r, describe two important developments: the vigorous Muslim
reaction
to the Frankish drive on Harra?
Arab-Historians-of-the-Crusades
n ibn Artu?
q the Turcoman.
When the Franks defeated the Turks at Antioch the massacre demoralized them, and the Egyptians, who saw that the Turkish armies were being weakened by desertion, besieged Jerusalem under the command of al-Afdal ibn Badr al-Jamali.
2 Inside the city were Artu?
q's sons, Suqma?
n and Ilghazi, their cousin Sunij and their nephew Yaquti.
The Egyptians brought more than forty siege engines to attack Jerusalem and broke down the walls at several polnts.
The inhabitants put up a defence, and the siege and fighting went on for more than six weeks.
In the end the Egyptians forced the city to capitulate, in sha'ba?
n 489/August 1096.
3 Suqma?
n, Ilghazi and their friends were well treated by al-Afdal, who gave them large gifts of money and let them go free.
They made for Damascus and then crossed the Euphrates.
Suqma?
n settled in Edessa and Ilghazi went on into Iraq.
The Egyptian governor of Jerusalem was a certain Iftikha?
r ad-Daula, who was still there at the time of which we are speaking.
After their vain attempt to take Acre by siege, the Franks moved on to Jerusalem and besieged it for more than six weeks. They built two towers, one of which, near Sion, the Muslims burnt down, killing everyone inside it. It had scarcely ceased to burn before a messenger arrived to ask for help and to bring the news that the other side of the city had fallen. In fact Jerusalem was taken from the north on the morning of Friday 22 sha'ba? n 492/15 July 1099. The population was put to the sword by the Franks, who pillaged the area for a week. A band of Muslims barricaded themselves into the Oratory of David1 and fought on for several days. They were granted their lives in return for surrendering. The Franks honoured their word, and the group left by night for Ascalon. In the Masjid al-Aqsa the Franks slaughtered more than 70,000 people, among them a large number of Imams
A Syrian Seljuqid, Maliksha? h's brother.
The Fatimid vizier.
If this date were correct the connection with the fall of Antioch would no longer exist. In fact the date given here is wrong: the Egyptians took Jerusalem in August 1098.
The Mihra? b Dawu? d, called the Tower of David in the European sources, in the citadel at Jerusalem. Not to be confused with a small sanctuary of the same name in the Temple precinct.
1 2 3
1
Part One: From Godfrey to Saladin 7
and Muslim scholars, devout and ascetic men who had left their homelands to live lives of pious seclusion in the Holy Place. The Franks stripped the Dome of the Rock2 of more than forty silver candelabra, each of them weighing 3,600 drams, and a great silver lamp weighing forty-four Syrian pounds, as well as a hundred and fifty smaller silver candelabra and more than twenty gold ones, and a great deal more booty. Refugees from Syria reached Baghda? d in ramadan, among them the qadi Abu Sa'd al-Ha? rawi. They told the Caliph's ministers a story that wrung their hearts and brought tears to their eyes. On Friday they went to the Cathedral Mosque and begged for help, weeping so that their hearers wept with them as they described the sufferings of the Muslims in that Holy City: the men killed, the women and children taken prisoner, the homes pillaged. Because of the terrible hardships they had suffered, they were allowed to break the fast.
** *
It was the discord between the Muslim princes, as we shall describe, that enabled the
Franks to overrun the country. Abu l-Muzaffar al-Abiwardi1 composed several poems on this subject, in one of which he says:
We have mingled blood with flowing tears, and there is no room left in us for pity(? ) To shed tears is a man's worst weapon when the swords stir up the embers of war. Sons of Isla? m, behind you are battles in which heads rolled at your feet.
Dare you slumber in the blessed shade of safety, where life is as soft as an orchard
flower?
How can the eye sleep between the lids at a time of disasters that would waken any sleeper? While your Syrian brothers can only sleep on the backs of their chargers, or in vultures'
bellies!
Must the foreigners feed on our ignominy, while you trail behind you the train of a
pleasant life, like men whose world is at peace?
When blood has been spilt, when sweet girls must for shame hide their lovely faces in
their hands!
When the white swords' points are red with blood, and the iron of the brown lances is
stained with gore!
At the sound of sword hammering on lance young children's hair turns white.
This is war, and the man who shuns the whirlpool to save his life shall grind his teeth
in penitence.
This is war, and the infidel's sword is naked in his hand, ready to be sheathed again in
men's necks and skulls.
This is war, and he who lies in the tomb at Medina seems to raise his voice and cry: 'O
sons of Hashim! 2
The rock from which, the Muslims believe, Muhammad ascended into heaven. Over it was built the so-called 'Mosque of 'Umar', the chief Islamic monument in Jerusalem. It was from this Mosque that the conquerors took their booty. Near by, but separate from it, is the 'Farthest Mosque' (al-Masjid al-Aqsa), where according to Ibn al-Athi? r the armies of the Cross showed even greater barbarity. The two sanctuaries are often confused in both Arabic and European sources. An Iraqi poet of the eleventh and twelfth centuries.
The Prophet, who from the tomb raises his voice to rebuke his descendants (the sons of Hashim), that is, the unworthy Caliphs whose opposition to the Crusades is only half-hearted.
2
1 2
8 Arab Historians of the Crusades
I see my people slow to raise the lance against the enemy: I see the Faith resting on feeble pillars.
For fear of death the Muslims are evading the fire of battle, refusing to believe that death will surely strike them. '
Must the Arab champions then suffer with resignation, while the gallant Persians shut their eyes to their dishonour?
THE CAPTURE OF BOHEMOND OF ANTIOCH (IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 203-4)
In dhu l-qa'da of this year (493/September 1100) Kumushtiki? n ibn ad-Danishma? nd Tailu? , Prince of Malatia, Siwa? s and other territories, met Bohemond the Frank, one of the Frankish leaders, near Malatia. The former governor of Malatia had a treaty of friendship with Bohemond and asked for his help. Bohemond came with 5,000 men, but was defeated in battle by Ibn ad-Danishma? nd and taken prisoner. Then seven Frankish Counts came from across the sea to seek Bohemond's release. They came to a fortress called Ankuriyya, took it and killed the Muslims they found there, before passing on to another fort, which they besieged. Isma'i? l ibn ad-Danishma? nd, who was defending the fort, mustered his great army, set an ambush for the Franks and then challenged them to battle. Battle was joined, the ambush sprung and of the 300,000 Franks only 3,000 escaped, during the night, and even they were wounded and exhausted. Ibn ad-Danishma? nd attacked Malatia, took it and imprisoned the governor. The Frankish army from Antioch came out to challenge him, but he fought and defeated them. All this happened in the space of a few months.
