All matters relating to the
government
of the country
were discussed in this assembly.
were discussed in this assembly.
Charles - 1867 - Classical Dictionary
2, p.
241.
)
LUNA, I. (the Moon). Vid. Selene. --II. A city of
Etruria, in the northwestern angle of the country, sit-
uate on the coast, and remarkable for its beautiful and
capacious harbour. The modern name of this harbour
ia Golfo di Spazzia. Before the new division under
Augustus, Luna had formed part of Liguria; and its
harbour, situate on the north side of the Macra, cer-
tainly was in that province. Cluverius contends that
'Jus ancient city occupied the site of the modern Lcri-
ti; especially as Strabo (222) and Mela (2, 4) seem
to place it on that bank of the Macra; but the ruins
tviui h now bear the name of Luni, a little below Sar-
zana, and the denomination of Lunigiana applied to
the adjacent district, together with the authority of
Ptolemy (p. 61) and Pliny (3, 5), leave no doubt as
to the true position of Luna. The harbour of Luna
was chiefly resorted to by the Romans as a rendezvous
ror the lleets which they sent to Spain. (/,/<<, 34, 8.
--Id. , 39, 21. ) Strabo says it contained, in fact, sev-
eral ports, and was worthy of a nation which so long
ruled the sea. The town itself was deserted in the
time of Lucan (1, 586). Luna was very famous for
its white marbles, which now take their name from the
neighbouring town of Carrara. (Strab. , 1. c. --Plin. ,
36, 5. ) Pliny speaks of the wine and cheese made
in the neighbourhood of Luna (14, 16); the latter were
sometimes so large as to weigh one thousand pounds.
(Id. , 11, 42. --Martial, Epigr. , 13, 27. ) Inscriptions
give Luna the title of a Roman municipium. (Cra-
mer'* Italy, vol. 1, p. 171, teqq. )
LOPA (a she-wolf), an animal held in great venera-
tion at Rome, because Romulus and Hemus were fa-
bled to have been suckled by one. (Vid. Romulus. )
LUPKKCAL, a cave at the foot of the Palatine Hill,
consecrated by Evander to the god Pan, who was
? urnamed Lupercus by the Latins, as protecting the
flocks from wolves (lupos arcens). Such at least is
? ? the common derivation of the name. (Arnob. , 4, 3. --
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? LYC
LYC
nunia all the country south of the Tagus, and west
of the lower part of the Anas, as far as the sea. Ac-
cording to this arrangement, Lusitania was bounded
en the south by a part of the Atlantic, from the mouth
(i the Anas lo the Sacrum Promontorium or Cape
St. Vincent; on the west by the Atlantic; on the
north by the Durius; and on the east by a line drawn
from the latter river, a little west of the modern city
of Taro, in a southeastern direction to the Anas,
touching it about eight miles west of Mcrida, the an-
cient Emerita Augusta. The modern kingdom of
Portugal, therefore, is in length larger than ancient
Lusitania, since it comprehends two provinces beyond
the Durius, Entre Douro y Minho and Tras los Mon-
ies, and since it has the Minius or Minho for its north-
em boundary, but from west to east it is much smaller
than Lusitania. The latter embraced also Salaman-
ca, the greater part of Estremadura, and the west-
ern extremity of Toledo. The most southern part of
Lusitania was called Cuneus, or the wedge (vid.
Cuneus), and is now termed Algarve, from the Ara-
bic Algarb, or the west. Its extreme promontory
was called Sacrum. (Vid. Sacrum Promontorium. --
Mannert, Gcogr. , vol. 1, p. 327. )
Lutktia, a town of Belgic Gaul, on an island in
the Sequana or Seine, and the capital of the Pa-
risii. Hence it is often called Lutetia Parisiorum.
(Cat. , B. G. , 7, 7. ) It was at first a place of little
consequence, but under the emperors it became a city
of importance, and the Nolitia Imperii (c. 65) speaks
of it as the gathering-place for the seamen on the riv-
er. In this passage, too, the name Parisii, as applied
lo the city itself, first appears. At Lutetia, Julian the
Apostate was saluted emperor by his soldiers. He
bad here his usual winter-quarters. The city began
lo increase in importance under the first French
kings, and was extended to the two banks of the river,
? he island being connected with them by bridges. It
>>. now Paris, the capital of France. --The ancient
name of the place is variously written. Thus we
have Lotitia Parisiorum (Ann. Prudent. Tree, ann.
843), and Loticia Parisiorum (Ann. 1, ann. 845),
&. c. (Mannert, Geogr. , vol. 2, p. 168. )
I. ymvs, a surname of Bacchus, as loosing from care
(Avaioe, from Xva, "to loosen" or "free. " -- Vid.
Liber).
Lycabbttus, a mountain near Athens. Plato says
(in Crit. ) that it was opposite the Pnyx; and Anti-
gonus Carystius relates a fabulous story, which would
lead us to imagine that it was close to the Acropolis.
{Hist. Mirab. , 12. ) Statius alludes to its olive plan-
tations. (Theb. , 631. --Leake's Topogr. , p. 70 --
Cramer's Anc. Greece, vol. 2, p. 335. )
Lyck. i, I. festivals in Arcadia in honour of Pan,
or the Lycojan Jove. They were the same in origin
as the Lupercalia of the Romans. --II. A festival at
Argos in honour of Apollo Lycteus, who delivered the
Argues from wolves.
Lvcmvk, a mountain in the southwestern angle of
Arcadia, deriving great celebrity from the worship of
Jupiter, who, as the Arcadians contended, was born
on its summit. Here an altar had been erected to the
god, and sacrifices were performed in the open air.
