No More Learning

7. In the interior, the first city above Ostia is Rome; it is the only
city built on the Tiber. It has been remarked above, that its position
was fixed, not by choice, but necessity; to this must be added, that
those who afterwards enlarged it, were not at liberty to select a better
site, being prevented by what was already built. The first [kings]
fortified the Capitol, the Palatium, and the Collis Quirinalis, which
was so easy of access, that when Titus Tatius came to avenge the rape of
the [Sabine] virgins, he took it on the first assault. Ancus Marcius,
who added Mount Cælius and the Aventine Mount with the intermediate
plain, separated as these places were both from each other and from what
had been formerly fortified, was compelled to do this of necessity;
since he did not consider it proper to leave outside his walls, heights
so well protected by nature, to whomsoever might have a mind to fortify
themselves upon them, while at the same time he was not capable of
enclosing the whole as far as Mount Quirinus. Servius perceived this
defect, and added the Esquiline and Viminal hills. As these were both of
easy access from without, a deep trench was dug outside them and the
earth thrown up on the inside, thus forming a terrace of 6 stadia in
length along the inner side of the trench. This terrace he surmounted
with a wall flanked with towers, and extending from the Colline[1840] to
the Esquiline gate. Midway along the terrace is a third gate, named
after the Viminal hill. Such is the Roman rampart, which seems to stand
in need of other ramparts itself. But it seems to me that the first
[founders] were of opinion, both in regard to themselves and their
successors, that Romans had to depend not on fortifications, but on arms
and their individual valour, both for safety and for wealth, and that
walls were not a defence to men, but men were a defence to walls. At the
period of its commencement, when the large and fertile districts
surrounding the city belonged to others, and while it lay easily open to
assault, there was nothing in its position which could be looked upon as
favourable; but when by valour and labour these districts became its
own, there succeeded a tide of prosperity surpassing the advantages of
every other place. Thus, notwithstanding the prodigious increase of the
city, there has been plenty of food, and also of wood and stone for
ceaseless building, rendered necessary by the falling down of houses,
and on account of conflagrations, and of the sales, which seem never to
cease. These sales are a kind of voluntary falling down of houses, each
owner knocking down and rebuilding one part or another according to his
individual taste. For these purposes the numerous quarries, the forests,
and the rivers which convey the materials, offer wonderful facilities.
Of these rivers, the first is the Teverone,[1841] which flows from Alba,
a city of the Latins near to the country of the Marsi, and from thence
through the plain below this [city], till it unites with the Tiber.
After this come the Nera[1842] and the Timia,[1843] which passing
through Ombrica fall into the Tiber, and the Chiana,[1844] which flows
through Tyrrhenia and the territory of Clusium. [1845] Augustus Cæsar
endeavoured to avert from the city damages of the kind alluded to, and
instituted a company of freedmen, who should be ready to lend their
assistance in cases of conflagration;[1846] whilst, as a preventive
against the falling of houses, he decreed that all new buildings should
not be carried so high as formerly, and that those erected along the
public ways should not exceed seventy feet in height. [1847] But these
improvements must have ceased only for the facilities afforded by the
quarries, the forests, and the ease of transport.

8. These advantages accrued to the city from the nature of the country;
but the foresight of the Romans added others [CAS. 235] besides. The
Grecian cities are thought to have flourished mainly on account of the
felicitous choice made by their founders, in regard to the beauty and
strength of their sites, their proximity to some port, and the fineness
of the country. But the Roman prudence was more particularly employed on
matters which had received but little attention from the Greeks, such as
paving their roads, constructing aqueducts, and sewers, to convey the
sewage of the city into the Tiber. In fact, they have paved the roads,
cut through hills, and filled up valleys, so that the merchandise may be
conveyed by carriage from the ports. The sewers, arched over with hewn
stones, are large enough in some parts for waggons loaded with hay to
pass through; while so plentiful is the supply of water from the
aqueducts, that rivers may be said to flow through the city and the
sewers, and almost every house is furnished with water-pipes and copious
fountains. To effect which Marcus Agrippa directed his special
attention; he likewise bestowed upon the city numerous ornaments. We may
remark, that the ancients, occupied with greater and more necessary
concerns, paid but little attention to the beautifying of Rome. But
their successors, and especially those of our own day, without
neglecting these things, have at the same time embellished the city with
numerous and splendid objects. Pompey, divus Cæsar, and Augustus, with
his children, friends, wife, and sister, have surpassed all others in
their zeal and munificence in these decorations. The greater number of
these may be seen in the Campus Martius, which to the beauties of nature
adds those of art. The size of the plain is marvellous, permitting
chariot-races and other feats of horsemanship without impediment, and
multitudes to exercise themselves at ball,[1848] in the circus[1849] and
the palæstra. The structures which surround it, the turf covered with
herbage all the year round, the summits of the hills beyond the Tiber,
extending from its banks with panoramic effect, present a spectacle
which the eye abandons with regret. Near to this plain is another
surrounded with columns, sacred groves, three theatres, an amphitheatre,
and superb temples in close contiguity to each other; and so
magnificent, that it would seem idle to describe the rest of the city
after it. For this cause the Romans, esteeming it as the most sacred
place, have there erected funeral monuments to the most illustrious
persons of either sex. The most remarkable of these is that designated
as the Mausoleum,[1850] which consists of a mound of earth raised upon a
high foundation of white marble, situated near the river, and covered to
the top with ever-green shrubs. Upon the summit is a bronze statue of
Augustus Cæsar, and beneath the mound are the ashes[1851] of himself,
his relatives, and friends. Behind is a large grove containing charming
promenades. In the centre of the plain,[1852] is the spot where this
prince was reduced to ashes; it is surrounded with a double enclosure,
one of marble, the other of iron, and planted within with poplars. If
from hence you proceed to visit the ancient forum, which is equally
filled with basilicas, porticos, and temples, you will there behold the
Capitol, the Palatium, with the noble works which adorn them, and the
piazza of Livia, each successive place causing you speedily to forget
what you have before seen. Such is Rome.