THE DEATH OF GODFREY AND
THE FRANKISH CONQUESTS THAT FOLLOWED IT
(IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 222)
In this year (493/1100) Godfrey, the Frankish King of Syria and ruler of Jerusalem, marched on the coastal city of Acre and besieged it, but was killed by an arrow. 1 Before his death he had fortified the city of Jaffa and handed it over to a Frankish Count named Tancred. At Godfrey's death his brother Baldwin marched on Jerusalem with 500 cavalry and infantry. When Ibn Duqa? q, King of Damascus, heard of this he led his army out against them, accompanied by Jana? h ad-Daula of Hims, and together they defeated the Franks.
In the same year the Franks took Saru? j in Mesopotamia. They already held Edessa by agreement with its inhabitants, most of whom were Armenians with only a few Muslims. At this point Suqma? n mustered a strong Turcoman army in Saru? j and attacked the Franks, but was defeated (in rabi? ' I January-February 1100). When the Franks had smashed the Muslim army in this way they marched on Saru? j, besieged it and took it. They slaughtered most of the men, enslaved the women and sacked the city. Only those who succeeded in getting out of the city escaped with their lives.
All the Muslim sources say that Godfrey was killed in battle.
1
Part One: From Godfrey to Saladin 9
In the same year the Franks took the port of Haifa, near Acre, by storm and by a treaty with Arsu? f, and expelled the population. In rajab/May they attacked and took Caesarea, murdered the inhabitants and sacked the city.
SAINT-GILLES THE FRANK BESIEGES TRIPOLI (IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 236-37)
Saint-Gilles the Frank1--God damn him! --and Qili? j Arsla? n ibn Sulaima? n ibn Qutlumi? sh, ruler of Iconium, met in battle. Saint-Gilles had 100,000 men2 and Qili? j Arsla? n only a few. In the battle the Franks were routed, many of them killed or captured, and Qili? j Arsla? n returned home with the booty of this unexpected victory. Saint-Gilles, defeated, retired into Syria with 300 men. The Prince of Tripoli, Fakhr al-Mulk ibn 'Amma? r, sent to the Ami? r Yakhu? z, who governed Hims for Jana? h ad-Daula, and to Duqa? q ibn Tutu? sh, King of Damascus, to tell them of the opportunity to take advantage of Saint-Gilles' weakness. So Yakhu? z went in person and Duqa? q sent 2,000 men, who were joined by reinforcements from Tripoli. They gathered at the gates of Tripoli and challenged Saint-Gilles to battle. The Frankish prince ordered 100 of his men to attack the detachment from Tripoli, 100 more the army from Damascus, and another 50 the party from Hims. He kept the remaining 50 at his side. The men from Hims fled at the mere sight of the enemy, followed by the men from Damascus. Only the men from Tripoli stood firm and gave battle. When Saint- Gilles understood what had happened, he led a charge of the other 200 Franks against the Muslims, scattered them and killed 7,000 of them. Then he settled down to besiege Tripoli, aided by local men from the hills and the surrounding countryside, most of them Christians. The citizens defended themselves stubbornly, and 300 Franks were killed. Saint-Gilles made a pact with them, and in return for money and horses left Tripoli to attack Tortosa in the same province. The siege was successful: the Franks killed most of the inhabitants and then moved on to the fort of at-Tuba? n, near Rafaniyya, which was commanded by a certain Ibn al-'Ari? d. In the battle that took place the Muslims were victorious and captured one of the leading Franks, for whom Saint-Gilles offered a ransom of 100,000 dinar1 and 1,000 prisoners; but the offer was refused.
BOHEMOND IS LIBERATED, AND BALDWIN DEFEATED AT RAMLA (IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 237-8)
In this year (495/1102), Danishma? nd freed Bohemond the Frank, ruler of Antioch, whose capture has just been described. The ransom was 100,000 dinar and the return of Yaghi Siya? n's daughter, whom Bohemond had captured. On his release Bohemond went straight to
Raymond of Saint-Gilles, Count of Toulouse and founder of the Frankish dynasty in Tripoli.
It is hardly necessary to point out that this is a ridiculous exaggeration, as is often the case with figures given by the Muslim chroniclers.
Various standards of dinar were current in the mediaeval Muslim world; the weight of the 'legal' standard was 4. 25 grams of fine gold.
1 2
1
10 Arab Historians of the Crusades
Antioch, where his arrival gave his people new enthusiasm. It was not long before he sent em issaries through Syria to Qinnasrin and the surrounding area to demand tribute. This caused the Muslims suffering that cancelled out the effects of Danishma? nd's glorious exploits.
In the same year Saint-Gilles besieged Hisn al-Akra? d. 1 Jana? h ad-Daula was mustering an army to attack the Franks from the rear when he was murdered in the Great Mosque at Hims by one of the Batinite sect. 2 It is said that his kinsman King Ridwa? n put the knife into the assassin's hand. On the morning after his death Saint-Gilles appeared at the walls of Hims, which he besieged and took. From Hims he took over the control of all Jana? h ad-Daula's domains.
In jumada II/April 1102 the Count besieged Acre and almost captured it. He brought up siege engines and towers, and blockaded the harbour with sixteen galleys. Muslims gathered from all along the coast, burnt the enemy's siege engines and towers and sank their ships. God gave the Muslims a glorious victory and cast down the infidels.
The Frankish Count of Edessa spent many months besieging Beiru? t, but in the end he abandoned his efforts and withdrew his troops.
Finally in rajab/May 1102, the Egyptian armies marched on Ascalon to prevent the Franks from occupying what was left of the former Egyptian possessions in Syria. When Baldwin of Jerusalem heard the news he marched out against them at the head of 700 cavalry. But God granted the Muslims victory and the Franks were routed with heavy losses. Baldwin tried to escape by hiding in a cane-brake but he was smoked out, badly burned. He fled to Ramla, closely pursued by the Muslims, and succeeded in reaching Haifa, although many of his followers died or were captured.
