Mean-
time the Catti devastated Gaul and Rhauia, the Che-
rosci forced the Ixnigobardi back to the Elbe.
time the Catti devastated Gaul and Rhauia, the Che-
rosci forced the Ixnigobardi back to the Elbe.
Charles - 1867 - Classical Dictionary
, Hist.
Gr.
, 3, 1, 12.
)
It had a temple sacred to Apollo Gergithius, and was
said to have given birth to the sibyl, who is sometimes
called Erythraea, from Erythra\ a small place on Mount
Ida (Dion. Hal. , 1, 55), and at others Gergithia. In
confirmation of this fact, it was observed that the coins
of this city had the effigy of the prophetess impressed
upon them. (Phlegon, ap. Steph. Byz. , s. >>. Tipyic. )
Some of these coins are still extant, and accord with
the testimony of Phlegon. They are thus described
by numismatic writers: "Caput muliebre adversum
aureatum cum stola ad rollum K. 1'EP. Sphinx alata
sedens jE. ,3. " (Scslim, Lett. Numism. , t. I, p. 88. )
It appears from Strabo that Gergitha having been taken
by Attains, king of Pcrgamus, he removed the inhab-
tants to the sources of the Ca'icus, where he founded
a new town of the same name. (Slrah. , 616 ) The
Romans, according to Livy, made over the territory of
the old town to the Ilienses (38, 39). Herodotus, in
describing Xerxes' march along the Hellespont, states
that he had the town of Dardanus on his left, and Ger-
githa on the right; it is evident, therefore, that the
latter must havo been situated inland, and towards
Mount Ida. (Herod. , 7, 43. --Cramer's Asia Minor,
vol. I, p. 84, seqq. )
GehgovIa, a strong town and fortress of Gaul, be-
longing to the Arvcrni. It was situate on a very high
mountain, and of difficult access on all sides. It is
now Gcrgorie. (Cas. , B. G. , 7, 9. )
Germania. The word Germania was employed by
the Romans to designate a country of greater extent
than modern Germany. They included under this name
ell the nations of Europe east of the Rhine and north
of the Danube, bounded on the north by the German
Ocean and the Baltic, including Denmark and the
neighbouring islands, and on the east by the Sarma-
tians and Dacians. It is difficult, however, to ascer-
tain how far Germany stretched to the East. Accord-
ing to Strabo (239), Germanic tribes dwelt nearly as far
as the mouths of the Borysthenes (or Dnieper). The
northern and northeastern parts of Gaul were also
known under the name of Germany in the time of the
Roman emperors, after the province of Belgica had
been subdivided into Germania Prima and Germania
Seatnda.
1. Origin of the Germanic nations.
? ? Tne origin of the Germanic nations is involved in
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? GE&MANIA.
GEilMANIA.
<<es be true, and they arc acknowledged to be so by
? very scholar who has examined them, the commonly-
received derivation of the name Germain falls to the
ground. The advocates for this etymology maintain,
that the appellation in question comes from wcr," war,"
and nana, "a man," and that "Gcrmani" therefore
D'eans "men of war" or "warriors," the Roman al-
phabet, in consequence of its not having any v>, con-
verting this letter into a soft g. They refer also to
Tacitus, who states, that the Tungri first assumed this
name on crossing the Rhine, and that it gradually
spread over the whole nation. (De Mor. Germ. , 2. )
Others again assert, that the term is of Celtic origin,
and was first applied by the Gauls to their German
conquerors, and they deduce it from the Celtic gerr,
"war," and mann, " a man. " 'Lemaire, Intl. Geogr. ,
ad Cits. , t. v. , p. 269. ) The true origin of the name,
however, as has already been remarked, must be sought
in the remote East. --There was also another nation-
al name which the Germans applied to themselves,
and that was 1'eutones. In this we recognise at once
the root of the modern term Deutsche or Teulsche; and
the appellation would seem to have come from the
old German word Diet, "a people," and to have been
used as a name for the whole German race, consid-
ered as forming but one people, though divided into
many independent tribes. (Klemm, Germ. Altcr-
Ihttnuk. , p. 79. )
2. Geographical acquaintance with Ancient Germany.
The Greeks and Romans had very little knowledge
of Germany before the time of Julius Ctusar, who met
with several Germanic tribes in Gaul, and crossed the
Rhine on two occasions, rather with the view of pre-
venting their incursions into Gaul, than of making
any permanent conquests. His acquaintance was,
however, limited to those tribes which dwelt on the
banks of the Rhine. Under the early Roman emper-
ors many of these tribes were subdued, and the coun-
try west of the Visurgis (or Wescr) was frequently
'javereed by the Roman armies. But at no period
had the Romans any accurate knowledge of the coun-
try east of this river; and it is therefore difficult to
iit with certainty the position of the German tribes,
particularly as the Germans were a nomade people.
Some parts of Germany were inhabited by the Gauls,
who were, according to Cxsar (B. G , 6, 24), the
more warlike nation in early times. Tacitus, at a later
day, divides the Germans into three great tribes,
which were subdivided into many smaller ones: I.
the Ingxvones, bordering on the ocean. 2. llermi-
ones, inhabiting the central parts. 3. Jstaevones, in-
cluding all the others. Pliny (4, 14) makes five divis-
ions: 1. Vindili, including the Burgundiones, Varini,
Carini, and Gullones. 2. Ingevones, including the
Cimbri, Teutones, and Chauci. 3. Istxvones, near
the Rhine, including the midland Cimbri. 4. Her-
mion? s, inhabiting the central parts, including the
Suevi, Hermunduri, Catti, and Cherusci. 5. Peuci-
oi anJ Bastarnae, bordering on the Dacians.
3. Manners and Customs of the Ancient Germans.
0 r principal information on this subject is derived
fion Tacitus, who wrote a sepaiate treatise on the man-
ners ind customs of the Germanic tribes, entitled " De
8t/i. Moribus, el Populis Germania. " Occasional
sot' es and scattered hints are also found in the works
? f r oer ancient authors, particularly in the Gallic com-
nv3>> taries of Csesar. --A nation free from any foreign
? ? m'. . -mixture (say the Roman writers), as is proved by
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? (JERMANIA.
