule a Wife And have a Wife is that which was most popular
and kept the stage longest, and it is certainly a very good specimen
of its kind. Its two plots are reasonably well connected, the


## p. 136 (#154) ############################################

136 Beaumont and Fletcher
characterisation is firm and good and several of the scenes,
especially that in which Leon asserts himself, are, dramatically,
very effective. The underplot is amusing, but less so than the
novel of Cervantes from which it is taken.
Loves Cure, or The Martial Maid apparently contains little or
nothing which can be ascribed to Fletcher. It is not without
merit, if we concede the very improbable situation upon which its
action depends; but the merit, perhaps, is chiefly due to a Spanish
original, though it seems unlikely that this original was the
comedy of Guillén de Castro which deals with the same story.
The Noble Gentleman and The Elder Brother were both produced
upon the stage after Fletcher's death. The former is a rather poor
play, and has no apparent traces of his hand; the latter, one of
the best comedies of the series, is by Fletcher and Massinger.
The construction is good and the characterisation excellent.
It was said by Dryden in An Essay of Dramatick Poesy that
in Beaumont and Fletcher's plays the English language perhaps
arrived at its highest perfection; and certainly, for purity of phrase
and vocabulary, for simplicity of expression and for absence of
conceits and violent metaphors, they present an admirable model
both of the more poetical and the more familiar style of dramatic
expression. This merit of style was recognised by their contem-
poraries, especially with regard to Fletcher, as we see from the
prologue to The Chances and in compliments such as are
addressed to him in the next generation by Berkenhead,
No savage metaphors (things rudely great)
Thou dost display, nor butcher a conceit:
Thy nerves have beauty which invades and charms,
Looks like a princess harness'd in bright arms.
But the praise must also be shared by Massinger, whose poetical
eloquence contributes much to the grace of style which charac-
terises the later romantic plays mentioned in this chapter, and
who may be said to have taken the place of Beaumont by
Fletcher's side in this respect, though inferior to him in con-
structive skill and in power of dramatic presentation. It is
probable that the popularity of Beaumont and Fletcher on
the stage in the latter part of the century, together with the
acceptance of their language by Dryden as a standard of pure
English, had more influence than is commonly acknowledged upon
the development of English style during that period in the direction
of classical simplicity.


## p. 137 (#155) ############################################

APPENDIX TO CHAPTER V
LIST OF THE PLAYS WHICH HAVE BEEN ATTRIBUTED TO BEAUMONT AND
FLETCHER, IN APPROXIMATELY CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER, WITH INDICATIONS
OF THE PROBABLE AUTHORSHIP OF THE PLAYS AND OF THE SEVERAL PORTIONS
OF THEM, AND ALSO OF THE CHIEF SOURCES FROM WHICH THEIR PLOTS ARE
DERIVED.
In cases where no source is mentioned, none is certainly known. Where
no date of printing is given, it may be assumed that the play was first
printed in the folio of 1647.
The Woman Hater, entered in Stationers' register, 20 May 1607; printed
1607. Beaumont. Plot, partly from Paulus Jovius, De Romanis Piscibus,
cap. v.
The Faithfull Shepheardesse, printed before May 1610. Fletcher. Some
traits suggested by Tasso's Aminta and Guarini's Pastor Fido.
The Knight of the Burning Pestle, perhaps acted at Whitefriars, 1609;
printed 1613. Chiefly Beaumont. General idea suggested by Don Quixote,
though this is denied by the publisher.
The Scornful Ladie, acted 1609 or 1610; printed 1616. Beaumont and
Fletcher.
The Coxcombe, first acted probably 1610. Beaumont and Fletcher. For
the story of Antonio, cf. Greene's Philomela and El Curioso Impertinente
in Don Quixote.
Philaster, acted probably 1610 (but the supposed reference in The Scourge
of Folly is doubtful); printed 1620. Mainly Beaumont; Fletcher, perhaps
act v, so. 3, 4 and detached passages elsewhere. '
The Maides Tragedy, acted probably 1611; printed 1619. Beaumont,
acts I, II, III, IV, sc. 2, act v, sc. 4; Fletcher, act iv, sc. 1, act v, sc. 1, 2, 3.
A King and no King, licensed 1611; printed 1619. Beaumont, acts I, II,
III, IV, sc. 4, act v, sc. 2, 4; Fletcher, acts iv, sc. 1, 2, 3, act v, sc. 1, 3.
Cupid's Revenge, perhaps acted at court, Jan. 1612; printed 1615.
Beaumont and Fletcher. From Sidney's Arcadia, bk. II.
Four Plays, or Morall Representations, in One; no indication of date.
Beaumont probably wrote the induction and the first two Triumphs, Fletcher
the rest. The Triumph of Honour, partly from Chaucer, of Love, Boccaccio,
Decameron, day v, nov. 7, of Death, cf. Palace of Pleasure, bk 1, nov. 42,
of Time, probably suggested by Lucian's dialogue Timon.
The Captaine, acted at court early in 1613. Fletcher and another, perhaps
Massinger.
The Maske of the Gentlemen of Grayes-Inne, and the Inner-Temple,
performed Feb. 1613; printed probably 1613. Beaumont.
King Henry VIII, acted June 1613; printed in the Shakespeare folio,
1623. Shakespeare and Fletcher, perhaps revised by Massinger.
The Honest mans Fortune, acted 1613; licensed again, probably with
alterations, 1624. Apparently by four authors, divided perhaps as follows:
Tourneur, act 1; Massinger, act 11, sc. 1; Field, act iv; Fletcher, act v; the
rest doubtful. The very distinctive metrical style of act 1 is like that of The
Atheist's Tragedie, the only extant play published with Tourneur's name.


## p. 138 (#156) ############################################

138
Appendix to Chapter V V
The style of Field resembles somewhat that of Beaumont. The same story
is found in Heywood's History of Women, printed 1624.
Wit At severall Weapons, date unknown. Probably Middleton and
Rowley.
Monsieur Thomas (also known as Father's own Son), date uncertain;
printed 1639. Fletcher. Partly from the Astrée of d'Urfé, vol. 11, published
1610.
The Tragedie of Valentinian, not later than 1614 (by list of actors).
Fletcher. From the Astrée, vol. 11, bk. XII.
The Tragedie of Bonduca, not later than 1614 (by list of actors).
Fletcher and, perhaps, Field (e. g. act 11, sc. 1 and act iv, sc. 4). Holinshed;
some traits perhaps from The Valiant Welshman.
Wit Without Money, soon after Aug. 1614; printed 1639.