The temenus was inaccessible to living creatures,
since, if any entered within its precincts, they died with-
in the space of a year. It was also said, that within
this hallowed spot no shadows were projected from the
? ? bodies of animals. Pausanias affirms, that nearly the
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? LYt
LYC
lb Cbe r ortliward of Konia (Iconium) and Erkle (Archal-
! <<),'? observes Leake, "form the district described by
Strabo as the cold and naked downs of Lycaonia,
which furnished pasture to numerous sheep and wild
asses, and where was no water except in very deep
wells. As the limits of Lycaonia are defined by Stra-
bo (568) and by Artemidorus, whom he quotes, to
have been between Philomelium and Tyriajum on the
west, and Coropassus and Garsabora on the east
(which last place was 960 stadia from Tyriseum, 120
ftom Coropassus, and 680 from Mazaca), we have the
exact extent of the Lycaonian hills intended by the
geographer. Branching from the great range of Tau-
rus, near Philomelium, and separating the plain of
Laodicea from that of Iconium, they skirted the great
valley which lies to the southeastward of the latter
city, as far as Archalla (Erkle), comprehending a part
of the mountains of Hassan Daghi. It would seem
that the depopulation of this country, which rapidly
followed the decline of the Roman power and the ir-
ruption of the Eastern barbarians, had left some re-
mains of the vast flocks of Amyntas, mentioned by
Strabo, in undisturbed possession of the Lycaonian
hills to a very late period: for Hadji Khalfa, who de-
scribes the want of wood and water on these hills,
adds that there was a breed of wild sheep on the
mountain of Fudul Baba, above Ismil, and a tomb of
the saint from whom the mountain receives its name;
and that sacrifices were offered at the tomb by all
those who hunted the wild sheep, and who were
taught to believe that they should be visited with the
displeasure of heaven if they dared to kill more than
two of these animals at a time. Hadji Khalfa lived in
the middle of the 17th century. " (Leake's Journal,
p. 67, scqq. ) With respect to its physical geography,
Lycaonia was, like Isauria, included in a vast basin,
formed by Taurus and its branches. (Rcnncll, Geog-
raphy of Western Asia, vol. 2, p. 99. ) Towards the
east, the Lycaonians bordered on Cappadocia, from
which they were separated by the Halys; while to-
ward} the south they extended themselves from the
frontiers of Cilicia to the country of the Pisidians.
Between them and the latter people there seems to
have been considerable affinity of character, and prob-
ably x blood; both nations, perhaps, being originally
sprung from the ancient Solymi. Subsequently, how-
ever, they would appear to have become distinguished
from one another by the various increments which
each received from the nations in their immediate vi-
cinity. Thus, while the Pisidians were intermixed
with the Carians, Lycians, and Phrygians, the Ly-
caonians received colonists probably from Cappado-
cia, Cilicia, Pamphylia, Phrygia, and Galatia; at the
same time, both, in common with all the nations of
Asia Minor, had no small proportion of Greek settlers
in their principal towns. It is a curious fact, which
we derive from the New Testament {Acli, 14, 11), that
the Lycaonians had a peculiar dialect, which therefore
must have differed from the Pisidian language; but
even that, as wo know from Strabo (631), was a dis-
tinct tongue from that of the ancient Solymi. It is,
however, very probable, that the Lycaonian idiom was
only. a mixture of these and the Phrygian language.
(Jablonski, de Ling. Lycaon. , Opusc. , vol. 3, p. 8. --
Cramer's Asia Minor, vol. 2, p. 63. )
Lycastps, an ancient town of Crete, in the vicinity
of Gnossus, by the inhabitants of which place it was
? ? destroyed. Strabo, who mentions this fact, states
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? LVCM
n\ or Tremilaa, as others give it. (Stcph. Byz. , s.
? ? Tpt/uXtu. ) Afterward, Lycus, driven Irom Athens
Ky bis brother ^Egeus, retired to the Termite, where
>>e was well received by Sarpedon, and gave, it is said,
the appellation of Lycia to the country, and Lycii to the
people, from his own name. In the Homeric poems
the country is always called Lycia, and the Solymi are
mentioned as a warlike people, against whom Beller-
oplion is sent to fight by the King of Lycia. (II. , 6,
184. ) The Solymi, however, disappeared from history
after Homer's time, and the name Milyas remained for
ever afterward applied to the region commencing in
the north of Lycia, and extending into Phrygia and Pi-
sidia. Into this region the Solymi had been driven,
and here they remained under the appellation of Milyaj,
(hough the name Solymi still continued in Mount Sol-
yiu, on the northeastern coast. This mountain, call-
edat present Takhatlu, rises to the height of 7800 feet.
F;jm this time, in fact, they were reckoned as occu-
pying a part of JPisidia, and having nothing more to do
with Lycia. On D'Anville's map, however, they re-
tain the name o. Solymi. According to the ancients,
Lycia was the last maritime country within Taurus.
It did not extend eastward to the inner part of the
Gulf of Pamphylia, but was separated from that coun-
try and its gulf by the southern arm of Taurus, whose
bold and steep descent to the shore caused it to re-
ceive the name of Climax. This southern arm of
Taurus is so lofty as to be generally covered with
aoow, and by its course, presenting itself across the
line of the navigation along shore, forms a conspicu-
ous landmark, particularly from the eastward. From
its general fertility, the natural strength of the country,
aad the goodness of its harbours, Lycia was one of the
richest and most populous countries of Asia in propor-
tion to its extent. The products were wine, wheat,
cedar-wood, beautiful plane-trees, a sort of delicate
sponge, and Sne officinal chalk. It is recorded, to the
honour of the inhabitants, that they never committed
acts of piracy like those of Cilicia and other quarters.
The Lycians appear to have possessed considerable
power in early times; and were almost the only people
west of the Halys who were not subdued by Croesus.
[Herod. , 1, 28. ) They made also an obstinate resist-
ance to Harpagus, the general of Cyrus, but were event-
ually conquered. (Herod. , 1, 176. ) They supplied
Xerxes wilh fifty ships in his expedition against Greece.
[Herod. , 7, 92. ) After the downfall of the Persian em-
pire, they continued subject to the Seleucidaa till the
averthrow of Antiochus by the Romans, v/hen then-
country, as well as Caria, was granted by the conquer-
ors to the Khodians; but their freedon: was afterward
again secured to them by the Romans (Polyb. , 30, 5),
who allowed them to retain their own laws and their
political constitution, which is highly praised by Stra-
bo (665), and, in his opinion, prevented them from fall-
ing into the piratical practices of their neighbours, the
Pamphylians and Cilicians. According to this ac-
count, the government was a kind of federation, con-
sisting of 23 cities, which sent deputies to an assembly,
in which a governor was chosen for the whole of Ly-
:ia, as well as judges and other inferior magistrates.