GERMAN! *.
t-sder. Valour was the grace of man, chastity ihe
virtue of woman The primitive nations of German
origin attached something of a sacred character to the
female sex. Polygamy was only permitted to the
princes as a means of extending their connexions;
divorce was forbidden rather by a sense ot propriety
than by law. Adultery was considered an inexpiable
crime, and was, therefore, very rare. Seduction was
not to be excused on any consideration. The religious
notions of this race could not but be rude and imper-
fect. The sun and moon, fire and earth, were their
deities, whom they worshipped, with some imaginary
beings to whom they ascribed the direction of the most
imporU. it circumstances of life, and whose will the
priests pretended to divine by secret arts. Their tem-
ples were caverns, rendered sacred by the veneration
of many generations. The ordeals so famous in the
middle ages were considered by them infallible in all
dubious cases. Religion afforded the most powerful
means for inflaming their courage. The sacred stand-
ards, preserved in the dark recesses of consecrated
caverns, were raised on the field of battle, and their
enemies were devoted, with dreadful imprecations, to
the gods of war and thunder. The valiant only en-
joyed the favour of the gods; a warlike life, and death
in battle, were considered as the surest means of at-
taining the joys of the other world, where the heroes
'vere rejoiced by the relation of their deeds, while sit-
ting around the festal table, and quaffing beer out of
large horns or the sculls of their enemies. Hut the
"lory which the priests promised after death was con-
ferred by the bards on earth. They celebrated in the
battle and at the triumphal feasts the glorious heroes
cf past days, the ancestors of the brave who listened
'? o their simple but fiery strains, and were inspired by
hem with contempt of death, and kindled to glorious
Heeds
4. History of Ancient Germany.
Th. 3 Romans first became acquainted with the an-
. lent Germans in B. C. 113, when they appeared un-
der the name of Teutones and Cimbri, on the confines
>l" the Roman dominion, and then moving south, car-
ried the terror of their arms over Gaul and part of Nor-
thern Italy, until overthrown by Marius and Calulus
; 103 and 101 B. C. ). When Julius Cassar had estab-
lished himself in Gaul, he became acquainted with a
nation then designated by the name of Germans. Ari-
jvistus, the leader of the nation, which had previously
inhabited the banks of the Danube, attempted to es-
tablish himself in Gaul, but, being defeated by Ciesar,
he was obliged to flee beyond the Rhine. Of the fu-
gitives who returned over the Rhine, the nation of the
Marcomanni seems to have been formed. Caesar cross-
ed the Rhine twice ; not with the view of making con-
quests in that wilderness, but to secure Gaul against
the destructive irruptions of the barbarians. He even
enlisted Germans in his army, first against the Gauls,
then against Pompey. He obtained an accurate knowl-
edge of those tribes only that lived nearest to the
Rhine, as the Ubii, Sygambri, Usipetes, and Tenctcri.
The rest of Germany, he was. told, was inhabited by
the Suevi, who were divided into 100 districts, each
of which annually sent 1000 men in quest of booty.
They lived more by hunting and pasture than by agri-
culture, held their fields in common, and prevented the
approach of foreign 7ntions by devastating their boi-
lers. This accou v. i>> true, if it is applied to the Ger-
? ? mans in general, and if by the 100 districts are under-
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? GEKMANIA.
GER
tmcai as the pr. ncipal tribe among the Marcorrianni.
IV Chcrusci, after the loss of their greit leader, Ar-
ninius, A. D. 21, fell from their high rank among the
German nations. Weakened by internal dissensions,
they finally received a king from Rome, by the name
oi Italicus, who was the last descendant of Arminius.
Durirg his reign they quarrelled with their confeder-
ates, . he Lor gobardi, and sunk to an insignificant tribe
in ti e soun'i side of the Hercynian forest. On the
jihei hand, tnc Catti, who lived in the western part of
Germiny, rose into importance. The Frisians rebelled
on account of a tribute imposed upon them by the
Romans, and were with difficulty overpowered; while
the Catti. on the Upper Rhine, made repeated assaults
on toe Roman fortresses on the opposite bank. Their
pride, however, was hum bit* J by Galba, who compell-
ed them to abandon the country between the Lahn, the
Maine, and the Rhine, which was distributed among
Roman veterans. Eighteen years later a dispute
arose between the Hermunduri and Catti, on account
of the salt-springs of the Franconian Saale. Mean-
while the numerous companions of Maroboduus and
Catualda, having settled on the north of the Danube,
between the rivers Gran and Morava, had founded un-
der Vannius, whom they had received as king from the
Romans, a new kingdom, which began to grow op-
pressive to the neighbouring tribes. Although Van-
nius had entered into an alliance with the Sarmatian
Iazygz, he was overpowered by the united arms of
the Hermunduri, l. ygii, and western Quadi (A. D.
50), and was compelled to fly for refuge to the Ro-
mans. His son-in-law, Sido, was now at the head of
the government. He was a friend of the Romans, and
rendered important services to Vespasian. In the
West, the power of the Romans was shaken by the
Batavi, so that they maintained themselves with the
greatest difficulty. A war now broke out, that was ter-
minated only with the downfall of Rome. The Suevi,
being attacked by the Lygii, asked for assistance from
Domitian, who sent them 100 horsemen. Such pal-
try succours only offended the Suevi. Entering into
an alliance with the Iazygse, in Dacia, they threatened
PannjDia. Domitian was defeated. Nerva checked
them, and Trajan gained a complete victory over them.
But, from the time of Antoninus the philosopher, the
flames of war continued to blaze in those regions.
The Rjman empire was perpetually harassed, on two
sides b/ the barbarians, on one side by a number of
email tribes, who, pressed by the Goths, were forced
to invade Dacia in quest of new habitations. The
southern regions were assigned to thern in order to
pacify them. But a war of more moment was ear-
ned on against Rome on the other side, by the united
iorces of the Marcomanni, Hermunduri, and Quadi,
which is commonly called the Marcomannic war.
Marcus Aurelius fought against them to the end of his
hfe, and Commodus bought a peace, A. D. 180.