9. Of the other cities of Latium, some are distinguished by a variety of
remarkable objects, others by the celebrated roads which intersect
Latium, being situated either upon, or near to, or between these roads,
the most celebrated of which are the Via Appia, the Via Latina, and the
Via Valeria. The former of these bounds the maritime portion of Latium,
as far as Sinuessa, the latter extends along Sabina as far as the Marsi,
whilst between these is the Via Latina, which falls in with the Via
Appia near to Casilinum,[1853] a city distant from Capua[1854] 19
stadia. The Via Latina commences from the Via Appia, branching from it
towards the left, near to Rome. It passes over the Tusculan mountain,
between the city of Tusculum[1855] and Mount Albanus; it then descends
to the little city of Algidum,[1856] and the Pictæ tavern; afterwards
the Via [CAS. 237] Lavicana joins it, which commences, like the Via
Prænestina, from the Esquiline gate. This road, as well as the Esquiline
plain, the Via Lavicana leaves on the left; it then proceeds a distance
of 120 stadia, or more, when it approaches Lavicum, an ancient city now
in ruins, situated on an eminence; this and Tusculum it leaves on the
right, and terminates near to Pictæ in the Via Latina. This place is 210
stadia distant from Rome. Proceeding thence along the Via Latina there
are noble residences, and the cities Ferentinum,[1857] Frusino,[1858] by
which the river Cosa flows, Fabrateria,[1859] by which flows the river
Sacco,[1860] Aquinum,[1861] a large city, by which flows the great river
Melfa,[1862] Interamnium, situated at the confluence of two rivers, the
Garigliano and another, Casinum, also an important city, and the last of
those belonging to Latium. For Teanum, called Sidicinum,[1863] which
lies next in order, shows by its name that it belongs to the nation of
the Sidicini. These people are Osci, a surviving nation of the Campani,
so that this city, which is the largest of those situated upon the Via
Latina, may be said to be Campanian; as well as that of Cales,[1864]
another considerable city which lies beyond, and is contiguous to
Casilinum. [1865]

10. As to the places situated on either side of the Via Latina, those on
the right are between it and the Via Appia; of their number are
Setia[1866] and Signia,[1867] which produce wine, that of Setia being
one of the dearest wines, and that called Signium the best for
strengthening the stomach. Before this[1868] are Privernum,[1869]
Cora,[1870] Suessa,[1871] ‘Trapontium,’[1872] Velitræ,[1873]
Aletrium,[1874] and also Fregellæ,[1875] by which the Garigliano flows,
which discharges itself [into the sea] near Minturnæ. Fregellæ, though
now a village, was formerly a considerable city, and the chief of the
surrounding places we have just named. Even now their inhabitants throng
to it on market days, and for the performance of certain religious
solemnities. Its defection from the Romans was the cause of its
ruin. [1876] Both these, and also the cities lying on the Via Latina and
beyond, situated in the territories of the Hernici, Æqui, and Volsci,
were for the most part founded by the Romans. To the left of the Via
Latina, the cities between it and the Via Valeria, are, Gabii,[1877]
standing in the Via Prænestina, it possesses a stone-quarry, in greater
demand at Rome than any other, and is at an equal distance of about 100
stadia between Rome and Præneste. [1878] Then Præneste, of which we shall
have occasion presently to speak. Then, in the mountains above Præneste,
Capitulum, a small city of the Hernici, and Anagnia,[1879] a
considerable city; Cereate,[1880] and Sora, by which the river
Garigliano[1881] flows as it passes on to Fregellæ, and Minturnæ. After
these there are other places, and finally, Venafrum,[1882] from whence
comes the finest oil. This city is situated on a high hill by the foot
of which flows the Volturno,[1883] which passing by Casilinum,[1884]
discharges itself [into the sea] at a city[1885] bearing the same name
as itself. Æsernia[1886] and Alliphæ,[1887] cities of the Samnites, the
former was destroyed in the Marsian war,[1888] the other still remains.

11. The Via Valeria, commencing from Tibura,[1889] leads to the country
of the Marsi, and to Corfinium,[1890] the metropolis of the Peligni.
Upon it are situated the Latin cities of Valeria,[1891] Carseoli,[1892]
Alba,[1893] and near to it the city of Cuculum. [1894] Within sight of
Rome are Tibura, Præneste, and Tusculum. [1895] At Tibura is a temple of
Hercules, and a cataract formed by the fall of the Teverone,[1896]
(which is here navigable,) from a great height into a deep and wooded
ravine close to the city. From thence the river flows through a highly
fertile plain along by [CAS. 238] the Tiburtine stone-quarries, those of
the Gabii, and those denominated the red-stone quarries. As both the
carriage from the quarries and the conveyance by river are easy, most of
the Roman edifices are built of materials from hence. In this plain flow
the cold waters called Albula, they spring from numerous fountains, and
are taken both as a beverage and as baths,[1897] for the cure of various
diseases. Of the same kind are the Labanæ,[1898] not far from these, on
the Via Nomentana, and near to Eretum. [1899] At Præneste is the
celebrated temple and oracle of Fortune. Both this and the preceding
city are situated on the same chain of mountains, and are distant from
each other 100 stadia. Præneste is 200 stadia from Rome, Tibura less
than that distance. They are said to be both of Grecian foundation,
Præneste being formerly named Polystephanus. They are both fortified,
but Præneste is the stronger place of the two, having for its citadel a
lofty mountain, which overhangs the town, and is divided at the back
from the adjoining mountain range by a neck of land. This mountain is
two stadia higher than the neck in direct altitude. In addition to these
[natural] defences, the city is furnished on all sides with
subterraneous passages, which extend to the plains, and some of which
serve to convey water, while others form secret ways; it was in one of
these that Marius[1900] perished, when he was besieged. Other cities are
in most instances benefited by a strong position, but to the people of
Præneste it has proved a bane, owing to the civil wars of the Romans.
For hither the revolutionary movers take refuge, and when at last they
surrender, in addition to the injury sustained by the city during the
war, the country is confiscated, and the guilt thus imputed to the
guiltless. The river Verestis[1901] flows through this region. The said
cities are to the east of Rome.