All matters relating to the government of the country
were discussed in this assembly. Tho six principal
cities, Xanthus, Patara, Pinara, Olympus, Myra, and
Tlos, had three votes each, other cities two votes each,
and the least important places only one each. In con-
sequence of dissensions among the different cities, this
? ? constitution was abolished by the Emperor Claudius
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? LfC
LTC
where lie formed one or the seven poets known by the
name of the Tragic Pleiades. (Vid. Alexandrina
Schola, towards the end of that article ) He is said
hv Ovid to have been killed by an arrow. (Ibis, 531. )
Lvcophron wrote a large number of tragedies, the titles
of many of which are preserved by Suidas. Only one
production of his, however, has come down to us, a
poem classed by the ancients under the head of tragic,
Dut more correctly by the moderns under that of Lyr-
ic ve-se. This poem of Lycophron's is called the
Atcxt idra or Cassandra. It is a monologue, in 1474
verse, in which the Trojan princess Cassandra predicts
to Priam the overthrow of Ilium, and the misfortunes
that await the actors in the Trojan war. The work
is written in Iambic verse, and has no pretensions to
any poetical merit; but, at the same time, it forms an
inexhaustible mine of grammatical, historical, and my-
thological erudition. Cassandra, in ihe course of her
predictions, goes back to the earliest limes, and de-
scends afterward to the reign of Alexander of Macedon.
There are many digressions, but all contain valuable
facts, drawn from the history and mythology of other
nations. The poet has purposely enveloped his poem
with the deepest obscurity, so much so that it has
been styled to okotcivov iroin/ia, "Ihe dark poem. "
There is no artifice to which he does not resort to pre-
vent his being clearly understood. He never calls any
one by his true name, but designates him by some cir-
cumstances or event in his history. He abounds with
unusual constructions, separatea words which should
be united, uses strange terms (as, for example. niXap,
ivir, anrutwc, and pim/tn, in place of trior); forma the
most singular compounds (such as iiBeouifanTpoc, at-
vofuKxevroc), and indulges also in some of the boldest
metaphors. The Alexandrean grammarians amassed
t vast collection of materials for the elucidation of
what nris'. have appeared to them an admirable pro-
duction. Tzetzes has made a compilation from their
tommentarira, and has thus preserved for us a part at
least of those illustrations, without which the poem,
after the lapse of more than 2000 years, would oe un-
intelligible. He has refuted also ihe opinion that Lv-
cophron was not the author of the poem. The loss of
Lycophron's dramatic pieces is hardly to be regretted,
if we can form any opinion of his poetic merits from
the production to which we have just referred. A
work, however, which he wrote on Comedy (itepi Ku-
(tuMac), and which must have been of considerable ex-
tent, since Athcnasus quotes from the 9th book of it,
would have proved, no doubt, a valuable accession to
our list of ancient productions, since on this subject
the learning of Lycophron must have had full scope
allowed it. The best editions of Lycophron are, that
printed at Basle, 1546, fol. , enriched with the Greek
commentary of Tzetzes; that of Canter, 8vo, apud
Commelin. , 1596; that of Potter, fol. , Oxon. , 1702,
and that of Bachmann, Lips. , 1826, 2 vols. 8vo. The
last will be found to be most complete and useful, since
it contains, among other subsidia, the Greek paraphrase.
Bachmann also published, in 1828, in the second vol-
ume of his Anccdola \ji<rra, a Lexicon Lycophroneum,
previously unedited, containing a very ancient collec-
tion of scholia. (Sch'611, Gesch. Gr. Lit. , vol. 2, p. 47,
MM. )
Lvcopolis (Avxuv mttif), or the " city of wolves,"
a city of Upper Egypt, on the western side of the Nile,
northwest of Antaeopolis. It derived its name from
? ? die circumstance of extraordinary worahip being paid
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? Lye
LYCURGUS.
? uol/ received. According to Po! yoius, tney after-
ward recovered their city, with the aid of the Gortyn-
ians, who gave them a place named Diatonium, which
? they had taken from the Cnosians (23, 15; 24, S3).
Strabo also speaks of Lyctus as existing in his time
[Strab. , 479), and elsewhere he states that it was
eighty stadia from the Libyan Sea. (Slrab. , 476. )
The ruins of Lyctus were placed by D'Anville at
Ijusiti; but the exact site, according to the latest
maps, lies to the northwest of that place, and is called
Panagia Cardictissi. {Cramer's Anc. Greece, vol.
3, p. 388, scjj )
LvciiEGts, I. a king of Thrace, who, when Bac-
chus was passing through his country, assailed him so
furiously that the god was obliged to take refuge with
Thetis. Bacchus avenged himself by driving Lycur-
gus mad, and the latter thereupon killed his own son
* Dryas with a blow of an axe, taking him for a vine-
branch. The land became, in consequence, steril;
ind his subjects, having been informed by an oracle
that it would not regain its fertility until the monarch
was put to death, bound Lycurgus, and left him on
Mount Pangaeus, where he was destroyed by wild
horses. (Apollod. , 3, 5, 1. )--II. An Athenian orator,
was one of the warmest supporters of the democratical
party in the contest with Philip of Macedon. The
Jme of his birth is uncertain, but he was older than
Demosthenes (Lilian. , Arg. Aristogit); and if his fa-
ther was put to death by order of the thirty tyrants
(Vit. X. Oral. , p. 841, B), he must have been born
previous to B. C. 404. But the words of the biogra-
pher are, as Clinton has justly remarked, ambiguous
[Fast. Hell. , vol. 2, p. 151), and mBy imply that it
was his grandfather who was put to death by the
thirty. Lycurgus is said to have derived instruction
from Plato and Isocrates. He took an active part in
he management of public affairs, and was one of the
Athenian ambassadors who succeeded (B. C. 343) in
tountcracling the designs of Philip against Ambracia
and the Peloponnesus. (Demoslh. , Phil. , 3, p. 129,
id. Reiske. ) He filled the office of treasurer of the
public revenue for three periods of five years, that is,
according to the ancient idiom, twelve years (Died.