Mean-
time the Catti devastated Gaul and Rhauia, the Che-
rosci forced the Ixnigobardi back to the Elbe. A. D.
BO, new barbarians appeared in Dacia, the Visigoths,
Gepidffi, and Heruli, and waged war against the Ro-
mins. At the same time, in the reign of Caracalla,
>> new confederacy appeared in the southern part of
Germany, the Alemanni, consisting of Istsevonian
trioes. Rome, in order to defend its provinces against
them, erected the lamous Vallum Romanorum, the
nuns of which are still visible from Iaxthausen to
? ? CEhringen. But the power of the Romans sank more
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? HER
GES
sieged Germanicus hastened to /lis rescue, delivered
aim, anil made Thusnelda, wife of Anninius, prisoner.
Arminius then prepared for war, and Germamcus col-
lected his forces on the Amisia or Ems. A battle
ensued. The Roman legions were already receding,
when Germanicus renewed the attack with fresh troops,
and thus happily averted the rout that threatened him.
Arminiur retreated, and Germanicus was content to re-
gain tne banks of the Ems, and retire with honour
from a contest which his army could no longer sustain.
After having lost another part othis troops during his
retreat, by a violent storm, which wrecked the vessels
in which they were embarked, he reached the mouths
of the Rhine with a feeble remnant of his army, and
employed the winter in making new preparations for
war against the Germans. He built a fleet of one thou-
sand vessels, in order to avoid the difficult route by land
through forests and morasses, and landed at the mouth
of the Ems. Proceeding thence towards the Visurgis
or Wescr, he found the Cherusci assembled on the
opposite bank, with the intention of contesting the
passage. Nevertheless, he effected it, and fought a
battle which began at daybreak, and terminated to the
advantage of the Romans. On the succeeding day
the Germans renewed the contest with fury, and car-
ried disorder into the ranks of the Romans, but Ger-
manicus maintained possession of the field. The Ger-
mans returned into their forests. Germanicus re-em-
barked, and, after having experienced a terrible storm,
by which part of his fleet was dissipated, went into
winter-quarters, but not until he had made another in-
cursion into the territory of the Marsi. Meantime Ti-
berius wrote repeatedly to his nephew, that he had
earned enough of glory in Germany, and that he ought
to return u Home to enjoy the triumph which he had
merited. Gennanicus asked for another year to com-
plete tho subjugation of Germany, but Tiberius, who
feit jealous of the glory of his nephew, and of his pop-
ularity with the troops, remained inflexible, and Gei-
jfianicus was obliged to return to Rome, where he
triumphed in the following year, AD. 17. The year
after, he was consul for the second lime with Tiberius
himself, and was sent to the East, where serious dis-
turbances had broken out, with most extensive powers.
But Tiberius took care to have a watch over him, bv
placing in the government of Syria Cnsus Piso, a
violent and ambitious man, who seems to have been
well qualified for his mission, as he annoyed Germani-
cus in every possible way, and his wife Plancina sec-
onded him in his purpose. The frank and open na-
ture of Germanicus was no match for the wily intrigues
of his enemies. After making peaco with Artabanus,
king of the Parthian? , and calming other disturbances
in the East, Germanicus fell ill at Antioch, and, after
lingering for some time, died, plainly expressing to his
wife and friends around him that ho was the victim of
the wickedness of Piso and Plancina, meaning most
probably that some slow poison had been administered
to him. His wife Agrippina, with her son Caius and
her other children, returned to Rome with the ashes
of her husband. Germanicus was generally and deep-
ly regretted. Like his father Drusus, he was, while
living, an object of hope to the Romans. He died
A. D. 19, in the thirty-fourth year of his age. Ger-
manicus has been praised for his sincerity, his kind
nature, his disinterestedness, and his love of informa-
tion, which he exhibited in his travels in Greece and
? ? Egypt. His military talents appear to have been of a
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? O 1 . 'J
ai r
leit makes it identical with the Foitus Iciui or inut.
Mtla, 3, 3. --Sudan. , Vit. Claud. , \T. --Eulrop. , 9,
8-- Zotim. , 6, 2. )
Geta, Antonius, younger son of the Emperor Sep-
limius Severus, was bom A. D. 190, and made Cesar
and colleague with his father and brother, A. D. 208.
The most remarkable circumstance recorded of him is
the dissimilarity of his disposition to that of his
father and brother, who were both cruek* while Geta
was distinguished by his mildness and affability. He
ia said to have several times reproved his brother Cara-
calla for his proneness to shed blood, in consequence
of which he incurred his mortal hatred. When Seve-
rusdied at Eboracum {York), A. D. 211, he named his
two sons as his joint successors in the empire. The
soldiers, who were much attached to Geta, withstood
all the insinuations of Caracalla, who wished to reign
alone, and insisted upon swearing allegiance to both
emperors together. After a short and unsuccessful
campaign, the two brothers, with their mother Julia,
proceeded to Rome, where, after performing the fu-
neral rites of their father, they divided the imperial
palace between them, and at one time thought of di-
viding the empire likewise. Geta, who was fond of
tranquillity, proposed to take Asia and Egypt, and to
reside at Antioch or Alexandrea; hut the Empress Ju-
lia with tears deprecated the partition, saying that she
could not bear to part from either of her sons. After
repeated attempts of Caracalla to murder Geta, he
feigned a wish to be reconciled to his brother, and in-
vited him to a conference in their mother's apartment.
Geta unsuspectingly went, and was stubbed by some
centuriins whom Caracalla had concealed for the pur-
pose. His mother Julia tried to shield him, but they
murdered him in her arms, and she was stained by his
blood, and wounded in one of htr hands. This hap-
pened A. D. 212. After the murder Caracalla began a
fearful proscription of all the friends of Geta, and also
of those who lamented his death on public grounds.