THE FRANKS TAKE JUBA? lL AND ACRE (IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 225)
In this year (497/1103-4) some ships reached Laodicea from the land of the Franks bringing merchants, soldiers, pilgrims and so on. Saint-Gilles used these as land and sea reinforcements in his siege of Tripoli, and continued his attack on the city. But he could not force an issue and so moved on to attack Juba? il vigorously. When the inhabitants realized that further resistance was useless they sued for peace and handed over the city. But the Franks failed to keep to the terms of the surrender; they seized the Muslims' possessions, using every form of violence and torture to extort them. After Juba? il they marched on to Acre to assist Baldwin, King of Jerusalem. The city was besieged by land and sea. The governor was a certain Banna? , known as Zahr ad-Daula al-Juyushi after the (Fatimid) vizier al-Malik al-Juyushi al-Afdal. He put up a vigorous resistance under repeated attacks, but finally capitulated and abandoned the city. The Franks took it by assault, and unleashed the full violence of their brutality on the population. The governor escaped to Damascus but after a while returned to Egypt to defend his conduct before al-Afdal, who accepted his explanation.
'Krak des Chevaliers', the mighty fortress north-east of Tripoli that played so important a part in the history of the Crusades.
A member of the sect of Batinites, Isma'ilites or Assassins. Their terrorist activities, to which every history of the Crusades contains numerous references, were as unwelcome to the Muslims as to the Franks.
1
2
CHAPTER TWO
The following pages, also taken from Ibn al-Athi?
r, describe two important developments: the vigorous Muslim reaction to the Frankish drive on Harra? n, an advance-post on the road to Baghda? d, and the even more important Franco-Muslim coalitions that developed at this time to wage war among themselves. The Muslims' lack of any sort of unified policy, which had been of such advantage to the Crusaders, infected the victors as well, and Baldwin of Edessa and Tancred of Antioch had no scruples about entering into opposing alliance with rival Muslim ami? rs.
SUQ A? N AND CHEKERMI? SH LEAD AN EXPEDITION AGAINST THE FRANKS
(IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 256-7)
While the Franks--God damn them! --were conquering and settling in a part of the territories of Isla? m, the rulers and armies of Isla? m were fighting among themselves, causing discord and disunity among their people and weakening their power to combat the enemy. The city of Harra? n was ruled by one of Maliksha? h's mamlu? ks, a man called Qaraja who a year before this had left the city under the command of a certain Muhammad al-Isfahani. This man, with popular support, rebelled against Qaraja because he was a tyrant, whereas al-Isfahani was an intelligent and energetic man. Qaraja's only supporter in Harra? n was a Turkish page called Jawali? , whom al-Isfahani befriended and made commander of the army. One day, when they were drinking together and al-Isfahani was drunk, Jawali? killed him, with the connivance of one of his servants. Then the Frankish army from Edessa marched on Harra? n.
Mu'i? n ad-Daula Suqma? n and Shams ad-Daula Chekermi? sh1 were involved in a vendetta caused by Chekermi? sh's murder of Suqma? n's nephew, as will be narrated later on, God willing. When they heard what had happened they suggested joining forces to save the situation at Harra? n. Each declared that he offered himself to God and sought a reward in heaven alone. They welcomed one-another's overtures and set out for a rendezvous on the bank of the river Khabu? r, where they sealed their alliance. Together they moved off to attack the Franks, Suqma? n with 7,000 Turcoman cavalry and Chekermi? sh with 3,000 Turkish, Arab and Kurdish cavalry. They encountered the enemy on the bank of the river Bali? kh and a battle took place (May 1104). The Muslims pretended to retreat, and were followed for about two farsakh by the Franks. Then they turned on their pursuers and massacred them. The Turcoman troops loaded themselves with booty; the loot was immense and very
The former, as mentioned earlier, was the Artuqid ami? r of Hisn Kaifa, the latter was ami? r of
1
Mosul.
12 Arab Historians of the Crusades
valuable because they were close to the regions under Frankish cultivation. Bohemond of Antioch and Tancred of Galilee were at some distance from the main body of the army, hidden behind a hill from which they were to fall on the Muslims from the rear at the height of the battle. When they emerged they found the Franks in flight and their land being pillaged. They waited for nightfall and then retreated, followed by the Muslims, who killed and captured many of their number. Bohemond and Tancred, with six knights, escaped to safety. Baldwin of Edessa fled with a group of his counts. They made for the Bali? kh, but their horses stuck fast in the mud and they were captured by a band of Suqma? n's Turcomans. Baldwin was taken to their master's tent, but Suqma? n had gone off with his company in pursuit of Bohemond. Chekermi? sh's troops realized that Suqma? n's army had seized the booty from the Frankish camp, while they returned empty-handed, so they said to Chekermi? sh; 'What shall we say to our people, or to the Turcomans, if Suqma? n's men take all the spoils and we have nothing? ' They persuaded him to seize the Count from Suqma? n's tent. When Suqma? n returned he was exceedingly angry, and his followers leapt into the saddle and were on the point of setting out in pursuit, but he called them back and said: 'The Muslims will be as dismayed at our quarrel as they were delighted at our reconciliation. I should not want to give the enemy the satisfaction of seeing me give vent to my anger at Isla? m's expense. '
Suqma? n at once returned to the battlefield, took the arms and standards left by the Franks, ordered his men to dress in Frankish clothing and to mount Frankish horses, and sent them off towards the forts held by the Franks at Shaiha? n. Thinking that their companions were returning in victory the Franks came out of the first of the forts, and were killed. The Muslims took the fort and repeated the trick with the other strongholds. Meanwhile Chekermi? sh marched on Harra? n, occupied it and left a trustworthy officer there while he went on and spent a fortnight besieging Edessa. Then he returned to Mosul, taking with him Baldwin, whom he had seized from Suqma? n's tent. He fixed the ransom at 35(000) dinar and a hundred and sixty Muslim prisoners. The Frankish dead numbered about 12,000.
