By little and little, the scanty vegeta-
tion languishes and dies; even mosses disappear, and
a rod, burning hue succeeds to the whiteness of the
rock*.
tion languishes and dies; even mosses disappear, and
a rod, burning hue succeeds to the whiteness of the
rock*.
Charles - 1867 - Classical Dictionary
It is by no means easy to know what
weight is to be given to the language of the poets, nor
how far particular descriptions or expressions may have
been occasioned by peculiar local circumstances. The
statement of the younger Pliny (Evitt. , 2,17), that the
bay-tree would rarely live through the winter without
shelter, either at Rome or at his own villa at Lanuvium,
if taken absolutely, would prove too much; for, although
the bay is less hardy than some other evergreens, yet
how can it be conceived that a climate in which the
olive would flourish could be too severe for the bay 1
There must either have been some local peculiarity of
winds or soil which the tree did not like, or else the fact,
as is sometimes the case, must have been too hastily
assumed; and men were afraid, from long custom, to
! eave the bay unprotected in the winter, although, in
/act, they might have done it with safety. Yet the
elder Pliny (17, 2) speaks of long snows being useful
to the corn, which shows that he is not speaking of
the mountains; and a long snow lying in the valleys
of centra! or southern Italy would surely be a very un-
teard-of phenomenon now. Again: the freezing of
the rivers, as spoken of by Virgil and Horace, is an
image of winter which could not, we think, naturally
, *uggcst itself tj Italian poets of the present day, at
any point to the south of the Apennines. Other ar-
guments to the same effect may be seen in a paper by
Dames Barrington, in the 58th volume of the Philo-
sophical Transactions. Gibbon, too, after stating the
arguments on both sides of the question, comes to the
same conclusion. {Misc. Works, I. c. ) He quotes,
however, the Abbe de Longuerue as saying that the
Tiber was frozen in the bitter winter of 1709. --Again:
the olive, which cannot bear a continuance of severe
cold, was not introduced into Italy till long after the
vine: Feneatella asserted, that its cultivation was un-
known as late as the reign of Tarquinius Priscus
(Plin. , 15, 1); and such was the notion entertained
of the cold of all inland countries, that Theophrastus
(Plin. , 15, 1) held it impossible to cultivate the olive
at the distance of more than 400 stadia from the sea.
But the cold of winter is perfectly consistent with great
heat in the summer. The vine is cultivated with suc-
cess on the Rhine, in the latitude of Devonshire and
Cornwall, although the winter at Coblentz and Bonn
is far more severe than it is in Westmoreland; and
evergreens will flourish through the winter in the
Westmoreland valleys far better than on the Rhine or
in the heart of France. The summer heat of Italy
? ? was probably much the same in ancient times as it is
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? ITH
JUB
<<ei from the surface, has been the increased unhealthi-
ntsa of the country, and the more extended range of
the malaria. 'ArnolVt History of Rome, vol. 1, p.
501, seqq. )
ItalIca, I. the capital of the Peligni in Italy. (Vid.
Cornnium. j--II. A city of Spain, north of Mispalis,
and situate on the western side of the river Banis.
(Strabo, Hl. --Oros. , 5, 23. ) It was founded by Pub-
lius Scipio in the second Punic war, who placed here
tho old soldiers whom age had incapacitated from the
performance of military service. (Appian, B. Hisp. ,
c. 38 -- Cat. , B. Civ. , 2, 20. ) It was the birthplace
of the Emperor Trajan, and is supposed to correspond
with Sevilla la Vieja, about a league distant from the
city of Seville. (Surita, ad It. Ant. , p. 413, 432. --
Florez, Esp. S. F. , 12, p. 227. --Vkert, Geogr. , vol.
S, p. 372. )
ItalIcus, a poet. (Vid. Sihua Italicus. )
Italus, a fabled monarch of early Italy. (Consult
remarks under the article Italia, page 693, col. 1. )
Ithaca, a celebrated island in the Ionian Sea, north-
east of Cephallenia. It lies directly south of Leuca-
dia, from which it is distant about six miles. The ex-
tent of this celebrated island, as given by ancient au-
thorities, does not correspond with modern computa-
tion. Dicaarchus describes it as narrow, and meas-
uring eighty stadia, meaning probably in length (Grac.
Stat. v. 51), but Strabo (455) affirms, in circumfer-
ence, which is very wide of the truth, since it is not
less than thirty miles in circuit, or, according to Pliny
(4, 12), twenty-fire. Its length is nearly seventeen
miles, but its breadth not more than four. Ithaca is
well known as the native island of Ulysses. Eusta-
thius asserts (ad 11. , 2, 632) that it derived its name
from the hero Ithacus, who is mentioned by Homer
(Oi, 17, 207). That it was throughout rugged and
mountainous we learn from more than one passage of
the Odyssey, but especially from the fourth book, v.
805, scqq--It is evident, from several passages of the
same poem, that there was also a city named Ithaca,
probably the capital of the island, and the residence of
Ulysses (3,80). Its ruins are generally identified with
those crowning the summit of the hill of Aito. (Dod-
vell, vol. I, p. 66. ) "The Venetian geographers,"
observes Sir William Gell, "have in a great degree
contributed to raise doubts concerning the identity of
the modern with the ancient Ithaca, by giving in their
charts the name of Vol di Compare to this island.