Sic. , 16^ 88); and was noted for the integrity and
ability with which he discharged the duties of his
office. Bockh (Public Econ. of Alliens, vol. 2, p. 183,
Eng. trans. ) considers that Lycurgus was the only
statesman of antiquity who had a real knowledge of the
management of finance. He raised the revenue to
twelve hundred talents, and also erected, during his
administration, many public buildings, and completed
the docks, the armory, the theatre of Bacchus, and
the Panathenaic course. So great confidence was
placed in the honesty of Lycurgus, that many citizens
confided to his custody large sums; and, shortly be-
fore his death, he had the accounts of his public ad-
ministration engraved on stone, and set up in a part of
the wrestling-school. An inscription, preserved to the
present day, containing some accounts of a manager of
the public revenue, is supposed by Bockh to be a part of
the accounts of Lycurgus. (Publ. Econ. ofAth. , vol. 1,
p. 264. --Corp. Inscript. Grac. ,\o\. 1, p. 250, No. 157. )
After the battle of Chsaronea (B. C. 388), Lycurgus con-
ducted the accusation against the Athenian general Lys-
icles. He was one of the orators demanded by Alex-
ander after the destruction of Thebes (B. C. 335). He
died about B. C. 323, and was buried in the Academia.
? ? {Pausan. , 1, 29,15. ) Fifteen years after his death,
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? LyCURGUh.
lilt the maturity of h'. a ward and the birth of an heir
? tmuld have removed every pretext for such imputa-
tions. Thus the prime of his life, notwithstanding the
regret, and the repeated invitations of his countrymen,
was spent in voluntary exile, which, however, he em-
ployed in maturing a plan, already conceived, for rem-
edying the evils under which Sparta had long laboured,
by a great change in its constitution and laws. With
this view he visited many foreign lands, observed their
institutions and manners, and conversed with their sa-
ge*. Crete and the laws of Minos are said to have
Men the main object of his study, anu a Cretan poet
one of his instructors in the art of legislation. But the
Egyptian priests likewise claimed him as their disciple;
and reports were not wanting among the later Spartans,
that he had penetrated as far as India, and had sat at
the feet of 'bo Bramins. On his return he found the
disorders of the state aggravated, and the need of a . e-
form more generally felt. Having strengthened his au-
thority with the sanction of the Delphic oraclo, which
declared his wisdom to transcend the common level of
humanity, and having secured the aid of a numerous
party among the leading men, who took up arms to
support him, he successively procured the enactment
of a series of solemn ordinances or compacts (Rhclras),
by which the civil and military constitution of the com-
monwealth, the distribution of property, the education
of the citizens, the rules of their daily intercourse and
of their domestic life, were to be fixed on a hallow-
ed and immutable basis. Many of these regulations
roused a violent opposition, which even threatened the
life of Lycurgus; but his fortitude and patience finally
triumphed over all obstacles, and he lived to see his
great idea, unfolded in all its beauty, begin its steady
course bearing on its front the marks of immortal vig-
our. His last action was to sacrifice himself to the
perpetuity of his work. He set out on a journey to
Delphi, after having bound his countrymen by an
lvI. tc make no change in the laws before his re-
. ": -. \ When the last seal had been set to his institu-
? i}M by the oracle, which foretold that Sparta should
floensh as long as she adhered to them, having trans-
mitted this prediction to his fellow-citizens, he resolved,
in order that they might never be discharged from
their oath, to die in a foreign land. The place and
manner of his death are veiled in an obscurity befit-
ting the character of the hero: the sacred soils of Del-
phi, of Crete, and of Elis, all claimed his tomb: the
Spartans honoured him, to the latest times, with a
temple and yearly sacrifices, as a god. --Such are the
outlines of a story, which is too familiar to be cast
sway as an empty fiction, even if it should be admitted
that no part of it can bear the scrutiny of a rigorous
riticiam. But the mam question is, whether the view
which it presents of the character of Lycurgus as a
talesman is substantially correct: and in this respect
ve should certainly be led to regard him in a very dif-
ferent light, if it should appear that the institutions
which he is supposed to havo collected with so much
labour, and to have founded with so much difficulty,
were in existence long before his birth; and not only
in Crete, but in Sparta; nor in Sparta only, but in other
Grecian states. And this we believe to have been the
case with every important part of these institutions.
As to most of those, indeed, which were common to
Crete and Sparta, it seems scarcely to admit a doubt,
and is equally evident, whether we acknowledge or
deny that some settlements of the Dorians in Crete
? ? ? receded tho conquest of Peloponnesus. It was at
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? LVDIA.
I. YD
which he bears doubtless attaches great respect-
ability to his testimony; but as we have no opportu-
nity of weighing his authenticity on this particular sub-
{ect, from being unacquainted with the sources whence
le drew his information, and also from having no par-
allel historian with whom to compare his account, it is
evident we cannot place such dependance on his Lydi-
an history as on that of Egypt, Babylon, and Persia.
Oar suspicions, of course, will be increased, if we find
. hat the circumstances be relates are incredible in
themselves, and at variance also with other authorities.
Time has unfortunately deprived us of the Lydian an-
nals of Xanthus, a native of the country, somewhat an-
terior to Herodotus, and whose accounts were held in
great estimation for accuracy and fidelity by sound
judges {Dion. Hal. , Rom. Ant. , 1, 30. -- Strab. , 579,
628, 680, &c. ); but from incidental fragments pre-
served by later writers we are led to infer, that he
had frequently adopted traditions materially differing
from those which Herodotus followed, and that his
history also, as might be expected, contained several
important facts unknown to the latter, or which it did
not enter into the plan of his work to insert. --The
general account which we gather from Herodotus re-
specting the origin of the Lydian nation, is this: he
states that the country known in his time, by the name
df Lydia, was previously called Masonia, and the peo-
ol9 Maeones. (Herodotus, 1, 7. --Id. , 7, 74. ) This
? eems confirmed by Homer, who nowhere mentions
the Lydians, but numbers the Maeonian forces among
he allies of Priam, and assigns to them a country
which is plainly the Lydia of subsequent writers. (11. ,
2,864, scqq. ) Herodotus further states, that the name
of the Lydians was derived from Lydus, a son of A tys,
one of the earliest sovereigns of the country, and in
this particular he closely agrees with Dionysiusof Huli-
camassus. however he may differ from him in other
considerable points. But the period to be assigned to
this Lydus is a subject likely to baffle for ever the re-
searches of the ablest chronologist.