BALDWIN OF EDESSA AND TANCRED OF ANTIOCH (IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 321-6)
When Jawali? 1 reached Makisi? n he freed the Frankish count who was a prisoner in Mosul and whom he had brought with him. The Count's name was Baldwin, and he was lord of Edessa, Saru? j, and other towns; he had spent all this time (from 1104-1108) in prison, offering enormous sums as ransom but unable to gain his freedom. Now after having been in prison for almost five years, Jawali? released him and gave him robes of honour. It was agreed that his ransom should be a certain sum of dinar, the release of the Muslims held captive by him, and a promise to help Jawali? , when requested, with all that his armies, his presence and his money could offer. When the terms had been agreed Jawali? sent the Count to the fort of Ja'bar, into the custody of its ruler Salim ibn Malik, until the arrival of his nephew Joscelin, a gallant Frankish knight and Prince of Tall Bashi? r; he had been captured
The Turkish ami? r who seized Mosul from Chekermi? sh, the captor of Baldwin.
1
Part One: From Godfrey to Saladin 13
at the same battle as the Count but had ransomed himself for 20,000 dinar. Joscelin came to Ja'bar as hostage for the Count, who went to Antioch in freedom. Then Jawali? released Joscelin, accepting as hostages in his place his and the Count's brothers-in-law, and sending Joscelin to join the Count and strengthen his resolve to release his prisoners, pay the ransom and fulfil his other obligations. When Joscelin reached Manbij he captured and sacked it. Some of Jawali? 's men who were with him reproached him with a violation of his undertaking, but he replied that what he did to this city was no affair of theirs.
The Count, free and safely back in Antioch, was given 30,000 dinar, horses, arms, and clothing, by Tancred, who had taken over the city while the Count was in prison. Now Baldwin applied to Tancred to restore the city to him, but met with no response. He moved to Tall Bashi? r, where the arrival of Joscelin, released by Jawali? , delighted and encouraged him. Meanwhile Tancred was preparing to attack him before he had time to muster his army and collect reinforcements, and before Jawali? could come to his aid. These men used to fight one-another and then after the contest would meet to dine and talk. 1
The Count freed a hundred and sixty Muslim prisoners, all from the county of Aleppo. He gave them clothes and sent them on their way. Tancred returned to Antioch with the problem of Edessa still unresolved. Baldwin and Joscelin made a series of raids on Tancred's forts, with the help of Kawasi? l, an Armenian who controlled Ru'ba? n, Kaisu? m and other forts north of Aleppo, and whose army was a miscellaneous band including a number of Muslim renegades. Baldwin's reinforcements from him numbered 2,000 cavalry and 2,000 infantry, all converts. Tancred prepared to fight, and sent the Patriarch of Edessa, whose status, like that of the Caliph among Muslims, commanded everyone's obedience, to mediate about Edessa. A group of metropolitans and priests gave evidence that Bohemond, Tancred's uncle, who had been planning to return to Europe, told Tancred to restore the city to the Count on his release from prison. So on 9 safar (501/29 September 1108) Tancred restored Edessa to Baldwin. Baldwin crossed the Euphrates and gave Jawali? 's emissaries the money and men he had promised, together with a number of prisoners from Harra? n and elsewhere as a douceur. At Saru? j Jawali? 's emissaries repaired a mosque belonging to three hundred poor Muslims. The governor of Saru? j was a convert from Isla? m, and Jawali? 's men heard him speaking ill of Isla? m and beat him up. This led to a brawl. The whole matter was referred to the Count, who said, 'This man is of no use either to you or to us', and had him killed.
In safar of the next year (502/September 1109) a battle was fought between Jawali? Saqau and Tancred the Frank, Prince of Antioch. The cause was a letter sent by Ridwa? n (of Aleppo) to Tancred of Antioch, putting him on his guard against Jawali? by informing him of Jawali? 's treacherous plot to attack Aleppo. Ridwa? n said that with Jawali? in Aleppo Tancred's Franks would no longer be able to maintain their hold on Syria. He asked for Tancred's help and co-operation in repulsing him. Tancred welcomed this appeal and set out from Antioch with six hundred cavalry sent by Pvidwa? n. When Jawali? heard the news he sent to Baldwin of Edessa to ask for his help in return for the rest of the ransom money. Baldwin left Edessa and met Jawali? at Manbij. At this moment news reached Jawali? that the Sul-tan's army1 had taken Mosul and seized all the money and treasure that Jawali?
The Muslim historian is struck by the chivalry of these medieval knights.
The Seljuqid Sultan Muhammad ibn Maliksha? h (1104-17), the feudal overlord of all these ami? rs.
1 1
14 Arab Historians of the Crusades
had there. This was a heavy blow to him, and many of his followers abandoned him, among them the Atabeg Zangi ibn Aq Sunqu? r and Bakta? sh an-Nahawandi. Jawali? had a thousand cavalry left, as well as a band of volunteers who had attached themselves to him. When the two armies were drawn up outside Tall Bashi? r, Tancred had 1,500 of his own cavalry, six hundred from Ridwa? n, and infantry as well. Jawali? put the ami? rs Aqsiya? n and Alunta? sh al-Abarri on his right, Badra? n ibn Sa? daqa, Ispahba? d Sabau and Sunqur Dira? z on his left, and in the centre the two Franks, Count Baldwin and Joscelin. In the battle that followed the men from Antioch charged the Count of Edessa, and after some violent fighting Tancred forced the enemy's centre to retreat. But Jawali? 's left wing charged the infantry from Antioch and killed so many of them that Tancred's defeat seemed certain. At this point some of Jawali? 's men fell on the chargers belonging to Baldwin, Joscelin and certain others, mounted them and galloped off. Jawali? rode after them to bring them back to the fight, but they did not owe him obedience since the loss of Mosul, and refused to turn back. When he realized that they would not obey him he was afraid to stay at his post, and led his army in a retreat. Ispahba? d Sabau made for Syria; Badra? n ibn Sa? daqa for the fortress of Ja'bar; Ibn Chekermi? sh for Jazirat Ibn 'Umar, and Jawali? himself for Rahba. Many Muslims were killed and their possessions taken by Tancred. The Frankish armies unleashed all their ferocity on the Muslims. Baldwin and Joscelin fled to Tall Bashi? r, and many of the Muslims sought refuge with them. They were well treated: the wounded were cared for, the naked clothed, and all set on their way home.
CHAPTER THREE
The extracts from Ibn al-Qala? nisi that follow give a vivid first-hand account of the fall of the Syrian coastal cities (Tripoli, Beiru? t, Sidon, and later, Tyre), and of the effect on Isla? m's spiritual capital of the influx of Frankish invaders into the empire. Muslim public opinion, alarmed by the tales of the Syrian refugees, demanded substantial military action by the central authorities; the Caliph and the Seljuqid Sultan, who, as usual, 'promised to provide'.