(Spartian. , Vtt. Get. -- Hcrodian, 4, 1, teqq. -- Dio
Cut. , 77, 2, teqq. )
GetjE, the name of a northern tribe mentioned in
Roman history, inhabiting the country on both banks
of the Danube near its estuary, and along the western
shores of the Euxine. Those who lived south of the
Danube were brought into a kind of subjection to
Rome in the time of Augustus (Dio Cast. , 51); and
their country, called Scythia Parva, and also Pontus, is
well known, under the latter name, through the poems
which Ovid, in his exile, wrote from Tomi, the place of
his residence. He gives in many passages a dismal
account of the appearance and manners of the Gets,
especially in elegies seventh and tenth of the fifth book
of his Trittta. The maritime parts of the country had
been in former times colonized by the Greeks, and this
may account for the partial civilization of the Geta
south of the Danube, while their brethren north of the
same river remained in a state of barbarism and inde-
pendence. The Getts are described by Herodotus
j4, 93) as living in his timo south of the Ister (Dan-
ube). He calls them the bravest of the Thracians.
The Goths are supposed to have had a common ori-
gin with the Getce. (Plin. , 4, 11. -- Mela, 2, 2. --
lornand. , de Regn. Suecett. , p. 50, acq. )
Gioahtes, the sons of Ccelus and Terra, who, ac-
cording to Hesiod, sprang from the blood of the wound
vfcich Coslus received from his son Saturn; while Hv-
? ? giciis calls them sons of Tartarus and Terra. They are
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? GLA
GLA
pi WaAaJ-Gazel, which, joining another considerable
river flowing from Kulm, discharges itself into the
Nubia Palus or Kangra, and it is so delineated in
RenneJl's map; but others, seemingly with better
reason, apprehend the Gir of Ptolemy to be the Bahr-
Kullx of Browne, in his history of Africa.
Gljdutorii I. uni. combats originally exhibited at
he grave of deceased persons st Rome. They were
first introduced there by the Bruti, upon the death of
their father, A. U. C. 490, and they thus formed ori-
gin lily a kind of funeral sacrifice, the shades of the
dead being supposed to be propitiated with blood. For
some time after this they were exhibited only on such
occasions. Subsequently, however, the magistrates,
to entertain the people, gave shows of gladiators at the
Saturnalia and the festival of Minerva. Incredible
numbers of men were destroyed in this manner. Af-
ter the triumph of Trajan over the Dacians, spectacles
of this kind were exhibited for 123 daya, in which
10,000 gladiators fought. Gladiators were kept and
maintained in schools by persons called lanista, who
purchased and trained them. The whole number un-
der one lanista was called familia. Gladiators were at
first composed of captives and slaves, or of condemned
malefactors. But afterward also freeborn eitucns, in-
duced by hire or by inclination, fought on the arena;
? 'rate even of noble birth; and, what is '. '. ill more won-
derful, women of rank, and dwarfs. When there were
to be any shows, handbills were circulated to give no-
lice to the people, and to mention the place, number,
jme, and every circumstance requisite to be known.
When they were first brought upon the arena, they
walked round the place with great pomp and solemnity,
ind after that '. Iv. y were matched in equal pairs with
jrent nicety. They first had a skirmish with wooden
tier, called rwlr. i or arma lusoria. After this the ef-
'cctiTo weapons, such as swords, daggers, <kc, called
trine decrelona, were given them, and the signal for
. he engagement was given by the sound of a trumpet.
k>> they had ail previously bound themelves to contend
. ill the last, the fight was bloody and obstinate; and
when one signified his submission by surrendering his
arms, the victor was not permitted to grant him his life
without the leave and approbation of the multitude.
Tliis was done by pressing down their thumbs, with
the hands clenched. On the contrary, if the people
wished him slain, they turned their thumbs upward.
The first of these signa was called poUicem premere;
the second, palliccm verlcrt The combats of gladia-
tors were sometimes different, either in weapons or
dress, whence they were generally distinguished into
the following orders. The tccutorct were armed with
a sword and buckler, to keep off the net of their antag-
onists, the rctiurii. These last endeavoured to throw
their net over the head of their opponent, and in that
manner to entangle him, and prevent him from striking.
If this did not succeed, they betbok themselves to flight.
Their dress was a short coat, with a hat tied under the
chin with broad riband. They bore a trident in their
left hand. The Thrccee, originally Thracians, were
armed with a falchion and small round shield. The
myrmillones, called also Galli, from their Gallic dress,
were much the same as the tecutoret. They were,
like them, armed with a sword, and on the top of their
headpiece they wore the figure of a fish embossed,
called uoppvpoe, whence their name. The hoplomachi
were completely armed from head to foot, as their
? ? name implies. The Summits, armed after the man-
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? GON
GOK
toned from the games which Adrastus had celebrated
in honour of his father. Another version of the story
nukes them to have run mad after eating a certain
plant at Potniae. (Etymol. Mag. , *. v. HorviaSec. --
Hygin. , fab. , 250-- Virgil, Gtorg. , 3, 268-- Heme,
<u Vi*-g. , 1. c. -- PaUeph. , de Incred. , c. 26. --Schol. ad
Eurip. , Phan. , 1141. )--[V. A son of Minos and Pas-
lphae. who. pursuing, when a child, a mouse, fell into
a vessel of honey and was smothered. His father,
ignorant of his fate, consulted the oracle to know
where he was, and received for answer that there was
a three-coloured cow in his herd, and that he who could
best tell what she was like, could restore his son to life.
The soothsayers were all assembled, and Polyidus,
the son of Coiranuo, said that her colour was that of
the berry of the brier, green, red, and, lastly, black.
Minos thereupon desired him to find his son; and
Polyidus, by his Bkill in divination, discovered where
be was. Minos then ordered him to restore hitn to
life; and, on his declaring his incapacity so to do,
stint him up in a chamber with the body of his ,-hild.
While here, the soothsayer saw a serpent approach
the body, and he struck and killed it. Another im-
mediately appeared, and seeing the first one dead, re-
tired, and came back soon after with a plant in its
mouth, and laid it on the dead one, which instantly
came to life. Polyidus, by employing the same herb,
recovered the child. Minos, before he let him depart,
insisted on his communicating his art to Glaucus. He
did so; but, as he was taking leave, he desired his
pupil to spit into his mouth. Glaucus obeyed, and
lost the memory of all he had learned. (Apollod. , 3,
3, I. --Tzelz. ,a& Lyr. , 811. ) Hyginus makes him to
have been restored ts life by /Esculapius. {Hygin.