12. But within-side the chain of mountains, [where these cities are
situated,] there is another ridge, leaving a valley between it and Mount
Algidus; it is lofty, and extends as far as Mount Albanus. [1902] It is
on this ridge that Tusculum is situated, a city which is not wanting in
adornment, being entirely surrounded by ornamental plantations and
edifices, particularly that part of it which looks towards Rome. For on
this side Tusculum presents a fertile hill, well irrigated, and with
numerous gentle slopes embellished with majestic palaces. Contiguous are
the undulating slopes of Mount Albanus, which are equally fertile and
ornamented. Beyond are plains which extend some of them to Rome and its
environs, others to the sea; these latter are unhealthy, but the others
are salubrious and well cultivated. Next after Albanum is the city
Aricia, on the Appian Way. It is 160 stadia from Rome. This place is
situated in a hollow, and has a strong citadel. [1903] Beyond it on one
side of the way is Lanuvium,[1904] a Roman city on the right of the Via
Appia, and from which both the sea and Antium may be viewed. On the
other side is the Artemisium,[1905] which is called Nemus,[1906] on the
left side of the way, leading from Aricia to the temple. [1907] They say
that it is consecrated to Diana Taurica, and certainly the rites
performed in this temple are something barbarous and Scythic. They
appoint as priest a fugitive who has murdered the preceding priest with
his own hand. Apprehensive of an attack upon himself, the priest is
always armed with a sword, ready for resistance. The temple is in a
grove, and before it is a [CAS. 240] lake of considerable size. The
temple and water are surrounded by abrupt and lofty precipices, so that
they seem to be situated in a deep and hollow ravine. The springs by
which the lake is filled are visible. One of these is denominated
Egeria, after the name of a certain divinity; however, their course on
leaving the lake is subterraneous, but they may be observed at some
distance, when they rise to the surface of the ground.

13. Near to these localities is Mount Albanus,[1908] which is much
higher than either the Artemisium or the heights surrounding it,
although these are sufficiently lofty and precipitous. It has likewise a
lake,[1909] much larger than that of the Artemisium. Further forward
than these are the cities on the Via Latina, we have already mentioned.
Alba[1910] is the most inland of all the Latin cities; it borders on the
Marsi, and is situated on a high hill near to Lake Fucinus. This [lake]
is vast as a sea, and is of great service to the Marsi and all the
surrounding nations. They say, that at times its waters rise to the
height of the mountains which surround it, and at others subside so
much, that the places which had been covered with water reappear and may
be cultivated; however, the subsidings of the waters occur irregularly
and without previous warning, and are followed by their rising again;
the springs fail altogether and gush out again after a time; as they say
is the case with the Amenanus,[1911] which flows through Catana,[1912]
for after remaining dry for a number of years, it again flows. It is
reported that the Marcian[1913] water, which is drunk at Rome in
preference to any other, has its source in [Lake] Fucinus. As Alba is
situated in the depths of the country, and is besides a strong position,
the Romans have often employed it as a place of security, for lodging
important prisoners. [1914]




CHAPTER IV.


1. After having commenced with the nations about the Alps, and the
Apennine mountains which are near to these, we proceeded from thence and
passed through that portion of the hither country lying between the
Tyrrhenian Sea and the Apennine mountains, which incline towards the
Adriatic, as far as the Samnites and the Campani. We will now return
again, and describe the mountaineers, and those who dwell at the foot of
the mountains; whether on the coast of the Adriatic, or in the interior.
Thus, we must recommence from the boundaries of Keltica. [1915]

2. After the cities of the Ombrici, which are comprised between
Ariminum[1916] and Ancona, comes Picenum. The Picentini proceeded
originally from the land of the Sabini. A woodpecker led the way for
their chieftains, and from this bird they have taken their name, it
being called in their language Picus, and is regarded as sacred to Mars.
They inhabit the plains extending from the mountains to the sea; the
length of their country considerably exceeds its breadth; the soil is
every where good, but better fitted for the cultivation of fruits than
grain. Its breadth, from the mountains to the sea varies in different
parts. But its length; from the river Æsis[1917] to Castrum,[1918]
sailing round the coast, is 800 stadia. Of its cities, Ancona is of
Grecian origin, having been founded by the Syracusans who fled from the
tyranny of Dionysius. It is situated upon a cape, which bending round
towards the north forms a harbour; and it abounds in wine and wheat.
Near to it is the city of Auxumon,[1919] at a little distance from the
sea. After it are Septempeda,[1920] Pneuentia,[1921] Potentia,[1922] and
Firmum Picenum,[1923] with its port of Castellum. [1924] Beyond, is the
temple of Cupra,[1925] built and dedicated by the Tyrrheni to Juno, who
is named by them Cupra; and after it the river Tronto,[1926] [CAS. 241]
with a city of the same name. [1927] Beyond this is Castrum Novum,[1928]
and the river Piomba,[1929] flowing from the city of Adria,[1930] and
having [at its mouth] the naval station of Adria, which bears the same
name as itself. In the interior is [the city of Adria] itself and
Asculum Picenum,[1931] a very strong position, upon which is built a
wall: the mountains which surround it are not accessible to
armies. [1932] Above Picenum are the Vestini,[1933] the Marsi,[1934] the
Peligni,[1935] the Marucini,[1936] and the Frentani,[1937] a Samnitic
nation possessing the hill-country, and extending almost to the sea. All
these nations are small, but extremely brave, and have frequently given
the Romans proofs of their valour, first as enemies, afterwards as
allies; and finally, having demanded the liberty and rights of citizens,
and being denied, they revolted and kindled the Marsian war. [1938] They
decreed that Corfinium,[1939] the metropolis of the Peligni, should be
the capital for all the Italians instead of Rome: made it their place
d’armes, and new-named it Italica. Then, having convoked deputies from
all the people friendly to their design, they created consuls[1940] and
prætors, and maintained the war for two[1941] years, until they had
obtained the rights for which they struggled. The war was named the
Marsian[1942] war, because that nation commenced the insurrection, and
particularly on account of Pompædius. [1943] These nations live generally
in villages, nevertheless they are possessed of certain cities, some of
which are at some little distance from the sea, as Corfinium,
Sulmo,[1944] Maruvium,[1945] and Teatea[1946] the metropolis of the
Marrucini. Others are on the coast, as Aternum[1947] on the Picentine
boundary, so named from the river [Aternus], which separates the Vestini
from the Marrucini. This river flows from the territory of Amiternum and
through the Vestini, leaving on its right the Marrucini, who lie above
the Peligni, [at the place where the river] is crossed by a bridge. The
city, which bears the same name, (viz. Aternum,) belongs to the Vestini,
but its port is used in common both by the Peligni and the Marrucini.
The bridge I have mentioned is about 24 stadia from Corfinium. After
Aternum is Orton,[1948] a naval arsenal of the Frentani, and Buca,[1949]
which belongs to the same people, and is conterminous with the Apulian
Teanum. [1950] †Ortonium[1951] is situated in the territory of the
Frentani. It is rocky, and inhabited by banditti, who construct their
dwellings of the wrecks of ships, and lead [CAS. 242] otherwise a savage
life. † Between Orton and Aternum is the river Sagrus,[1952] which
separates the Frentani from the Peligni. From Picenum to the Apuli,
named by the Greeks the Daunii,[1953] sailing round the coast, is
a distance of about 490[1954] stadia.