THE FALL OF TRIPOLI (IBN AL-QALA? NISI, 163-4)
In sha'ba? n of 502/March 1109 Bertrand,1 the son of Saint-Gilles (who was attacking Tripoli) arrived by sea from his homeland with sixty vessels carrying Franks and Genoese, and encamped under the city walls. He was contesting the claims of Saint-Gilles' nephew, the Count of Cerdagne.
After their vain attempt to take Acre by siege, the Franks moved on to Jerusalem and besieged it for more than six weeks. They built two towers, one of which, near Sion, the Muslims burnt down, killing everyone inside it. It had scarcely ceased to burn before a messenger arrived to ask for help and to bring the news that the other side of the city had fallen. In fact Jerusalem was taken from the north on the morning of Friday 22 sha'ba? n 492/15 July 1099. The population was put to the sword by the Franks, who pillaged the area for a week. A band of Muslims barricaded themselves into the Oratory of David1 and fought on for several days. They were granted their lives in return for surrendering. The Franks honoured their word, and the group left by night for Ascalon. In the Masjid al-Aqsa the Franks slaughtered more than 70,000 people, among them a large number of Imams
A Syrian Seljuqid, Maliksha? h's brother.
The Fatimid vizier.
If this date were correct the connection with the fall of Antioch would no longer exist. In fact the date given here is wrong: the Egyptians took Jerusalem in August 1098.
The Mihra? b Dawu? d, called the Tower of David in the European sources, in the citadel at Jerusalem. Not to be confused with a small sanctuary of the same name in the Temple precinct.
1 2 3
1
Part One: From Godfrey to Saladin 7
and Muslim scholars, devout and ascetic men who had left their homelands to live lives of pious seclusion in the Holy Place. The Franks stripped the Dome of the Rock2 of more than forty silver candelabra, each of them weighing 3,600 drams, and a great silver lamp weighing forty-four Syrian pounds, as well as a hundred and fifty smaller silver candelabra and more than twenty gold ones, and a great deal more booty. Refugees from Syria reached Baghda? d in ramadan, among them the qadi Abu Sa'd al-Ha? rawi. They told the Caliph's ministers a story that wrung their hearts and brought tears to their eyes. On Friday they went to the Cathedral Mosque and begged for help, weeping so that their hearers wept with them as they described the sufferings of the Muslims in that Holy City: the men killed, the women and children taken prisoner, the homes pillaged. Because of the terrible hardships they had suffered, they were allowed to break the fast.
** *
It was the discord between the Muslim princes, as we shall describe, that enabled the
Franks to overrun the country. Abu l-Muzaffar al-Abiwardi1 composed several poems on this subject, in one of which he says:
We have mingled blood with flowing tears, and there is no room left in us for pity(? ) To shed tears is a man's worst weapon when the swords stir up the embers of war. Sons of Isla? m, behind you are battles in which heads rolled at your feet.
Dare you slumber in the blessed shade of safety, where life is as soft as an orchard
flower?
How can the eye sleep between the lids at a time of disasters that would waken any sleeper? While your Syrian brothers can only sleep on the backs of their chargers, or in vultures'
bellies!
Must the foreigners feed on our ignominy, while you trail behind you the train of a
pleasant life, like men whose world is at peace?
When blood has been spilt, when sweet girls must for shame hide their lovely faces in
their hands!
When the white swords' points are red with blood, and the iron of the brown lances is
stained with gore!
At the sound of sword hammering on lance young children's hair turns white.
This is war, and the man who shuns the whirlpool to save his life shall grind his teeth
in penitence.
This is war, and the infidel's sword is naked in his hand, ready to be sheathed again in
men's necks and skulls.
This is war, and he who lies in the tomb at Medina seems to raise his voice and cry: 'O
sons of Hashim! 2
The rock from which, the Muslims believe, Muhammad ascended into heaven. Over it was built the so-called 'Mosque of 'Umar', the chief Islamic monument in Jerusalem. It was from this Mosque that the conquerors took their booty. Near by, but separate from it, is the 'Farthest Mosque' (al-Masjid al-Aqsa), where according to Ibn al-Athi? r the armies of the Cross showed even greater barbarity. The two sanctuaries are often confused in both Arabic and European sources. An Iraqi poet of the eleventh and twelfth centuries.
The Prophet, who from the tomb raises his voice to rebuke his descendants (the sons of Hashim), that is, the unworthy Caliphs whose opposition to the Crusades is only half-hearted.
2
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8 Arab Historians of the Crusades
I see my people slow to raise the lance against the enemy: I see the Faith resting on feeble pillars.
For fear of death the Muslims are evading the fire of battle, refusing to believe that death will surely strike them. '
Must the Arab champions then suffer with resignation, while the gallant Persians shut their eyes to their dishonour?
THE CAPTURE OF BOHEMOND OF ANTIOCH (IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 203-4)
In dhu l-qa'da of this year (493/September 1100) Kumushtiki? n ibn ad-Danishma? nd Tailu? , Prince of Malatia, Siwa? s and other territories, met Bohemond the Frank, one of the Frankish leaders, near Malatia. The former governor of Malatia had a treaty of friendship with Bohemond and asked for his help. Bohemond came with 5,000 men, but was defeated in battle by Ibn ad-Danishma? nd and taken prisoner. Then seven Frankish Counts came from across the sea to seek Bohemond's release. They came to a fortress called Ankuriyya, took it and killed the Muslims they found there, before passing on to another fort, which they besieged. Isma'i? l ibn ad-Danishma? nd, who was defending the fort, mustered his great army, set an ambush for the Franks and then challenged them to battle. Battle was joined, the ambush sprung and of the 300,000 Franks only 3,000 escaped, during the night, and even they were wounded and exhausted. Ibn ad-Danishma? nd attacked Malatia, took it and imprisoned the governor. The Frankish army from Antioch came out to challenge him, but he fought and defeated them. All this happened in the space of a few months.