It had a temple sacred to Apollo Gergithius, and was
said to have given birth to the sibyl, who is sometimes
called Erythraea, from Erythra\ a small place on Mount
Ida (Dion. Hal. , 1, 55), and at others Gergithia. In
confirmation of this fact, it was observed that the coins
of this city had the effigy of the prophetess impressed
upon them. (Phlegon, ap. Steph. Byz. , s. >>. Tipyic. )
Some of these coins are still extant, and accord with
the testimony of Phlegon. They are thus described
by numismatic writers: "Caput muliebre adversum
aureatum cum stola ad rollum K. 1'EP. Sphinx alata
sedens jE. ,3. " (Scslim, Lett. Numism. , t. I, p. 88. )
It appears from Strabo that Gergitha having been taken
by Attains, king of Pcrgamus, he removed the inhab-
tants to the sources of the Ca'icus, where he founded
a new town of the same name. (Slrah. , 616 ) The
Romans, according to Livy, made over the territory of
the old town to the Ilienses (38, 39). Herodotus, in
describing Xerxes' march along the Hellespont, states
that he had the town of Dardanus on his left, and Ger-
githa on the right; it is evident, therefore, that the
latter must havo been situated inland, and towards
Mount Ida. (Herod. , 7, 43. --Cramer's Asia Minor,
vol. I, p. 84, seqq. )
GehgovIa, a strong town and fortress of Gaul, be-
longing to the Arvcrni. It was situate on a very high
mountain, and of difficult access on all sides. It is
now Gcrgorie. (Cas. , B. G. , 7, 9. )
Germania. The word Germania was employed by
the Romans to designate a country of greater extent
than modern Germany. They included under this name
ell the nations of Europe east of the Rhine and north
of the Danube, bounded on the north by the German
Ocean and the Baltic, including Denmark and the
neighbouring islands, and on the east by the Sarma-
tians and Dacians. It is difficult, however, to ascer-
tain how far Germany stretched to the East. Accord-
ing to Strabo (239), Germanic tribes dwelt nearly as far
as the mouths of the Borysthenes (or Dnieper). The
northern and northeastern parts of Gaul were also
known under the name of Germany in the time of the
Roman emperors, after the province of Belgica had
been subdivided into Germania Prima and Germania
Seatnda.
1. Origin of the Germanic nations.
? ? Tne origin of the Germanic nations is involved in
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? GE&MANIA.
GEilMANIA.
<<es be true, and they arc acknowledged to be so by
? very scholar who has examined them, the commonly-
received derivation of the name Germain falls to the
ground. The advocates for this etymology maintain,
that the appellation in question comes from wcr," war,"
and nana, "a man," and that "Gcrmani" therefore
D'eans "men of war" or "warriors," the Roman al-
phabet, in consequence of its not having any v>, con-
verting this letter into a soft g. They refer also to
Tacitus, who states, that the Tungri first assumed this
name on crossing the Rhine, and that it gradually
spread over the whole nation. (De Mor. Germ. , 2. )
Others again assert, that the term is of Celtic origin,
and was first applied by the Gauls to their German
conquerors, and they deduce it from the Celtic gerr,
"war," and mann, " a man. " 'Lemaire, Intl. Geogr. ,
ad Cits. , t. v. , p. 269. ) The true origin of the name,
however, as has already been remarked, must be sought
in the remote East. --There was also another nation-
al name which the Germans applied to themselves,
and that was 1'eutones. In this we recognise at once
the root of the modern term Deutsche or Teulsche; and
the appellation would seem to have come from the
old German word Diet, "a people," and to have been
used as a name for the whole German race, consid-
ered as forming but one people, though divided into
many independent tribes. (Klemm, Germ. Altcr-
Ihttnuk. , p. 79. )
2. Geographical acquaintance with Ancient Germany.
The Greeks and Romans had very little knowledge
of Germany before the time of Julius Ctusar, who met
with several Germanic tribes in Gaul, and crossed the
Rhine on two occasions, rather with the view of pre-
venting their incursions into Gaul, than of making
any permanent conquests. His acquaintance was,
however, limited to those tribes which dwelt on the
banks of the Rhine. Under the early Roman emper-
ors many of these tribes were subdued, and the coun-
try west of the Visurgis (or Wescr) was frequently
'javereed by the Roman armies. But at no period
had the Romans any accurate knowledge of the coun-
try east of this river; and it is therefore difficult to
iit with certainty the position of the German tribes,
particularly as the Germans were a nomade people.
Some parts of Germany were inhabited by the Gauls,
who were, according to Cxsar (B. G , 6, 24), the
more warlike nation in early times. Tacitus, at a later
day, divides the Germans into three great tribes,
which were subdivided into many smaller ones: I.
the Ingxvones, bordering on the ocean. 2. llermi-
ones, inhabiting the central parts. 3. Jstaevones, in-
cluding all the others. Pliny (4, 14) makes five divis-
ions: 1. Vindili, including the Burgundiones, Varini,
Carini, and Gullones. 2. Ingevones, including the
Cimbri, Teutones, and Chauci. 3. Istxvones, near
the Rhine, including the midland Cimbri. 4. Her-
mion? s, inhabiting the central parts, including the
Suevi, Hermunduri, Catti, and Cherusci. 5. Peuci-
oi anJ Bastarnae, bordering on the Dacians.
3. Manners and Customs of the Ancient Germans.
0 r principal information on this subject is derived
fion Tacitus, who wrote a sepaiate treatise on the man-
ners ind customs of the Germanic tribes, entitled " De
8t/i. Moribus, el Populis Germania. " Occasional
sot' es and scattered hints are also found in the works
? f r oer ancient authors, particularly in the Gallic com-
nv3>> taries of Csesar. --A nation free from any foreign
? ? m'. . -mixture (say the Roman writers), as is proved by
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? (JERMANIA.