LUNA, I. (the Moon). Vid. Selene. --II. A city of
Etruria, in the northwestern angle of the country, sit-
uate on the coast, and remarkable for its beautiful and
capacious harbour. The modern name of this harbour
ia Golfo di Spazzia. Before the new division under
Augustus, Luna had formed part of Liguria; and its
harbour, situate on the north side of the Macra, cer-
tainly was in that province. Cluverius contends that
'Jus ancient city occupied the site of the modern Lcri-
ti; especially as Strabo (222) and Mela (2, 4) seem
to place it on that bank of the Macra; but the ruins
tviui h now bear the name of Luni, a little below Sar-
zana, and the denomination of Lunigiana applied to
the adjacent district, together with the authority of
Ptolemy (p. 61) and Pliny (3, 5), leave no doubt as
to the true position of Luna. The harbour of Luna
was chiefly resorted to by the Romans as a rendezvous
ror the lleets which they sent to Spain. (/,/<<, 34, 8.
--Id. , 39, 21. ) Strabo says it contained, in fact, sev-
eral ports, and was worthy of a nation which so long
ruled the sea. The town itself was deserted in the
time of Lucan (1, 586). Luna was very famous for
its white marbles, which now take their name from the
neighbouring town of Carrara. (Strab. , 1. c. --Plin. ,
36, 5. ) Pliny speaks of the wine and cheese made
in the neighbourhood of Luna (14, 16); the latter were
sometimes so large as to weigh one thousand pounds.
(Id. , 11, 42. --Martial, Epigr. , 13, 27. ) Inscriptions
give Luna the title of a Roman municipium. (Cra-
mer'* Italy, vol. 1, p. 171, teqq. )
LOPA (a she-wolf), an animal held in great venera-
tion at Rome, because Romulus and Hemus were fa-
bled to have been suckled by one. (Vid. Romulus. )
LUPKKCAL, a cave at the foot of the Palatine Hill,
consecrated by Evander to the god Pan, who was
? urnamed Lupercus by the Latins, as protecting the
flocks from wolves (lupos arcens). Such at least is
? ? the common derivation of the name. (Arnob. , 4, 3. --
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? LYC
LYC
nunia all the country south of the Tagus, and west
of the lower part of the Anas, as far as the sea. Ac-
cording to this arrangement, Lusitania was bounded
en the south by a part of the Atlantic, from the mouth
(i the Anas lo the Sacrum Promontorium or Cape
St. Vincent; on the west by the Atlantic; on the
north by the Durius; and on the east by a line drawn
from the latter river, a little west of the modern city
of Taro, in a southeastern direction to the Anas,
touching it about eight miles west of Mcrida, the an-
cient Emerita Augusta. The modern kingdom of
Portugal, therefore, is in length larger than ancient
Lusitania, since it comprehends two provinces beyond
the Durius, Entre Douro y Minho and Tras los Mon-
ies, and since it has the Minius or Minho for its north-
em boundary, but from west to east it is much smaller
than Lusitania. The latter embraced also Salaman-
ca, the greater part of Estremadura, and the west-
ern extremity of Toledo. The most southern part of
Lusitania was called Cuneus, or the wedge (vid.
Cuneus), and is now termed Algarve, from the Ara-
bic Algarb, or the west. Its extreme promontory
was called Sacrum. (Vid. Sacrum Promontorium. --
Mannert, Gcogr. , vol. 1, p. 327. )
Lutktia, a town of Belgic Gaul, on an island in
the Sequana or Seine, and the capital of the Pa-
risii. Hence it is often called Lutetia Parisiorum.
(Cat. , B. G. , 7, 7. ) It was at first a place of little
consequence, but under the emperors it became a city
of importance, and the Nolitia Imperii (c. 65) speaks
of it as the gathering-place for the seamen on the riv-
er. In this passage, too, the name Parisii, as applied
lo the city itself, first appears. At Lutetia, Julian the
Apostate was saluted emperor by his soldiers. He
bad here his usual winter-quarters. The city began
lo increase in importance under the first French
kings, and was extended to the two banks of the river,
? he island being connected with them by bridges. It
>>. now Paris, the capital of France. --The ancient
name of the place is variously written. Thus we
have Lotitia Parisiorum (Ann. Prudent. Tree, ann.
843), and Loticia Parisiorum (Ann. 1, ann. 845),
&. c. (Mannert, Geogr. , vol. 2, p. 168. )
I. ymvs, a surname of Bacchus, as loosing from care
(Avaioe, from Xva, "to loosen" or "free. " -- Vid.
Liber).
Lycabbttus, a mountain near Athens. Plato says
(in Crit. ) that it was opposite the Pnyx; and Anti-
gonus Carystius relates a fabulous story, which would
lead us to imagine that it was close to the Acropolis.
{Hist. Mirab. , 12. ) Statius alludes to its olive plan-
tations. (Theb. , 631. --Leake's Topogr. , p. 70 --
Cramer's Anc. Greece, vol. 2, p. 335. )
Lyck. i, I. festivals in Arcadia in honour of Pan,
or the Lycojan Jove. They were the same in origin
as the Lupercalia of the Romans. --II. A festival at
Argos in honour of Apollo Lycteus, who delivered the
Argues from wolves.
Lvcmvk, a mountain in the southwestern angle of
Arcadia, deriving great celebrity from the worship of
Jupiter, who, as the Arcadians contended, was born
on its summit. Here an altar had been erected to the
god, and sacrifices were performed in the open air.