3. Next in order after Latium is Campania, which extends along the
[Tyrrhenian] Sea; above it is Samnium, in the interior, extending as far
as the Frentani and Daunii; and beyond are the Daunii, and the other
nations as far as the Strait of Sicily. We shall in the first place
speak of Campania. From Sinuessa[1955] to Misenum[1956] the coast forms
a vast gulf; beyond this is another gulf still larger, which they name
the Crater. [1957] It is enclosed by the two promontories of Misenum and
the Athenæum. [1958] It is along the shores of these [two gulfs] that the
whole of Campania is situated. This plain is fertile above all others,
and entirely surrounded by fruitful hills and the mountains of the
Samnites and Osci. Antiochus says that this country was formerly
inhabited by the Opici, and that these were called Ausones. Polybius
appears to consider these as two people, for he says that the Opici and
Ausones inhabit the country around the Crater. [1959] Others, however,
state that it was originally inhabited by Opici and Ausones, but was
afterwards seized on by a nation of the Osci, who were driven out by the
Cumæi, and these again by the Tyrrheni. Thus the possession of the plain
was much disputed on account of its great fertility. [They add that the
Tyrrheni] built there twelve cities, and named the metropolis Capua. But
luxury having made them effeminate, in the same way that they had
formerly been driven from the banks of the Po, they were now forced to
abandon this country to the Samnites; who in their turn fell before the
Romans. One proof of the fertility of this country is, that it produces
the finest corn. I allude to the grain from which a groat is made
superior to all kinds of rice, and to almost all other farinacious food.
They say that some of the plains are cropped all the year round; twice
with rye, the third time with panic, and occasionally a fourth time
with vegetables. It is likewise from hence that the Romans procure their
finest wines, the Falernian, the Statanian, and the Calenian. That of
Surrentum[1960] is now esteemed equal to these, it having been lately
discovered that it can be kept to ripen. In addition to this, the whole
country round Venafrum, bordering on the plains, is rich in olives.

4. The maritime cities [of Campania], after Sinuessa, are
Liternum,[1961] where is the sepulchral monument of the first of the two
Scipios, surnamed Africanus; it was here that he passed the last days of
his life, having abandoned public affairs in disgust at the intrigues of
certain opponents. A river of the same name[1962] flows by this city. In
like manner the Vulturnus bears the same name as the city[1963] founded
on it, which comes next in order: this river flows through
Venafrum[1964] and the midst of Campania. After these [cities] comes
Cumæ,[1965] the most ancient settlement[1966] of the Chalcidenses and
Cumæans, for it is the oldest of all [the Greek cities] in Sicily or
Italy. The leaders of the expedition, Hippocles the Cumæan and
Megasthenes of Chalcis, having mutually agreed that one of the nations
should have the management of the colony, and the other the honour of
conferring upon it its own name. Hence at the present day it is named
Cumæ, while at the same time it is said to have been founded by the
Chalcidenses. At first this city was highly prosperous, as well as the
Phlegræan[1967] plain, which mythology has made the scene of the
adventures of the giants, for no other reason, as it appears, than
because the fertility of the country had given rise to battles for its
possession. Afterwards, however, the Campanians becoming masters[1968]
of the city, inflicted much injustice on the [CAS. 243] inhabitants, and
even violated their wives. Still, however, there remain numerous traces
of the Grecian taste, their temples, and their laws. Some are of opinion
that Cumæ was so called from τὰ κύματα, the waves, the sea-coast near it
being rocky and exposed. These people have excellent fisheries. On the
shores of this gulf there is a scrubby forest, extending over numerous
acres of parched and sandy land. This they call the Gallinarian[1969]
wood. It was there that the admirals of Sextus Pompeius assembled their
gangs of pirates, at the time when he drew Sicily into revolt. [1970]

5. Near to Cumæ is the promontory of Misenum,[1971] and between them is
the Acherusian Lake,[1972] which is a muddy estuary of the sea. Having
doubled Misenum, you come to a harbour at the very foot of the
promontory. After this the shore runs inland, forming a deeply indented
bay, on which are Baïæ and the hot springs, much used, both as a
fashionable watering-place, and for the cure of diseases. Contiguous to
Baïæ is the Lucrine Lake,[1973] and within this the Lake Avernus,[1974]
which converts into a peninsula the land stretching from the maritime
district, situated between it and Cumæ, as far as Cape Misenum, for
there is only an isthmus of a few stadia, across which a subterraneous
road is cut [from the head of the gulf of Avernus] to Cumæ and the sea
[shore] on which it stands. Former writers, mingling fable with history,
have applied to Avernus the expressions of Homer in his Invocation of
Departed Spirits,[1975] and relate that here formerly was an oracle of
the dead,[1976] and that it was to this place that Ulysses came.
However, this gulf of Avernus is deep even near the shore, with an
excellent entrance, and is both as to its size and nature a harbour; but
it is not used, on account of the Lucrine Gulf which lies before it, and
is both large and somewhat shallow. The Avernus is surrounded with steep
hills which encompass the whole of it, with the exception of the
entrance. These hills, now so beautifully cultivated were formerly
covered with wild forests, gigantic and impenetrable, which overshadowed
the gulf, imparting a feeling of superstitious awe. The inhabitants
affirm that birds, flying over the lake, fall into the water,[1977]
being stifled by the vapours rising from it, a phenomenon of all
Plutonian[1978] localities. They believed, in fact, that this place was
a Plutonium, around which the Kimmerians used to dwell, and those who
sailed into the place made sacrifice and propitiatory offerings to the
infernal deities, as they were instructed by the priests who ministered
at the place. There is here a spring of water near to the sea fit for
drinking, from which, however, every one abstained, as they supposed it
to be water from the Styx: [they thought likewise] that the oracle of
the dead was situated some where here; and the hot springs near to the
Acherusian Lake indicated the proximity of Pyriphlegethon. Ephorus,
peopling this place with Kimmerii, tells us that they dwell in
under-ground habitations, named by them Argillæ, and that these
communicate with one another by means of certain subterranean passages;
and that they conduct strangers through them to the oracle, which is
built far below the surface of the earth. They live on the mines
together with the profits accruing from the oracle, and grants made to
them by the king [of the country].
It was a traditional custom for the
servants of the oracle never to behold the sun, and only to quit their
caverns at night. It was on this account that the poet said,