GERMAN! *.
t-sder. Valour was the grace of man, chastity ihe
virtue of woman The primitive nations of German
origin attached something of a sacred character to the
female sex. Polygamy was only permitted to the
princes as a means of extending their connexions;
divorce was forbidden rather by a sense ot propriety
than by law. Adultery was considered an inexpiable
crime, and was, therefore, very rare. Seduction was
not to be excused on any consideration. The religious
notions of this race could not but be rude and imper-
fect. The sun and moon, fire and earth, were their
deities, whom they worshipped, with some imaginary
beings to whom they ascribed the direction of the most
imporU. it circumstances of life, and whose will the
priests pretended to divine by secret arts. Their tem-
ples were caverns, rendered sacred by the veneration
of many generations. The ordeals so famous in the
middle ages were considered by them infallible in all
dubious cases. Religion afforded the most powerful
means for inflaming their courage. The sacred stand-
ards, preserved in the dark recesses of consecrated
caverns, were raised on the field of battle, and their
enemies were devoted, with dreadful imprecations, to
the gods of war and thunder. The valiant only en-
joyed the favour of the gods; a warlike life, and death
in battle, were considered as the surest means of at-
taining the joys of the other world, where the heroes
'vere rejoiced by the relation of their deeds, while sit-
ting around the festal table, and quaffing beer out of
large horns or the sculls of their enemies. Hut the
"lory which the priests promised after death was con-
ferred by the bards on earth. They celebrated in the
battle and at the triumphal feasts the glorious heroes
cf past days, the ancestors of the brave who listened
'? o their simple but fiery strains, and were inspired by
hem with contempt of death, and kindled to glorious
Heeds
4. History of Ancient Germany.
Th. 3 Romans first became acquainted with the an-
. lent Germans in B. C. 113, when they appeared un-
der the name of Teutones and Cimbri, on the confines
>l" the Roman dominion, and then moving south, car-
ried the terror of their arms over Gaul and part of Nor-
thern Italy, until overthrown by Marius and Calulus
; 103 and 101 B. C. ). When Julius Cassar had estab-
lished himself in Gaul, he became acquainted with a
nation then designated by the name of Germans. Ari-
jvistus, the leader of the nation, which had previously
inhabited the banks of the Danube, attempted to es-
tablish himself in Gaul, but, being defeated by Ciesar,
he was obliged to flee beyond the Rhine. Of the fu-
gitives who returned over the Rhine, the nation of the
Marcomanni seems to have been formed. Caesar cross-
ed the Rhine twice ; not with the view of making con-
quests in that wilderness, but to secure Gaul against
the destructive irruptions of the barbarians. He even
enlisted Germans in his army, first against the Gauls,
then against Pompey. He obtained an accurate knowl-
edge of those tribes only that lived nearest to the
Rhine, as the Ubii, Sygambri, Usipetes, and Tenctcri.
The rest of Germany, he was. told, was inhabited by
the Suevi, who were divided into 100 districts, each
of which annually sent 1000 men in quest of booty.
They lived more by hunting and pasture than by agri-
culture, held their fields in common, and prevented the
approach of foreign 7ntions by devastating their boi-
lers. This accou v. i>> true, if it is applied to the Ger-
? ? mans in general, and if by the 100 districts are under-
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? GEKMANIA.
GER
tmcai as the pr. ncipal tribe among the Marcorrianni.
IV Chcrusci, after the loss of their greit leader, Ar-
ninius, A. D. 21, fell from their high rank among the
German nations. Weakened by internal dissensions,
they finally received a king from Rome, by the name
oi Italicus, who was the last descendant of Arminius.
Durirg his reign they quarrelled with their confeder-
ates, . he Lor gobardi, and sunk to an insignificant tribe
in ti e soun'i side of the Hercynian forest. On the
jihei hand, tnc Catti, who lived in the western part of
Germiny, rose into importance. The Frisians rebelled
on account of a tribute imposed upon them by the
Romans, and were with difficulty overpowered; while
the Catti. on the Upper Rhine, made repeated assaults
on toe Roman fortresses on the opposite bank. Their
pride, however, was hum bit* J by Galba, who compell-
ed them to abandon the country between the Lahn, the
Maine, and the Rhine, which was distributed among
Roman veterans. Eighteen years later a dispute
arose between the Hermunduri and Catti, on account
of the salt-springs of the Franconian Saale. Mean-
while the numerous companions of Maroboduus and
Catualda, having settled on the north of the Danube,
between the rivers Gran and Morava, had founded un-
der Vannius, whom they had received as king from the
Romans, a new kingdom, which began to grow op-
pressive to the neighbouring tribes. Although Van-
nius had entered into an alliance with the Sarmatian
Iazygz, he was overpowered by the united arms of
the Hermunduri, l. ygii, and western Quadi (A. D.
50), and was compelled to fly for refuge to the Ro-
mans. His son-in-law, Sido, was now at the head of
the government. He was a friend of the Romans, and
rendered important services to Vespasian. In the
West, the power of the Romans was shaken by the
Batavi, so that they maintained themselves with the
greatest difficulty. A war now broke out, that was ter-
minated only with the downfall of Rome. The Suevi,
being attacked by the Lygii, asked for assistance from
Domitian, who sent them 100 horsemen. Such pal-
try succours only offended the Suevi. Entering into
an alliance with the Iazygse, in Dacia, they threatened
PannjDia. Domitian was defeated. Nerva checked
them, and Trajan gained a complete victory over them.
But, from the time of Antoninus the philosopher, the
flames of war continued to blaze in those regions.
The Rjman empire was perpetually harassed, on two
sides b/ the barbarians, on one side by a number of
email tribes, who, pressed by the Goths, were forced
to invade Dacia in quest of new habitations. The
southern regions were assigned to thern in order to
pacify them. But a war of more moment was ear-
ned on against Rome on the other side, by the united
iorces of the Marcomanni, Hermunduri, and Quadi,
which is commonly called the Marcomannic war.
Marcus Aurelius fought against them to the end of his
hfe, and Commodus bought a peace, A. D. 180.
Mean-
time the Catti devastated Gaul and Rhauia, the Che-
rosci forced the Ixnigobardi back to the Elbe. A. D.