The temenus was inaccessible to living creatures,
since, if any entered within its precincts, they died with-
in the space of a year. It was also said, that within
this hallowed spot no shadows were projected from the
? ? bodies of animals. Pausanias affirms, that nearly the
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? LYt
LYC
lb Cbe r ortliward of Konia (Iconium) and Erkle (Archal-
! <<),'? observes Leake, "form the district described by
Strabo as the cold and naked downs of Lycaonia,
which furnished pasture to numerous sheep and wild
asses, and where was no water except in very deep
wells. As the limits of Lycaonia are defined by Stra-
bo (568) and by Artemidorus, whom he quotes, to
have been between Philomelium and Tyriajum on the
west, and Coropassus and Garsabora on the east
(which last place was 960 stadia from Tyriseum, 120
ftom Coropassus, and 680 from Mazaca), we have the
exact extent of the Lycaonian hills intended by the
geographer. Branching from the great range of Tau-
rus, near Philomelium, and separating the plain of
Laodicea from that of Iconium, they skirted the great
valley which lies to the southeastward of the latter
city, as far as Archalla (Erkle), comprehending a part
of the mountains of Hassan Daghi. It would seem
that the depopulation of this country, which rapidly
followed the decline of the Roman power and the ir-
ruption of the Eastern barbarians, had left some re-
mains of the vast flocks of Amyntas, mentioned by
Strabo, in undisturbed possession of the Lycaonian
hills to a very late period: for Hadji Khalfa, who de-
scribes the want of wood and water on these hills,
adds that there was a breed of wild sheep on the
mountain of Fudul Baba, above Ismil, and a tomb of
the saint from whom the mountain receives its name;
and that sacrifices were offered at the tomb by all
those who hunted the wild sheep, and who were
taught to believe that they should be visited with the
displeasure of heaven if they dared to kill more than
two of these animals at a time. Hadji Khalfa lived in
the middle of the 17th century. " (Leake's Journal,
p. 67, scqq. ) With respect to its physical geography,
Lycaonia was, like Isauria, included in a vast basin,
formed by Taurus and its branches. (Rcnncll, Geog-
raphy of Western Asia, vol. 2, p. 99. ) Towards the
east, the Lycaonians bordered on Cappadocia, from
which they were separated by the Halys; while to-
ward} the south they extended themselves from the
frontiers of Cilicia to the country of the Pisidians.
Between them and the latter people there seems to
have been considerable affinity of character, and prob-
ably x blood; both nations, perhaps, being originally
sprung from the ancient Solymi. Subsequently, how-
ever, they would appear to have become distinguished
from one another by the various increments which
each received from the nations in their immediate vi-
cinity. Thus, while the Pisidians were intermixed
with the Carians, Lycians, and Phrygians, the Ly-
caonians received colonists probably from Cappado-
cia, Cilicia, Pamphylia, Phrygia, and Galatia; at the
same time, both, in common with all the nations of
Asia Minor, had no small proportion of Greek settlers
in their principal towns. It is a curious fact, which
we derive from the New Testament {Acli, 14, 11), that
the Lycaonians had a peculiar dialect, which therefore
must have differed from the Pisidian language; but
even that, as wo know from Strabo (631), was a dis-
tinct tongue from that of the ancient Solymi. It is,
however, very probable, that the Lycaonian idiom was
only. a mixture of these and the Phrygian language.
(Jablonski, de Ling. Lycaon. , Opusc. , vol. 3, p. 8. --
Cramer's Asia Minor, vol. 2, p. 63. )
Lycastps, an ancient town of Crete, in the vicinity
of Gnossus, by the inhabitants of which place it was
? ? destroyed. Strabo, who mentions this fact, states
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? LVCM
n\ or Tremilaa, as others give it. (Stcph. Byz. , s.
? ? Tpt/uXtu. ) Afterward, Lycus, driven Irom Athens
Ky bis brother ^Egeus, retired to the Termite, where
>>e was well received by Sarpedon, and gave, it is said,
the appellation of Lycia to the country, and Lycii to the
people, from his own name. In the Homeric poems
the country is always called Lycia, and the Solymi are
mentioned as a warlike people, against whom Beller-
oplion is sent to fight by the King of Lycia. (II. , 6,
184. ) The Solymi, however, disappeared from history
after Homer's time, and the name Milyas remained for
ever afterward applied to the region commencing in
the north of Lycia, and extending into Phrygia and Pi-
sidia. Into this region the Solymi had been driven,
and here they remained under the appellation of Milyaj,
(hough the name Solymi still continued in Mount Sol-
yiu, on the northeastern coast. This mountain, call-
edat present Takhatlu, rises to the height of 7800 feet.
F;jm this time, in fact, they were reckoned as occu-
pying a part of JPisidia, and having nothing more to do
with Lycia. On D'Anville's map, however, they re-
tain the name o. Solymi. According to the ancients,
Lycia was the last maritime country within Taurus.
It did not extend eastward to the inner part of the
Gulf of Pamphylia, but was separated from that coun-
try and its gulf by the southern arm of Taurus, whose
bold and steep descent to the shore caused it to re-
ceive the name of Climax. This southern arm of
Taurus is so lofty as to be generally covered with
aoow, and by its course, presenting itself across the
line of the navigation along shore, forms a conspicu-
ous landmark, particularly from the eastward. From
its general fertility, the natural strength of the country,
aad the goodness of its harbours, Lycia was one of the
richest and most populous countries of Asia in propor-
tion to its extent. The products were wine, wheat,
cedar-wood, beautiful plane-trees, a sort of delicate
sponge, and Sne officinal chalk. It is recorded, to the
honour of the inhabitants, that they never committed
acts of piracy like those of Cilicia and other quarters.
The Lycians appear to have possessed considerable
power in early times; and were almost the only people
west of the Halys who were not subdued by Croesus.
[Herod. , 1, 28. ) They made also an obstinate resist-
ance to Harpagus, the general of Cyrus, but were event-
ually conquered. (Herod. , 1, 176. ) They supplied
Xerxes wilh fifty ships in his expedition against Greece.
[Herod. , 7, 92. ) After the downfall of the Persian em-
pire, they continued subject to the Seleucidaa till the
averthrow of Antiochus by the Romans, v/hen then-
country, as well as Caria, was granted by the conquer-
ors to the Khodians; but their freedon: was afterward
again secured to them by the Romans (Polyb. , 30, 5),
who allowed them to retain their own laws and their
political constitution, which is highly praised by Stra-
bo (665), and, in his opinion, prevented them from fall-
ing into the piratical practices of their neighbours, the
Pamphylians and Cilicians. According to this ac-
count, the government was a kind of federation, con-
sisting of 23 cities, which sent deputies to an assembly,
in which a governor was chosen for the whole of Ly-
:ia, as well as judges and other inferior magistrates.