THE DEATH OF GODFREY AND
THE FRANKISH CONQUESTS THAT FOLLOWED IT
(IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 222)
In this year (493/1100) Godfrey, the Frankish King of Syria and ruler of Jerusalem, marched on the coastal city of Acre and besieged it, but was killed by an arrow. 1 Before his death he had fortified the city of Jaffa and handed it over to a Frankish Count named Tancred. At Godfrey's death his brother Baldwin marched on Jerusalem with 500 cavalry and infantry. When Ibn Duqa? q, King of Damascus, heard of this he led his army out against them, accompanied by Jana? h ad-Daula of Hims, and together they defeated the Franks.
In the same year the Franks took Saru? j in Mesopotamia. They already held Edessa by agreement with its inhabitants, most of whom were Armenians with only a few Muslims. At this point Suqma? n mustered a strong Turcoman army in Saru? j and attacked the Franks, but was defeated (in rabi? ' I January-February 1100). When the Franks had smashed the Muslim army in this way they marched on Saru? j, besieged it and took it. They slaughtered most of the men, enslaved the women and sacked the city. Only those who succeeded in getting out of the city escaped with their lives.
All the Muslim sources say that Godfrey was killed in battle.
1
Part One: From Godfrey to Saladin 9
In the same year the Franks took the port of Haifa, near Acre, by storm and by a treaty with Arsu? f, and expelled the population. In rajab/May they attacked and took Caesarea, murdered the inhabitants and sacked the city.
SAINT-GILLES THE FRANK BESIEGES TRIPOLI (IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 236-37)
Saint-Gilles the Frank1--God damn him! --and Qili? j Arsla? n ibn Sulaima? n ibn Qutlumi? sh, ruler of Iconium, met in battle. Saint-Gilles had 100,000 men2 and Qili? j Arsla? n only a few. In the battle the Franks were routed, many of them killed or captured, and Qili? j Arsla? n returned home with the booty of this unexpected victory. Saint-Gilles, defeated, retired into Syria with 300 men. The Prince of Tripoli, Fakhr al-Mulk ibn 'Amma? r, sent to the Ami? r Yakhu? z, who governed Hims for Jana? h ad-Daula, and to Duqa? q ibn Tutu? sh, King of Damascus, to tell them of the opportunity to take advantage of Saint-Gilles' weakness. So Yakhu? z went in person and Duqa? q sent 2,000 men, who were joined by reinforcements from Tripoli. They gathered at the gates of Tripoli and challenged Saint-Gilles to battle. The Frankish prince ordered 100 of his men to attack the detachment from Tripoli, 100 more the army from Damascus, and another 50 the party from Hims. He kept the remaining 50 at his side. The men from Hims fled at the mere sight of the enemy, followed by the men from Damascus. Only the men from Tripoli stood firm and gave battle. When Saint- Gilles understood what had happened, he led a charge of the other 200 Franks against the Muslims, scattered them and killed 7,000 of them. Then he settled down to besiege Tripoli, aided by local men from the hills and the surrounding countryside, most of them Christians. The citizens defended themselves stubbornly, and 300 Franks were killed. Saint-Gilles made a pact with them, and in return for money and horses left Tripoli to attack Tortosa in the same province. The siege was successful: the Franks killed most of the inhabitants and then moved on to the fort of at-Tuba? n, near Rafaniyya, which was commanded by a certain Ibn al-'Ari? d. In the battle that took place the Muslims were victorious and captured one of the leading Franks, for whom Saint-Gilles offered a ransom of 100,000 dinar1 and 1,000 prisoners; but the offer was refused.
BOHEMOND IS LIBERATED, AND BALDWIN DEFEATED AT RAMLA (IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 237-8)
In this year (495/1102), Danishma? nd freed Bohemond the Frank, ruler of Antioch, whose capture has just been described. The ransom was 100,000 dinar and the return of Yaghi Siya? n's daughter, whom Bohemond had captured. On his release Bohemond went straight to
Raymond of Saint-Gilles, Count of Toulouse and founder of the Frankish dynasty in Tripoli.
It is hardly necessary to point out that this is a ridiculous exaggeration, as is often the case with figures given by the Muslim chroniclers.
Various standards of dinar were current in the mediaeval Muslim world; the weight of the 'legal' standard was 4. 25 grams of fine gold.
1 2
1
10 Arab Historians of the Crusades
Antioch, where his arrival gave his people new enthusiasm. It was not long before he sent em issaries through Syria to Qinnasrin and the surrounding area to demand tribute. This caused the Muslims suffering that cancelled out the effects of Danishma? nd's glorious exploits.
In the same year Saint-Gilles besieged Hisn al-Akra? d. 1 Jana? h ad-Daula was mustering an army to attack the Franks from the rear when he was murdered in the Great Mosque at Hims by one of the Batinite sect. 2 It is said that his kinsman King Ridwa? n put the knife into the assassin's hand. On the morning after his death Saint-Gilles appeared at the walls of Hims, which he besieged and took. From Hims he took over the control of all Jana? h ad-Daula's domains.
In jumada II/April 1102 the Count besieged Acre and almost captured it. He brought up siege engines and towers, and blockaded the harbour with sixteen galleys. Muslims gathered from all along the coast, burnt the enemy's siege engines and towers and sank their ships. God gave the Muslims a glorious victory and cast down the infidels.
The Frankish Count of Edessa spent many months besieging Beiru? t, but in the end he abandoned his efforts and withdrew his troops.
Finally in rajab/May 1102, the Egyptian armies marched on Ascalon to prevent the Franks from occupying what was left of the former Egyptian possessions in Syria. When Baldwin of Jerusalem heard the news he marched out against them at the head of 700 cavalry. But God granted the Muslims victory and the Franks were routed with heavy losses. Baldwin tried to escape by hiding in a cane-brake but he was smoked out, badly burned. He fled to Ramla, closely pursued by the Muslims, and succeeded in reaching Haifa, although many of his followers died or were captured.
THE FRANKS TAKE JUBA? lL AND ACRE (IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 225)
In this year (497/1103-4) some ships reached Laodicea from the land of the Franks bringing merchants, soldiers, pilgrims and so on. Saint-Gilles used these as land and sea reinforcements in his siege of Tripoli, and continued his attack on the city. But he could not force an issue and so moved on to attack Juba? il vigorously. When the inhabitants realized that further resistance was useless they sued for peace and handed over the city. But the Franks failed to keep to the terms of the surrender; they seized the Muslims' possessions, using every form of violence and torture to extort them. After Juba? il they marched on to Acre to assist Baldwin, King of Jerusalem. The city was besieged by land and sea. The governor was a certain Banna? , known as Zahr ad-Daula al-Juyushi after the (Fatimid) vizier al-Malik al-Juyushi al-Afdal. He put up a vigorous resistance under repeated attacks, but finally capitulated and abandoned the city. The Franks took it by assault, and unleashed the full violence of their brutality on the population. The governor escaped to Damascus but after a while returned to Egypt to defend his conduct before al-Afdal, who accepted his explanation.