“On them the Sun
Deigns not to look with his beam-darting eye. ”[1979]

At last, however, these men were exterminated by one of the kings, the
oracle having deceived him; but [adds Ephorus] the oracle is still in
existence, though removed to another [CAS. 245] place. Such were the
myths related by our ancestors. But now that the wood surrounding the
Avernus has been cut down by Agrippa, the lands built upon, and a
subterranean passage cut from Avernus to Cumæ, all these appear fables.
Perhaps[1980] Cocceius, who made this subterranean passage,[1981] wished
to follow the practice of the Kimmerians we have already described, or
fancied that it was natural to this place that its roads should be made
under-ground.

6. The Lucrine gulf extends in breadth as far as Baïæ; it is separated
from the sea by a bank eight stadia in length, and the breadth of a
carriage-way; this they say was constructed by Hercules when he drove
away the oxen of Geryon. But as the wave covered its surface in stormy
weather, rendering it difficult to pass on foot, Agrippa has repaired
it. Small vessels can put into it, but it is useless as a harbour. [1982]
It contains abundant oyster-beds. Some take this to be the Acherusian
Lake, while Artemidorus confounds it with Avernus. They say that Baïæ
took its name from Baïus one of the companions of Ulysses, and Misenum
from Misenus. Beyond is the strand and city of Dicæarchia. Formerly it
was nothing but a naval station of the Cumæi. It was built on an
eminence. But at the time of the war with Hannibal, the Romans
established a colony there, and changed its name into Puteoli,[1983] [an
appellation derived] from its wells; or, according to others, from the
stench of its waters, the whole district from hence to Baïæ and Cumæ
being full of sulphur, fire, and hot-springs. Some too are of opinion
that it was on this account [that the country about] Cumæ was named
Phlegra, and that the fables of the giants struck down by thunderbolts
owe their origin to these eruptions of fire and water. This city has
become a place of extensive commerce, having artificially constructed
harbours, which were much facilitated by the facile nature of the sand,
which contains much gypsum, and will cement and consolidate thoroughly.
For mixing this sand with chalk-stones they construct moles in the sea,
thus forming bays along the open coast, in which the largest transport
ships may safely ride. Immediately above the city lies the
Forum-Vulcani,[1984] a plain surrounded with hills which seem to be on
fire, having in many parts mouths emitting smoke, frequently accompanied
by a terrible rumbling noise; the plain itself is full of drifted
sulphur.

7. After Dicæarchia is Neapolis,[1985] [founded[1986] originally] by the
Cumæi, but afterwards being peopled by Chalcidians, and certain
Pithecussæans and Athenians,[1987] it was on this account denominated
Naples. [1988] Here is pointed out the tomb of [CAS. 246] Parthenope, one
of the sirens, and a gymnastic sport is celebrated by command of an
oracle. In course of time the inhabitants, having disagreed amongst
themselves, admitted certain Campanians; thus being forced to regard in
the light of friends those most inimical to them, since their friends
were hostile. This is proved by the names of their demarchi, the earlier
of which are Grecian, but the latter a mixture of Campanian with the
Grecian names. Many traces of Grecian institution are still preserved,
the gymnasia, the ephebeia,[1989] the fratriæ,[1990] and the Grecian
names of people who are Roman citizens. At the present time they
celebrate, every fifth year, public games for music and gymnastic
exercises during many days, which rival the most famous games of Greece.
There is here a subterranean passage, similar to that at Cumæ,[1991]
extending for many stadia along the mountain,[1992] between
Dicæarchia[1993] and Neapolis: it is sufficiently broad to let carriages
pass each other, and light is admitted from the surface of the mountain,
by means of numerous apertures cut through a great depth. [1994] Naples
also has hot springs and baths not at all inferior in quality to those
at Baïæ, but much less frequented, for another city has arisen there,
not less than Dicæarchia, one palace after another having been built.
Naples still preserves the Grecian mode of life, owing to those who
retire hither from Rome for the sake of repose, after a life of labour
from childhood, and to those whose age or weakness demands relaxation.
Besides these, Romans who find attractions in this style of life, and
observe the numbers of persons dwelling there, are attracted by the
place, and make it their abode.

8. Following this is the fortress of Heraclæum,[1995] built upon a
promontory which projects out into the sea, and which, on account of the
prevalence of the south-west wind, is a very healthy spot. The
Osci[1996] originally possessed both this and Pompeia,[1997] which is
next to it, by which the river Sarno[1998] flows; afterwards the
Tyrrheni and Pelasgi,[1999] and then the Samnites[2000] obtained
possession of them, and the last[2001] in their turn were driven from
these regions. Pompeia is the port for Nola,[2002] Nuceria,[2003] and
Acerræ, which bears the same name as the city near to Cremona. It is
built on the river Sarno, by which merchandise is received and exported.
Above these places is Mount Vesuvius, which is covered with very
beautiful fields, excepting its summit, a great part of which is level,
but wholly sterile. It appears ash-coloured to the eye, cavernous
hollows appear formed of blackened stones, looking as if they had been
subjected to the action of fire. From this we may infer that the place
was formerly in a burning state with live craters, which however became
extinguished on the failing of the fuel. Perhaps this [volcano] may have
been the cause of the fertility of the surrounding country, the same as
occurs in Catana, where they say that that portion which has been
covered with ashes thrown up by the fires of Ætna is most excellent for
the vine. The land about Vesuvius contains fat, and a soil which has
been subjected to fire, and is very strong and productive of fruit: when
this fat superabounds, it is apt, like all sulphurous substances, to
take fire, but being dried up by evaporation, extinguished, and
pulverized, it becomes a productive earth. Adjoining [CAS. 247] Pompeia
is Surrentum,[2004] [a city] of the Campanians, from whence the
Athenæum,[2005] called by some the promontory of the Sirenusæ, projects
[into the sea]; upon its summit is the temple of Minerva, founded by
Ulysses. From hence to the island of Capreas the passage is short; after
doubling the promontory you encounter various desert and rocky little
islands, which are called the Sirenusæ. [2006] On the side towards
Surrentum there is shown a temple with the ancient offerings of those
who held this place in veneration. Here is the end of the bay named
Crater,[2007] which is bounded by the two promontories of Misenum[2008]
and the Athenæum, both looking towards the south. The whole is adorned
by the cities we have described, by villas, and plantations, so close
together that to the eye they appear but one city.