All matters relating to the government of the country
were discussed in this assembly. Tho six principal
cities, Xanthus, Patara, Pinara, Olympus, Myra, and
Tlos, had three votes each, other cities two votes each,
and the least important places only one each. In con-
sequence of dissensions among the different cities, this
? ? constitution was abolished by the Emperor Claudius
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? LfC
LTC
where lie formed one or the seven poets known by the
name of the Tragic Pleiades. (Vid. Alexandrina
Schola, towards the end of that article ) He is said
hv Ovid to have been killed by an arrow. (Ibis, 531. )
Lvcophron wrote a large number of tragedies, the titles
of many of which are preserved by Suidas. Only one
production of his, however, has come down to us, a
poem classed by the ancients under the head of tragic,
Dut more correctly by the moderns under that of Lyr-
ic ve-se. This poem of Lycophron's is called the
Atcxt idra or Cassandra. It is a monologue, in 1474
verse, in which the Trojan princess Cassandra predicts
to Priam the overthrow of Ilium, and the misfortunes
that await the actors in the Trojan war. The work
is written in Iambic verse, and has no pretensions to
any poetical merit; but, at the same time, it forms an
inexhaustible mine of grammatical, historical, and my-
thological erudition. Cassandra, in ihe course of her
predictions, goes back to the earliest limes, and de-
scends afterward to the reign of Alexander of Macedon.
There are many digressions, but all contain valuable
facts, drawn from the history and mythology of other
nations. The poet has purposely enveloped his poem
with the deepest obscurity, so much so that it has
been styled to okotcivov iroin/ia, "Ihe dark poem. "
There is no artifice to which he does not resort to pre-
vent his being clearly understood. He never calls any
one by his true name, but designates him by some cir-
cumstances or event in his history. He abounds with
unusual constructions, separatea words which should
be united, uses strange terms (as, for example. niXap,
ivir, anrutwc, and pim/tn, in place of trior); forma the
most singular compounds (such as iiBeouifanTpoc, at-
vofuKxevroc), and indulges also in some of the boldest
metaphors. The Alexandrean grammarians amassed
t vast collection of materials for the elucidation of
what nris'. have appeared to them an admirable pro-
duction. Tzetzes has made a compilation from their
tommentarira, and has thus preserved for us a part at
least of those illustrations, without which the poem,
after the lapse of more than 2000 years, would oe un-
intelligible. He has refuted also ihe opinion that Lv-
cophron was not the author of the poem. The loss of
Lycophron's dramatic pieces is hardly to be regretted,
if we can form any opinion of his poetic merits from
the production to which we have just referred. A
work, however, which he wrote on Comedy (itepi Ku-
(tuMac), and which must have been of considerable ex-
tent, since Athcnasus quotes from the 9th book of it,
would have proved, no doubt, a valuable accession to
our list of ancient productions, since on this subject
the learning of Lycophron must have had full scope
allowed it. The best editions of Lycophron are, that
printed at Basle, 1546, fol. , enriched with the Greek
commentary of Tzetzes; that of Canter, 8vo, apud
Commelin. , 1596; that of Potter, fol. , Oxon. , 1702,
and that of Bachmann, Lips. , 1826, 2 vols. 8vo. The
last will be found to be most complete and useful, since
it contains, among other subsidia, the Greek paraphrase.
Bachmann also published, in 1828, in the second vol-
ume of his Anccdola \ji<rra, a Lexicon Lycophroneum,
previously unedited, containing a very ancient collec-
tion of scholia. (Sch'611, Gesch. Gr. Lit. , vol. 2, p. 47,
MM. )
Lvcopolis (Avxuv mttif), or the " city of wolves,"
a city of Upper Egypt, on the western side of the Nile,
northwest of Antaeopolis. It derived its name from
? ? die circumstance of extraordinary worahip being paid
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? Lye
LYCURGUS.
? uol/ received. According to Po! yoius, tney after-
ward recovered their city, with the aid of the Gortyn-
ians, who gave them a place named Diatonium, which
? they had taken from the Cnosians (23, 15; 24, S3).
Strabo also speaks of Lyctus as existing in his time
[Strab. , 479), and elsewhere he states that it was
eighty stadia from the Libyan Sea. (Slrab. , 476. )
The ruins of Lyctus were placed by D'Anville at
Ijusiti; but the exact site, according to the latest
maps, lies to the northwest of that place, and is called
Panagia Cardictissi. {Cramer's Anc. Greece, vol.
3, p. 388, scjj )
LvciiEGts, I. a king of Thrace, who, when Bac-
chus was passing through his country, assailed him so
furiously that the god was obliged to take refuge with
Thetis. Bacchus avenged himself by driving Lycur-
gus mad, and the latter thereupon killed his own son
* Dryas with a blow of an axe, taking him for a vine-
branch. The land became, in consequence, steril;
ind his subjects, having been informed by an oracle
that it would not regain its fertility until the monarch
was put to death, bound Lycurgus, and left him on
Mount Pangaeus, where he was destroyed by wild
horses. (Apollod. , 3, 5, 1. )--II. An Athenian orator,
was one of the warmest supporters of the democratical
party in the contest with Philip of Macedon. The
Jme of his birth is uncertain, but he was older than
Demosthenes (Lilian. , Arg. Aristogit); and if his fa-
ther was put to death by order of the thirty tyrants
(Vit. X. Oral. , p. 841, B), he must have been born
previous to B. C. 404. But the words of the biogra-
pher are, as Clinton has justly remarked, ambiguous
[Fast. Hell. , vol. 2, p. 151), and mBy imply that it
was his grandfather who was put to death by the
thirty. Lycurgus is said to have derived instruction
from Plato and Isocrates. He took an active part in
he management of public affairs, and was one of the
Athenian ambassadors who succeeded (B. C. 343) in
tountcracling the designs of Philip against Ambracia
and the Peloponnesus. (Demoslh. , Phil. , 3, p. 129,
id. Reiske. ) He filled the office of treasurer of the
public revenue for three periods of five years, that is,
according to the ancient idiom, twelve years (Died.