'Krak des Chevaliers', the mighty fortress north-east of Tripoli that played so important a part in the history of the Crusades.
A member of the sect of Batinites, Isma'ilites or Assassins. Their terrorist activities, to which every history of the Crusades contains numerous references, were as unwelcome to the Muslims as to the Franks.
1
2
CHAPTER TWO
The following pages, also taken from Ibn al-Athi?
r, describe two important developments: the vigorous Muslim reaction to the Frankish drive on Harra? n, an advance-post on the road to Baghda? d, and the even more important Franco-Muslim coalitions that developed at this time to wage war among themselves. The Muslims' lack of any sort of unified policy, which had been of such advantage to the Crusaders, infected the victors as well, and Baldwin of Edessa and Tancred of Antioch had no scruples about entering into opposing alliance with rival Muslim ami? rs.
SUQ A? N AND CHEKERMI? SH LEAD AN EXPEDITION AGAINST THE FRANKS
(IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 256-7)
While the Franks--God damn them! --were conquering and settling in a part of the territories of Isla? m, the rulers and armies of Isla? m were fighting among themselves, causing discord and disunity among their people and weakening their power to combat the enemy. The city of Harra? n was ruled by one of Maliksha? h's mamlu? ks, a man called Qaraja who a year before this had left the city under the command of a certain Muhammad al-Isfahani. This man, with popular support, rebelled against Qaraja because he was a tyrant, whereas al-Isfahani was an intelligent and energetic man. Qaraja's only supporter in Harra? n was a Turkish page called Jawali? , whom al-Isfahani befriended and made commander of the army. One day, when they were drinking together and al-Isfahani was drunk, Jawali? killed him, with the connivance of one of his servants. Then the Frankish army from Edessa marched on Harra? n.
Mu'i? n ad-Daula Suqma? n and Shams ad-Daula Chekermi? sh1 were involved in a vendetta caused by Chekermi? sh's murder of Suqma? n's nephew, as will be narrated later on, God willing. When they heard what had happened they suggested joining forces to save the situation at Harra? n. Each declared that he offered himself to God and sought a reward in heaven alone. They welcomed one-another's overtures and set out for a rendezvous on the bank of the river Khabu? r, where they sealed their alliance. Together they moved off to attack the Franks, Suqma? n with 7,000 Turcoman cavalry and Chekermi? sh with 3,000 Turkish, Arab and Kurdish cavalry. They encountered the enemy on the bank of the river Bali? kh and a battle took place (May 1104). The Muslims pretended to retreat, and were followed for about two farsakh by the Franks. Then they turned on their pursuers and massacred them. The Turcoman troops loaded themselves with booty; the loot was immense and very
The former, as mentioned earlier, was the Artuqid ami? r of Hisn Kaifa, the latter was ami? r of
1
Mosul.
12 Arab Historians of the Crusades
valuable because they were close to the regions under Frankish cultivation. Bohemond of Antioch and Tancred of Galilee were at some distance from the main body of the army, hidden behind a hill from which they were to fall on the Muslims from the rear at the height of the battle. When they emerged they found the Franks in flight and their land being pillaged. They waited for nightfall and then retreated, followed by the Muslims, who killed and captured many of their number. Bohemond and Tancred, with six knights, escaped to safety. Baldwin of Edessa fled with a group of his counts. They made for the Bali? kh, but their horses stuck fast in the mud and they were captured by a band of Suqma? n's Turcomans. Baldwin was taken to their master's tent, but Suqma? n had gone off with his company in pursuit of Bohemond. Chekermi? sh's troops realized that Suqma? n's army had seized the booty from the Frankish camp, while they returned empty-handed, so they said to Chekermi? sh; 'What shall we say to our people, or to the Turcomans, if Suqma? n's men take all the spoils and we have nothing? ' They persuaded him to seize the Count from Suqma? n's tent. When Suqma? n returned he was exceedingly angry, and his followers leapt into the saddle and were on the point of setting out in pursuit, but he called them back and said: 'The Muslims will be as dismayed at our quarrel as they were delighted at our reconciliation. I should not want to give the enemy the satisfaction of seeing me give vent to my anger at Isla? m's expense. '
Suqma? n at once returned to the battlefield, took the arms and standards left by the Franks, ordered his men to dress in Frankish clothing and to mount Frankish horses, and sent them off towards the forts held by the Franks at Shaiha? n. Thinking that their companions were returning in victory the Franks came out of the first of the forts, and were killed. The Muslims took the fort and repeated the trick with the other strongholds. Meanwhile Chekermi? sh marched on Harra? n, occupied it and left a trustworthy officer there while he went on and spent a fortnight besieging Edessa. Then he returned to Mosul, taking with him Baldwin, whom he had seized from Suqma? n's tent. He fixed the ransom at 35(000) dinar and a hundred and sixty Muslim prisoners. The Frankish dead numbered about 12,000.
BALDWIN OF EDESSA AND TANCRED OF ANTIOCH (IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 321-6)
When Jawali? 1 reached Makisi? n he freed the Frankish count who was a prisoner in Mosul and whom he had brought with him. The Count's name was Baldwin, and he was lord of Edessa, Saru? j, and other towns; he had spent all this time (from 1104-1108) in prison, offering enormous sums as ransom but unable to gain his freedom. Now after having been in prison for almost five years, Jawali? released him and gave him robes of honour. It was agreed that his ransom should be a certain sum of dinar, the release of the Muslims held captive by him, and a promise to help Jawali? , when requested, with all that his armies, his presence and his money could offer. When the terms had been agreed Jawali? sent the Count to the fort of Ja'bar, into the custody of its ruler Salim ibn Malik, until the arrival of his nephew Joscelin, a gallant Frankish knight and Prince of Tall Bashi? r; he had been captured
The Turkish ami? r who seized Mosul from Chekermi? sh, the captor of Baldwin.