9. In front of Misenum lies the island of Prochyta,[2009] which has been
rent from the Pithecussæ. [2010] Pithecussæ was peopled by a colony of
Eretrians and Chalcidians, which was very prosperous on account of the
fertility of the soil and the productive gold-mines; however, they
abandoned the island on account of civil dissensions, and were
ultimately driven out by earthquakes, and eruptions of fire, sea, and
hot waters. It was on account of these eruptions, to which the island is
subject, that the colonists sent by Hiero,[2011] the king of Syracuse,
abandoned the island, together with the town which they had built, when
it was taken possession of by the Neapolitans. This explains the myth
concerning Typhon, who, they say, lies beneath the island, and when he
turns himself, causes flames and water to rush forth, and sometimes even
small islands to rise in the sea, containing springs of hot water.
Pindar throws more credibility into the myth, by making it comformable
to the actual phenomena, for the whole strait from Cumæa to Sicily is
subigneous, and below the sea has certain galleries which form a
communication between [the volcanos[2012] of the islands[2013]] and
those of the mainland. He shows that Ætna is on this account of the
nature described by all, and also the Lipari Islands, with the regions
around Dicæarchia, Neapolis, Baïæ, and the Pithecussæ. And mindful
hereof, [Pindar] says that Typhon lies under the whole of this space.

“Now indeed the sea-girt shores beyond Cumæ, and Sicily,
press on his shaggy breast. ”[2014]

Timæus,[2015] who remarks that many paradoxical accounts were related by
the ancients concerning the Pithecussæ, states, nevertheless, that a
little before his time, Mount Epomeus,[2016] in the middle of the
island, being shaken by an earthquake, vomited forth fire; and that the
land between it and the coast was driven out into the sea. That the
powdered soil, after being whirled on high, was poured down again upon
the island in a whirlwind. That the sea retired from it to a distance of
three stadia, but after remaining so for a short time it returned, and
inundated the island, thus extinguishing the fire. And that the
inhabitants of the continent fled at the noise, from the sea-coast, into
the interior of Campania. It seems that the hot-springs[2017] here are a
remedy for those afflicted with gravel. Capreæ[2018] anciently possessed
two small cities, afterwards but one. The Neapolitans possessed this
island, but having lost Pithecussæ in war, they received it again from
Cæsar Augustus, giving him in exchange Capreæ. This [island] having thus
become the property of that prince, he [CAS. 248] has ornamented it with
numerous edifices. Such then are the maritime cities of Campania, and
the islands lying opposite to it.

10. In the interior is the metropolis, Capua, being, as the etymon of
the name signifies, the head; for in regard to it all the other cities
appear small, excepting Teanum-Sidicinum,[2019] which is a very
considerable place. This city lies on the Via Appia, as also the others
which lead from hence to Brundusium, [viz. ] Callateria,[2020]
Caudium,[2021] and Beneventum. [2022] On the side of Rome is
Casilinum,[2023] situated on the river Vulturnus. [2024] Here 540 men of
Præneste sustained against Hannibal in the height of his power so
desperate a siege, that by reason of the famine, a rat[2025] was sold
for two hundred drachmæ, the seller dying [of hunger], but the purchaser
being saved. Hannibal observing some of them sowing turnip-seed near to
the wall, admired, as well he might, the patient courage of these men,
who hoped to hold out in the mean while, until these turnips should be
ready for food. However, we are assured that they all survived, with the
exception of a few who perished either by famine or in war.

11. In addition to those just spoken of, there are these Campanian
cities which we have already mentioned, viz. Cales,[2026] and
Teanum-Sidicinum, the limits of which are respectively marked out by the
two temples of Fortune situated on either side of the Via Latina.
Besides these are Suessula,[2027] Atella,[2028] Nola,[2029]
Nuceria,[2030] Acerræ,[2031] Abella,[2032] with other smaller
settlements, some of which are said to be Samnite. [2033] The Samnites,
by making incursions into Latium as far as Ardea, and afterwards
devastating Campania itself, greatly extended their power. The
Campanians, being otherwise accustomed to a despotic government, yielded
ready obedience to their commands. At the present day they have been
almost entirely exterminated by the various Roman generals, and last of
all by Sulla, who was absolute master of the republic. He, after having
by numerous battles extinguished the Italian revolt, observing that the
Samnites, almost without exception, remained in one body, and with one
sole intention, so that they had even marched upon Rome itself, gave
them battle under the walls, and as he had issued orders to make no
prisoners, many of them were cut to pieces on the field, while the
remainder, said to be about three or four thousand men, who threw down
their arms, were led off to the _Villa Publica_ in the Campus Martius,
and there shut in; three days after soldiers were sent in who massacred
the whole; and when [Sulla] drew up his conscription list, he did not
rest satisfied until he had destroyed, or driven from Italy, every one
who bore a Samnite name. To those who reproached him for this animosity,
he replied that he had learned by experience that not a single Roman
could rest in peace so long as any of the Samnites survived. Thus their
cities have now dwindled into villages, some indeed being entirely
deserted, as Boianum,[2034] Æsernia,[2035] Panna, Telesia[2036]
adjoining Venafrum, and others similar, none of which can be looked upon
as cities; but in a country so renowned and powerful as Italy, we
thought proper to mention places even of second-rate importance. [We
should add that] Beneventum[2037] and Venusia[2038] are still
prosperous.