Sic. , 16^ 88); and was noted for the integrity and
ability with which he discharged the duties of his
office. Bockh (Public Econ. of Alliens, vol. 2, p. 183,
Eng. trans. ) considers that Lycurgus was the only
statesman of antiquity who had a real knowledge of the
management of finance. He raised the revenue to
twelve hundred talents, and also erected, during his
administration, many public buildings, and completed
the docks, the armory, the theatre of Bacchus, and
the Panathenaic course. So great confidence was
placed in the honesty of Lycurgus, that many citizens
confided to his custody large sums; and, shortly be-
fore his death, he had the accounts of his public ad-
ministration engraved on stone, and set up in a part of
the wrestling-school. An inscription, preserved to the
present day, containing some accounts of a manager of
the public revenue, is supposed by Bockh to be a part of
the accounts of Lycurgus. (Publ. Econ. ofAth. , vol. 1,
p. 264. --Corp. Inscript. Grac. ,\o\. 1, p. 250, No. 157. )
After the battle of Chsaronea (B. C. 388), Lycurgus con-
ducted the accusation against the Athenian general Lys-
icles. He was one of the orators demanded by Alex-
ander after the destruction of Thebes (B. C. 335). He
died about B. C. 323, and was buried in the Academia.
? ? {Pausan. , 1, 29,15. ) Fifteen years after his death,
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? LyCURGUh.
lilt the maturity of h'. a ward and the birth of an heir
? tmuld have removed every pretext for such imputa-
tions. Thus the prime of his life, notwithstanding the
regret, and the repeated invitations of his countrymen,
was spent in voluntary exile, which, however, he em-
ployed in maturing a plan, already conceived, for rem-
edying the evils under which Sparta had long laboured,
by a great change in its constitution and laws. With
this view he visited many foreign lands, observed their
institutions and manners, and conversed with their sa-
ge*. Crete and the laws of Minos are said to have
Men the main object of his study, anu a Cretan poet
one of his instructors in the art of legislation. But the
Egyptian priests likewise claimed him as their disciple;
and reports were not wanting among the later Spartans,
that he had penetrated as far as India, and had sat at
the feet of 'bo Bramins. On his return he found the
disorders of the state aggravated, and the need of a . e-
form more generally felt. Having strengthened his au-
thority with the sanction of the Delphic oraclo, which
declared his wisdom to transcend the common level of
humanity, and having secured the aid of a numerous
party among the leading men, who took up arms to
support him, he successively procured the enactment
of a series of solemn ordinances or compacts (Rhclras),
by which the civil and military constitution of the com-
monwealth, the distribution of property, the education
of the citizens, the rules of their daily intercourse and
of their domestic life, were to be fixed on a hallow-
ed and immutable basis. Many of these regulations
roused a violent opposition, which even threatened the
life of Lycurgus; but his fortitude and patience finally
triumphed over all obstacles, and he lived to see his
great idea, unfolded in all its beauty, begin its steady
course bearing on its front the marks of immortal vig-
our. His last action was to sacrifice himself to the
perpetuity of his work. He set out on a journey to
Delphi, after having bound his countrymen by an
lvI. tc make no change in the laws before his re-
. ": -. \ When the last seal had been set to his institu-
? i}M by the oracle, which foretold that Sparta should
floensh as long as she adhered to them, having trans-
mitted this prediction to his fellow-citizens, he resolved,
in order that they might never be discharged from
their oath, to die in a foreign land. The place and
manner of his death are veiled in an obscurity befit-
ting the character of the hero: the sacred soils of Del-
phi, of Crete, and of Elis, all claimed his tomb: the
Spartans honoured him, to the latest times, with a
temple and yearly sacrifices, as a god. --Such are the
outlines of a story, which is too familiar to be cast
sway as an empty fiction, even if it should be admitted
that no part of it can bear the scrutiny of a rigorous
riticiam. But the mam question is, whether the view
which it presents of the character of Lycurgus as a
talesman is substantially correct: and in this respect
ve should certainly be led to regard him in a very dif-
ferent light, if it should appear that the institutions
which he is supposed to havo collected with so much
labour, and to have founded with so much difficulty,
were in existence long before his birth; and not only
in Crete, but in Sparta; nor in Sparta only, but in other
Grecian states. And this we believe to have been the
case with every important part of these institutions.
As to most of those, indeed, which were common to
Crete and Sparta, it seems scarcely to admit a doubt,
and is equally evident, whether we acknowledge or
deny that some settlements of the Dorians in Crete
? ? ? receded tho conquest of Peloponnesus. It was at
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? LVDIA.
I. YD
which he bears doubtless attaches great respect-
ability to his testimony; but as we have no opportu-
nity of weighing his authenticity on this particular sub-
{ect, from being unacquainted with the sources whence
le drew his information, and also from having no par-
allel historian with whom to compare his account, it is
evident we cannot place such dependance on his Lydi-
an history as on that of Egypt, Babylon, and Persia.
Oar suspicions, of course, will be increased, if we find
. hat the circumstances be relates are incredible in
themselves, and at variance also with other authorities.
Time has unfortunately deprived us of the Lydian an-
nals of Xanthus, a native of the country, somewhat an-
terior to Herodotus, and whose accounts were held in
great estimation for accuracy and fidelity by sound
judges {Dion. Hal. , Rom. Ant. , 1, 30. -- Strab. , 579,
628, 680, &c. ); but from incidental fragments pre-
served by later writers we are led to infer, that he
had frequently adopted traditions materially differing
from those which Herodotus followed, and that his
history also, as might be expected, contained several
important facts unknown to the latter, or which it did
not enter into the plan of his work to insert. --The
general account which we gather from Herodotus re-
specting the origin of the Lydian nation, is this: he
states that the country known in his time, by the name
df Lydia, was previously called Masonia, and the peo-
ol9 Maeones. (Herodotus, 1, 7. --Id. , 7, 74. ) This
? eems confirmed by Homer, who nowhere mentions
the Lydians, but numbers the Maeonian forces among
he allies of Priam, and assigns to them a country
which is plainly the Lydia of subsequent writers. (11. ,
2,864, scqq. ) Herodotus further states, that the name
of the Lydians was derived from Lydus, a son of A tys,
one of the earliest sovereigns of the country, and in
this particular he closely agrees with Dionysiusof Huli-
camassus. however he may differ from him in other
considerable points. But the period to be assigned to
this Lydus is a subject likely to baffle for ever the re-
searches of the ablest chronologist.