1
Part One: From Godfrey to Saladin 13
at the same battle as the Count but had ransomed himself for 20,000 dinar. Joscelin came to Ja'bar as hostage for the Count, who went to Antioch in freedom. Then Jawali? released Joscelin, accepting as hostages in his place his and the Count's brothers-in-law, and sending Joscelin to join the Count and strengthen his resolve to release his prisoners, pay the ransom and fulfil his other obligations. When Joscelin reached Manbij he captured and sacked it. Some of Jawali? 's men who were with him reproached him with a violation of his undertaking, but he replied that what he did to this city was no affair of theirs.
The Count, free and safely back in Antioch, was given 30,000 dinar, horses, arms, and clothing, by Tancred, who had taken over the city while the Count was in prison. Now Baldwin applied to Tancred to restore the city to him, but met with no response. He moved to Tall Bashi? r, where the arrival of Joscelin, released by Jawali? , delighted and encouraged him. Meanwhile Tancred was preparing to attack him before he had time to muster his army and collect reinforcements, and before Jawali? could come to his aid. These men used to fight one-another and then after the contest would meet to dine and talk. 1
The Count freed a hundred and sixty Muslim prisoners, all from the county of Aleppo. He gave them clothes and sent them on their way. Tancred returned to Antioch with the problem of Edessa still unresolved. Baldwin and Joscelin made a series of raids on Tancred's forts, with the help of Kawasi? l, an Armenian who controlled Ru'ba? n, Kaisu? m and other forts north of Aleppo, and whose army was a miscellaneous band including a number of Muslim renegades. Baldwin's reinforcements from him numbered 2,000 cavalry and 2,000 infantry, all converts. Tancred prepared to fight, and sent the Patriarch of Edessa, whose status, like that of the Caliph among Muslims, commanded everyone's obedience, to mediate about Edessa. A group of metropolitans and priests gave evidence that Bohemond, Tancred's uncle, who had been planning to return to Europe, told Tancred to restore the city to the Count on his release from prison. So on 9 safar (501/29 September 1108) Tancred restored Edessa to Baldwin. Baldwin crossed the Euphrates and gave Jawali? 's emissaries the money and men he had promised, together with a number of prisoners from Harra? n and elsewhere as a douceur. At Saru? j Jawali? 's emissaries repaired a mosque belonging to three hundred poor Muslims. The governor of Saru? j was a convert from Isla? m, and Jawali? 's men heard him speaking ill of Isla? m and beat him up. This led to a brawl. The whole matter was referred to the Count, who said, 'This man is of no use either to you or to us', and had him killed.
In safar of the next year (502/September 1109) a battle was fought between Jawali? Saqau and Tancred the Frank, Prince of Antioch. The cause was a letter sent by Ridwa? n (of Aleppo) to Tancred of Antioch, putting him on his guard against Jawali? by informing him of Jawali? 's treacherous plot to attack Aleppo. Ridwa? n said that with Jawali? in Aleppo Tancred's Franks would no longer be able to maintain their hold on Syria. He asked for Tancred's help and co-operation in repulsing him. Tancred welcomed this appeal and set out from Antioch with six hundred cavalry sent by Pvidwa? n. When Jawali? heard the news he sent to Baldwin of Edessa to ask for his help in return for the rest of the ransom money. Baldwin left Edessa and met Jawali? at Manbij. At this moment news reached Jawali? that the Sul-tan's army1 had taken Mosul and seized all the money and treasure that Jawali?
The Muslim historian is struck by the chivalry of these medieval knights.
The Seljuqid Sultan Muhammad ibn Maliksha? h (1104-17), the feudal overlord of all these ami? rs.
1 1
14 Arab Historians of the Crusades
had there. This was a heavy blow to him, and many of his followers abandoned him, among them the Atabeg Zangi ibn Aq Sunqu? r and Bakta? sh an-Nahawandi. Jawali? had a thousand cavalry left, as well as a band of volunteers who had attached themselves to him. When the two armies were drawn up outside Tall Bashi? r, Tancred had 1,500 of his own cavalry, six hundred from Ridwa? n, and infantry as well. Jawali? put the ami? rs Aqsiya? n and Alunta? sh al-Abarri on his right, Badra? n ibn Sa? daqa, Ispahba? d Sabau and Sunqur Dira? z on his left, and in the centre the two Franks, Count Baldwin and Joscelin. In the battle that followed the men from Antioch charged the Count of Edessa, and after some violent fighting Tancred forced the enemy's centre to retreat. But Jawali? 's left wing charged the infantry from Antioch and killed so many of them that Tancred's defeat seemed certain. At this point some of Jawali? 's men fell on the chargers belonging to Baldwin, Joscelin and certain others, mounted them and galloped off. Jawali? rode after them to bring them back to the fight, but they did not owe him obedience since the loss of Mosul, and refused to turn back. When he realized that they would not obey him he was afraid to stay at his post, and led his army in a retreat. Ispahba? d Sabau made for Syria; Badra? n ibn Sa? daqa for the fortress of Ja'bar; Ibn Chekermi? sh for Jazirat Ibn 'Umar, and Jawali? himself for Rahba. Many Muslims were killed and their possessions taken by Tancred. The Frankish armies unleashed all their ferocity on the Muslims. Baldwin and Joscelin fled to Tall Bashi? r, and many of the Muslims sought refuge with them. They were well treated: the wounded were cared for, the naked clothed, and all set on their way home.
CHAPTER THREE
The extracts from Ibn al-Qala? nisi that follow give a vivid first-hand account of the fall of the Syrian coastal cities (Tripoli, Beiru? t, Sidon, and later, Tyre), and of the effect on Isla? m's spiritual capital of the influx of Frankish invaders into the empire. Muslim public opinion, alarmed by the tales of the Syrian refugees, demanded substantial military action by the central authorities; the Caliph and the Seljuqid Sultan, who, as usual, 'promised to provide'.
THE FALL OF TRIPOLI (IBN AL-QALA? NISI, 163-4)
In sha'ba? n of 502/March 1109 Bertrand,1 the son of Saint-Gilles (who was attacking Tripoli) arrived by sea from his homeland with sixty vessels carrying Franks and Genoese, and encamped under the city walls. He was contesting the claims of Saint-Gilles' nephew, the Count of Cerdagne.