BO, new barbarians appeared in Dacia, the Visigoths,
Gepidffi, and Heruli, and waged war against the Ro-
mins. At the same time, in the reign of Caracalla,
>> new confederacy appeared in the southern part of
Germany, the Alemanni, consisting of Istsevonian
trioes. Rome, in order to defend its provinces against
them, erected the lamous Vallum Romanorum, the
nuns of which are still visible from Iaxthausen to
? ? CEhringen. But the power of the Romans sank more
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? HER
GES
sieged Germanicus hastened to /lis rescue, delivered
aim, anil made Thusnelda, wife of Anninius, prisoner.
Arminius then prepared for war, and Germamcus col-
lected his forces on the Amisia or Ems. A battle
ensued. The Roman legions were already receding,
when Germanicus renewed the attack with fresh troops,
and thus happily averted the rout that threatened him.
Arminiur retreated, and Germanicus was content to re-
gain tne banks of the Ems, and retire with honour
from a contest which his army could no longer sustain.
After having lost another part othis troops during his
retreat, by a violent storm, which wrecked the vessels
in which they were embarked, he reached the mouths
of the Rhine with a feeble remnant of his army, and
employed the winter in making new preparations for
war against the Germans. He built a fleet of one thou-
sand vessels, in order to avoid the difficult route by land
through forests and morasses, and landed at the mouth
of the Ems. Proceeding thence towards the Visurgis
or Wescr, he found the Cherusci assembled on the
opposite bank, with the intention of contesting the
passage. Nevertheless, he effected it, and fought a
battle which began at daybreak, and terminated to the
advantage of the Romans. On the succeeding day
the Germans renewed the contest with fury, and car-
ried disorder into the ranks of the Romans, but Ger-
manicus maintained possession of the field. The Ger-
mans returned into their forests. Germanicus re-em-
barked, and, after having experienced a terrible storm,
by which part of his fleet was dissipated, went into
winter-quarters, but not until he had made another in-
cursion into the territory of the Marsi. Meantime Ti-
berius wrote repeatedly to his nephew, that he had
earned enough of glory in Germany, and that he ought
to return u Home to enjoy the triumph which he had
merited. Gennanicus asked for another year to com-
plete tho subjugation of Germany, but Tiberius, who
feit jealous of the glory of his nephew, and of his pop-
ularity with the troops, remained inflexible, and Gei-
jfianicus was obliged to return to Rome, where he
triumphed in the following year, AD. 17. The year
after, he was consul for the second lime with Tiberius
himself, and was sent to the East, where serious dis-
turbances had broken out, with most extensive powers.
But Tiberius took care to have a watch over him, bv
placing in the government of Syria Cnsus Piso, a
violent and ambitious man, who seems to have been
well qualified for his mission, as he annoyed Germani-
cus in every possible way, and his wife Plancina sec-
onded him in his purpose. The frank and open na-
ture of Germanicus was no match for the wily intrigues
of his enemies. After making peaco with Artabanus,
king of the Parthian? , and calming other disturbances
in the East, Germanicus fell ill at Antioch, and, after
lingering for some time, died, plainly expressing to his
wife and friends around him that ho was the victim of
the wickedness of Piso and Plancina, meaning most
probably that some slow poison had been administered
to him. His wife Agrippina, with her son Caius and
her other children, returned to Rome with the ashes
of her husband. Germanicus was generally and deep-
ly regretted. Like his father Drusus, he was, while
living, an object of hope to the Romans. He died
A. D. 19, in the thirty-fourth year of his age. Ger-
manicus has been praised for his sincerity, his kind
nature, his disinterestedness, and his love of informa-
tion, which he exhibited in his travels in Greece and
? ? Egypt. His military talents appear to have been of a
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? O 1 . 'J
ai r
leit makes it identical with the Foitus Iciui or inut.
Mtla, 3, 3. --Sudan. , Vit. Claud. , \T. --Eulrop. , 9,
8-- Zotim. , 6, 2. )
Geta, Antonius, younger son of the Emperor Sep-
limius Severus, was bom A. D. 190, and made Cesar
and colleague with his father and brother, A. D. 208.
The most remarkable circumstance recorded of him is
the dissimilarity of his disposition to that of his
father and brother, who were both cruek* while Geta
was distinguished by his mildness and affability. He
ia said to have several times reproved his brother Cara-
calla for his proneness to shed blood, in consequence
of which he incurred his mortal hatred. When Seve-
rusdied at Eboracum {York), A. D. 211, he named his
two sons as his joint successors in the empire. The
soldiers, who were much attached to Geta, withstood
all the insinuations of Caracalla, who wished to reign
alone, and insisted upon swearing allegiance to both
emperors together. After a short and unsuccessful
campaign, the two brothers, with their mother Julia,
proceeded to Rome, where, after performing the fu-
neral rites of their father, they divided the imperial
palace between them, and at one time thought of di-
viding the empire likewise. Geta, who was fond of
tranquillity, proposed to take Asia and Egypt, and to
reside at Antioch or Alexandrea; hut the Empress Ju-
lia with tears deprecated the partition, saying that she
could not bear to part from either of her sons. After
repeated attempts of Caracalla to murder Geta, he
feigned a wish to be reconciled to his brother, and in-
vited him to a conference in their mother's apartment.
Geta unsuspectingly went, and was stubbed by some
centuriins whom Caracalla had concealed for the pur-
pose. His mother Julia tried to shield him, but they
murdered him in her arms, and she was stained by his
blood, and wounded in one of htr hands. This hap-
pened A. D. 212. After the murder Caracalla began a
fearful proscription of all the friends of Geta, and also
of those who lamented his death on public grounds.