12. The following is the tradition concerning the [origin of the]
Samnites. The Sabines having been engaged for [CAS. 250] a long period
in war with the Ombrici, made a vow, common with some of the Grecian
nations, that they would consecrate to the gods the productions of the
year. [2039] They were victorious, and accordingly of the
productions,[2040] the one kind were sacrificed, the other consecrated.
However, in a time of scarcity, some one remarked, that they ought
likewise to have consecrated the children. This then they did, and the
children born at that period were called the sons of Mars. [2041] When
these had grown up to manhood, they were sent forth, a bull leading the
way, to found a colony. The bull lay down to rest in a place belonging
to the Opici; a people dwelling in villages. These they drove out, and
established themselves in the place. The bull, according to the
direction of the diviners, they sacrificed to Mars, who had given him to
them as a leader. It seems to have been in allusion to this that their
parents called them by the diminutive form of Sabelli. [2042] The name of
Samnites, or, as the Greeks call them, Saunites, originated in another
cause. It is also said that certain Lacedæmonians came to dwell amongst
them, and that this is the reason of their affection for the Greeks, and
that certain of them are called Pitanatæ. [2043] The whole of this,
however, appears to be a mere fabrication of the Tarentini, interested
in flattering and conciliating to themselves a neighbouring people, so
powerful as to be able, on a time, to bring into the field a force of
eighty thousand foot-soldiers, and eight thousand cavalry. There is said
to be a law amongst the Samnites, excellent in itself, and calculated to
excite to virtue. It is not lawful for fathers to give away their
daughters to whomsoever they may please; but every year ten of the most
virtuous young women, and ten of the most virtuous young men, are
selected; of these the most excellent young man is married to the most
excellent young woman, the second to the second, and so on in order.
Should he who receives this reward, afterwards change and become wicked,
he is dishonoured, and the wife who had been given is taken away from
him. Beyond are the Hirpini, who are also Samnites: their name they take
from the wolf, which conducted their colony; a wolf being called by the
Samnites _hirpos_: these people border on the Leucani in the interior.
So much for the Samnites.

13. The fertility of their country has been productive to the Campanians
of as much evil as good. Their luxury ran to such a height, that they
would invite to supper, in order to exhibit pairs of fighting
gladiators, the exact number of pairs being regulated according to the
distinction of the guests. When, on their voluntary submission to
Hannibal, they received his soldiers into winter quarters,[2044] the
pleasures [of the place] rendered the men so effeminate, that Hannibal
said, although conqueror, that he was in danger of the enemy, since his
soldiers were returned to him women, and no longer men. When the Romans
obtained the mastery,[2045] they inflicted on them numerous ills, and
ended by distributing their land by lot. [2046] At the present day they
are living in prosperity, and on friendly terms with the [Roman]
colonists, and preserve their ancient reputation, both in respect to the
size of their city and the numbers of their population. Beyond Campania
and the Samnites,[2047] and upon the Tyrrhenian Sea, dwells the nation
of the Picentini. This is a small off-shoot from the Picentini who dwell
near the Adriatic, and was transplanted by the Romans to the Posidoniate
Gulf,[2048] now called the Gulf of Pæstum. The city of Posidonia, which
is built about the middle of the gulf, is called Pæstum. [2049] The
Sybarites [when they founded the city[2050]] built the fortifications
close upon the sea, but the inhabitants removed higher up. In after
time[2051] the Leucani seized upon the city, but in their turn were
deprived of it by the Romans. [2052] It is rendered unhealthy by a
river[2053] [CAS. 251] which overflows the marshy districts in the
neighbourhood. Between the Sirenussæ and Posidonia[2054] is
Marcina,[2055] a city founded by the Tyrrheni, but inhabited by the
Samnites. [To go] from thence into Pompæa,[2056] through Nuceria,[2057]
[you cross] an isthmus of not more than 120 stadia. The Picentes extend
as far as the river Silaro,[2058] which separates their country on this
side from ancient Leucania. [2059] The water of this river is reported to
possess the singular property of petrifying any plant thrown into it,
preserving at the same time both the colour and form. [2060] Picentia was
formerly the capital of the Picentes; but they now dwell in villages,
having been ejected by the Romans[2061] for taking part with Hannibal.
Also, instead of doing military service, it has been decreed that they
shall be the public daily couriers and letter-carriers; [a penalty]
which for the same cause has been likewise inflicted on the Leucani and
Bruttii. To keep them in check, the Romans fortified Salernum, which is
a little above the sea. The distance from the Sirenussæ to the Silaro is
260 stadia.




BOOK VI.

ITALY.

SUMMARY.


The Sixth Book contains the remainder of Italy, and the regions
within the Adriatic, as far as Macedonia; likewise a description
of Apulia, Calabria, the country by the Ionian Gulf, together
with the adjacent islands, from Sicily to the Ceraunian
mountains, and on the other side as far as Carthage, and the
small islands lying near to it.




CHAPTER I.


1. After the mouth of the Silaro,[2062] is Leucania, and the temple of
Argive Juno, founded by Jason. Near to this, within 50 stadia, is
Posidonia. [2063] Sailing thence, towards the high sea, is the island of
Leucosia,[2064] at a little distance from the mainland. It bears the
name of one of the Sirens, who according to the mythology was cast up
here, after having been precipitated with her companions into the deep.
The promontory[2065] of the island projects opposite the
Sirenussæ,[2066] forming the bay of Posidonium. [2067] After having made
this cape there is another contiguous bay, on which is built the city
which the Phocæans called Hyela when they founded it, but others Ela
from a certain fountain. People in the present day call it Elea. It is
here that Parmenides and Zeno, the Pythagorean philosophers, were born.
And it is my opinion that through the instrumentality of those men, as
well as by previous good management, the government of that place was
well arranged, so that they successfully resisted the Leucani and the
Posidoniatæ, notwithstanding the smallness of their district and the
inferiority of their numbers. They are [CAS. 252] compelled, therefore,
on account of the barrenness of the soil, to apply to maritime trade
chiefly, to employ themselves in the salting of fish, and in such other
occupations. Antiochus[2068] says that when Phocea was taken by
Harpagus, the general of Cyrus, those who had the means embarked with
their families, and sailed under the conduct of Creontiades, first to
Cyrnos and Marseilles, but having been driven thence, they founded
Elea;[2069] the name of which some say is derived from the river
Elees. [2070] The city is distant about two hundred stadia from
Posidonia. After this city is the promontory of Palinurus. But in front
of the Eleatis are the Œnotrides, two islands[2071] having good
anchorage. [2072] And beyond Palinurus are the promontory, harbour, and
river of Pyxus;[2073] the three having the same name. This colony was
founded[2074] by Micythus, then governor of Messina in Sicily; but those
who were located here, except a few, abandoned the place. After Pyxus
are the gulf,[2075] the river,[2076] and the city[2077] of Laüs. This,
the last[2078] city of the Leucani, situate a little above the sea, is a
colony[2079] of the Sybarites, and is distant from Elea 400 stadia. The
whole circuit of Leucania, by sea is 650 stadia. Near to Laüs is seen
the tomb of Draco, one of the companions of Ulysses, and the oracular
response, given to the Italian Greeks, alludes to him:

“Some day, around the Dragon’s stony tomb,
A mighty multitude shall meet their doom. ”

For the Greeks of Italy, enticed by this prophecy, marched against Laüs
and were defeated by the Leucani. [2080]

2. Such, along the shores of the Tyrrhenian Sea, are the possessions of
the Leucani, which at first did not reach to the other sea;[2081] the
Greeks who dwelt on the Gulf of Tarentum possessed it. But before the
coming of the Greeks there were no Leucani, the Chones[2082] and Œnotri
possessed these territories. But when the Samnites had greatly
increased, and expelled the Chones and Œnotri, and driven the Leucani
into this region, while the Greeks possessed the sea-coast on both
sides as far as the straits, the Greeks and the Barbarians maintained a
lengthened contest. The tyrants of Sicily, and afterwards the
Carthaginians, at one time making war against the Romans, for the
acquisition of Sicily, and at another, for Italy itself, utterly wasted
all these regions. The Greeks, however, succeeded in depriving the
ancient inhabitants of a great portion of the midland country, beginning
even as early as the Trojan war; they increased in power, and extent of
territory, to such a degree, that they called this region and Sicily,
the _Magna Græcia_. But now the whole region, except Tarentum, Rhegium,
and Neapolis, has become barbarian,[2083] and belongs partly to the
Leucani and Bruttii, partly to the Campani; to these, however, only in
name, but truly to the Romans; for these people have become Roman.
However, it is incumbent on one who is treating of [CAS. 253] universal
geography, to speak both of things as they now are, and of some of those
that have been, and especially when they are important. Of the Leucani,
who border upon the Tuscan Sea, mention has already been made; those who
possess the midland regions dwell above the Gulf of Tarentum, but these,
as well as the Bruttii, and the Samnites themselves, the progenitors of
both, have been so maltreated [by the Romans], that it is difficult to
determine the boundaries of each people. The reason of this is, that
there no longer remains separately any of the institutions common to
these nations; and their peculiarities of language, of military and
civil costume, and such particulars, have passed away; besides, even
their places of abode, considered separately and apart, possess nothing
worthy of observation.

3. We will narrate in a general manner what we have gathered concerning
the Leucani, who dwell in the interior, without too much care in
distinguishing them from their neighbours, the Samnites. Petilia[2084]
is considered as the metropolis of the Leucani, and is still well
peopled. It owes its foundation to Philoctetes, who was compelled to
quit Melibœa on account of civil dissensions. Its position is so strong,
that the Samnites were formerly obliged to construct forts around it for
the defence of their territory. The ancient Crimissa, situated near
these places, was also founded by Philoctetes. Apollodorus, in his
description of the ships [of the Greeks], narrates concerning
Philoctetes, that, according to certain writers, this prince having
disembarked in the district of Crotona, settled on the promontory of
Crimissa, and built the city of Chone[2085] above it, from which the
inhabitants were called Chones; and that certain colonists being sent by
him into Sicily, to the neighbourhood of Eryx,[2086] with Ægestus the
Trojan, founded Ægesta. [2087] In the inland districts are also
Grumentum,[2088] Vertinæ,[2089] Calasarna,[2090] and other small
villages, reaching as far as Venusia,[2091] a city of some importance.
This, however, I consider to be a Samnite city, as are also those which
are next met with on going into Campania. Above the Thurii lies the
district called Tauriana. [2092] The Leucani are of Samnite origin.
Having vanquished the Posidoniates and their allies, they took
possession of their cities. At one time the institutions of the Leucani
were democratic, but during the wars a king was elected by those who
were possessed of chief authority: at the present time they are Roman.

4. The Bruttii occupy the remainder of the coast as far as the Strait of
Sicily, extending about 1350 stadia. Antiochus, in his treatise on
Italy, says that this district, which he intended to describe, was
called Italy, but that previously it had been called Œnotria. The
boundary which he assigns to it on the Tyrrhenian Sea, is the river
Lao,[2093] and on the Sea of Sicily Metapontium, the former of which we
have given as the boundary of the Bruttii. He describes Tarentum, which
is next to Metapontium,[2094] as beyond Italy, calling it Iapygian. He
also relates that, at a more ancient period, those who dwelt on this
side the isthmus, which lies next the Strait of Sicily, were the only
people who were called Œnotrians and Italians. The isthmus is 160 stadia
across between the two gulfs, namely, that of Hipponium,[2095] which
Antiochus called Napitinus, and [CAS. 255] that of Scylletium. [2096] The
circumnavigation of the peninsula, which is comprised between this
isthmus and the strait, is 2000 stadia. He says that afterwards the
names of Italy and of the Œnotrians were extended as far as Metapontium
and the Siritis; the Chones, a people of Œnotrian descent, and highly
civilized, inhabited these districts, and called their country Chone.
However, this author has written in a very loose and old-fashioned
manner, without giving any definite boundaries to the Leucani and
Bruttii. Now Leucania is situated on the Tyrrhenian and Sicilian Seas,
extending on one coast from the Silaro[2097] to the river Lao, and on
the other from Metapontium[2098] to Thurii. Along the continent it
stretches from the country of the Samnites, as far as the isthmus
between Thurii and Cerilli,[2099] near the Lao. This isthmus is 300
stadia[2100] across. Beyond are the Bruttii, who dwell on the peninsula;
in this is included another peninsula, which is bounded by the isthmus
between Scylletium[2101] and the Hipponiate gulf. [2102] The nation
received its appellation from the Leucani, for they call runaways
Bruttii, and they say that formerly they ran away from them when
employed as shepherds, and that afterwards their independence was
established through the weakness [of the Leucani], when Dion [of
Syracuse] was prosecuting a war against [the younger] Dionysius, and
fomented hostilities amongst all. [2103] This is all we shall remark as
to the Leucani and Bruttii.

5. From the Lao the first city is the Temesa[2104] of the Bruttii,
which at present is called Tempsa. It was founded by the Ausonians;
afterwards the Ætolians, under the command of Thoas, gained possession
of it.