(Spartian. , Vtt. Get. -- Hcrodian, 4, 1, teqq. -- Dio
Cut. , 77, 2, teqq. )
GetjE, the name of a northern tribe mentioned in
Roman history, inhabiting the country on both banks
of the Danube near its estuary, and along the western
shores of the Euxine. Those who lived south of the
Danube were brought into a kind of subjection to
Rome in the time of Augustus (Dio Cast. , 51); and
their country, called Scythia Parva, and also Pontus, is
well known, under the latter name, through the poems
which Ovid, in his exile, wrote from Tomi, the place of
his residence. He gives in many passages a dismal
account of the appearance and manners of the Gets,
especially in elegies seventh and tenth of the fifth book
of his Trittta. The maritime parts of the country had
been in former times colonized by the Greeks, and this
may account for the partial civilization of the Geta
south of the Danube, while their brethren north of the
same river remained in a state of barbarism and inde-
pendence. The Getts are described by Herodotus
j4, 93) as living in his timo south of the Ister (Dan-
ube). He calls them the bravest of the Thracians.
The Goths are supposed to have had a common ori-
gin with the Getce. (Plin. , 4, 11. -- Mela, 2, 2. --
lornand. , de Regn. Suecett. , p. 50, acq. )
Gioahtes, the sons of Ccelus and Terra, who, ac-
cording to Hesiod, sprang from the blood of the wound
vfcich Coslus received from his son Saturn; while Hv-
? ? giciis calls them sons of Tartarus and Terra. They are
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? GLA
GLA
pi WaAaJ-Gazel, which, joining another considerable
river flowing from Kulm, discharges itself into the
Nubia Palus or Kangra, and it is so delineated in
RenneJl's map; but others, seemingly with better
reason, apprehend the Gir of Ptolemy to be the Bahr-
Kullx of Browne, in his history of Africa.
Gljdutorii I. uni. combats originally exhibited at
he grave of deceased persons st Rome. They were
first introduced there by the Bruti, upon the death of
their father, A. U. C. 490, and they thus formed ori-
gin lily a kind of funeral sacrifice, the shades of the
dead being supposed to be propitiated with blood. For
some time after this they were exhibited only on such
occasions. Subsequently, however, the magistrates,
to entertain the people, gave shows of gladiators at the
Saturnalia and the festival of Minerva. Incredible
numbers of men were destroyed in this manner. Af-
ter the triumph of Trajan over the Dacians, spectacles
of this kind were exhibited for 123 daya, in which
10,000 gladiators fought. Gladiators were kept and
maintained in schools by persons called lanista, who
purchased and trained them. The whole number un-
der one lanista was called familia. Gladiators were at
first composed of captives and slaves, or of condemned
malefactors. But afterward also freeborn eitucns, in-
duced by hire or by inclination, fought on the arena;
? 'rate even of noble birth; and, what is '. '. ill more won-
derful, women of rank, and dwarfs. When there were
to be any shows, handbills were circulated to give no-
lice to the people, and to mention the place, number,
jme, and every circumstance requisite to be known.
When they were first brought upon the arena, they
walked round the place with great pomp and solemnity,
ind after that '. Iv. y were matched in equal pairs with
jrent nicety. They first had a skirmish with wooden
tier, called rwlr. i or arma lusoria. After this the ef-
'cctiTo weapons, such as swords, daggers, <kc, called
trine decrelona, were given them, and the signal for
. he engagement was given by the sound of a trumpet.
k>> they had ail previously bound themelves to contend
. ill the last, the fight was bloody and obstinate; and
when one signified his submission by surrendering his
arms, the victor was not permitted to grant him his life
without the leave and approbation of the multitude.
Tliis was done by pressing down their thumbs, with
the hands clenched. On the contrary, if the people
wished him slain, they turned their thumbs upward.
The first of these signa was called poUicem premere;
the second, palliccm verlcrt The combats of gladia-
tors were sometimes different, either in weapons or
dress, whence they were generally distinguished into
the following orders. The tccutorct were armed with
a sword and buckler, to keep off the net of their antag-
onists, the rctiurii. These last endeavoured to throw
their net over the head of their opponent, and in that
manner to entangle him, and prevent him from striking.
If this did not succeed, they betbok themselves to flight.
Their dress was a short coat, with a hat tied under the
chin with broad riband. They bore a trident in their
left hand. The Thrccee, originally Thracians, were
armed with a falchion and small round shield. The
myrmillones, called also Galli, from their Gallic dress,
were much the same as the tecutoret. They were,
like them, armed with a sword, and on the top of their
headpiece they wore the figure of a fish embossed,
called uoppvpoe, whence their name. The hoplomachi
were completely armed from head to foot, as their
? ? name implies. The Summits, armed after the man-
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? GON
GOK
toned from the games which Adrastus had celebrated
in honour of his father. Another version of the story
nukes them to have run mad after eating a certain
plant at Potniae. (Etymol. Mag. , *. v. HorviaSec. --
Hygin. , fab. , 250-- Virgil, Gtorg. , 3, 268-- Heme,
<u Vi*-g. , 1. c. -- PaUeph. , de Incred. , c. 26. --Schol. ad
Eurip. , Phan. , 1141. )--[V. A son of Minos and Pas-
lphae. who. pursuing, when a child, a mouse, fell into
a vessel of honey and was smothered. His father,
ignorant of his fate, consulted the oracle to know
where he was, and received for answer that there was
a three-coloured cow in his herd, and that he who could
best tell what she was like, could restore his son to life.
The soothsayers were all assembled, and Polyidus,
the son of Coiranuo, said that her colour was that of
the berry of the brier, green, red, and, lastly, black.
Minos thereupon desired him to find his son; and
Polyidus, by his Bkill in divination, discovered where
be was. Minos then ordered him to restore hitn to
life; and, on his declaring his incapacity so to do,
stint him up in a chamber with the body of his ,-hild.
While here, the soothsayer saw a serpent approach
the body, and he struck and killed it. Another im-
mediately appeared, and seeing the first one dead, re-
tired, and came back soon after with a plant in its
mouth, and laid it on the dead one, which instantly
came to life. Polyidus, by employing the same herb,
recovered the child. Minos, before he let him depart,
insisted on his communicating his art to Glaucus. He
did so; but, as he was taking leave, he desired his
pupil to spit into his mouth. Glaucus obeyed, and
lost the memory of all he had learned. (Apollod. , 3,
3, I. --Tzelz. ,a& Lyr. , 811. ) Hyginus makes him to
have been restored ts life by /Esculapius. {Hygin.