That name, however, is totally unknown in the coun-
try, where the isle is invariably called Ithaca by the
upper ranks, and Theaki by the vulgar. It has been
asserted in the north of Europe, that Ithaca is too in-
considerable a rock to have produced any contingent of
ships which could er. tr. '. e its king to so much consider-
ation among the neighbouring isles; yet the unrivalled
excellence of its port has in modern times created a
fleet of 50 vessels of all denominations, which trade to
every part of the Mediterranean, and from which four
might be selected capable of transporting the whole
army of Ulysses to the shores of Asia. " The same
writer nukes the population of the island 8000. It is
said to contain sixty-six square miles. (GcWs Geog-
raphy and Antiquities of Ithaca, p. 30. )
Ithacesia, I. three islands opposite Vibo, on the
coast of Bruttium. They are thought to answer to
the modern Brace*, Praca, and Torricella. (Bisehqff
and Miller, Worterb. der Geogr. , p. 651. )--II. Baira
? ? is called by Silius Italicus "sedes Ithacesia Baii," be-
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? JTJD
moved, it is said, to this course by a gross insult which,
in his youth, he had received from Cesar. He gained,
B. C. 49, a great victory over Curio, Ceaar's lieuten-
ant in Africa. After the battle of Pharaalia and the
death of Pompey, he continued steady to his cause;
and when Caesar invaded Africa, B. C. 46, he support-
ad Scipio and Cato with all his power, and in the first
instance reduced the dictator to much difficulty. The
battle of Thapsus, however, turned the scale in Cae-
aar'a favour. Juba fled, and, finding that his subjects
would not receive him, put an end to his life in de-
spair, along with Petreius. (Vid. Petreius. ) His con-
nexion with Cato has suggested the underplot of Ad-
dison's tragedy. (Plut. , Vit. Pomp. --Id. , Vit. Cas.
--Ftor. , 4, 13. -- Sutton. , Vit. Jul. , 35. -- Lucan, 4,
490. --Patere. , 2, 54. )--II. The second of the name,
was son of the preceding. He was carried to Rome
by Cesar, kindly treated, and well and learnedly ed-
ucated. He gained the friendship, and fought in the
cause, of Augustus, who gave him the kingdom of
Mauritania, his paternal kingdom of Numidia having
been erected into a Roman province. Juba cultivated
diligently the arts of peace, was beloved by his sub-
ccts, and had a high reputation for learning. He
wrote, in Greek, of Arabia, with observations on its
natural history; of Assyria; of Rome; of painting
and painters; of theatres; of the qualities of animals;
on the source of the Nile, dec, all which arc now lost.
Juba married Cleopatra, the daughter of Antony and
Cleopatra, queen of Egypt. Strabo, in his sixth book,
speaks of Juba as living, and in his seventeenth and
last book as then just dead. This would probably fix
his death about A. D. 17. (Clinton, Fast. Hellen. ,
vol. 2, p. 651, in notis. --Phot. , Cod. , 161. --Athena-
us, 8, p. 343, e. -- Plut. , Mar. , p. 269, c, dec. -r-
Consult the dissertation of the Abbe Sevin, Sur la Vit
tt Us Outrages de Juba, in the Mem. de VAead. ties
hser. , Ate, vol. 4, p. 457, seqq. )
JuDiBi, a province of Palestine, forming the southern
division. It did not assume the name of Judaea until
after the return of the Jews from the Babylonian cap-
ivity; though it had been denominated, long before,
ho kingdom of Judaea, in opposition to that of Israel.
After the return, the tribe of Judah settled first at Je-
rusalem; but afterward, spreading gradually over the
whole country, they gave it the name of Judaea. Ju-
daea, being the seat of religion and government, claimed
many privileges. It was not lawful to intercalate the
year out of Judaea, while they might do it in that coun-
try. Nor was the sheaf of first-fruits of the barley to
be brought from any other district than Judaea, and as
near as possible to Jerusalem. The extent of this re-
markable country has varied at different times, accord-
ing to the nature of the government which it has en-
loyed or been compelled to acknowledge. When it
was first occupied by the Israelites, the land of Ca-
naan, properly so called, was confined between the
shores of the Mediterranean and the western bank of
the Jordan; the breadth at no part exceeding fifty
niles, while the length hardly amounted to three times
hat space. At a later period, the arms of David and
of his immediate successor carried the boundaries of
the kingdom to the Euphrates and Orontes on the one
hand, and in an opposite direction to the remotest con-
fines of Edom and Moab. The population, as might
be expected, has undergone a similar variation. It is
true, that no particular in ancient history is liable to a
better founded suspicion, than the numerical statements
? ? which respect nations and armies; for pride and fear
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? JUD. EA.
JUDAEA.
wnuh arc known in Italy, besides balm and dates.
Hut it has never been denied that there is a remarka-
ble difference between the two sides of the ridge which
forms the central chain of Judxa. On the western
itdivity, the soil rises from the sea towards the ele-
rated ground in four distinct terraces, which are cov-
ered with an unfading verdure. The shore is lined
with inastic-trees, palms, and prickly pears. Higher
op, the vines, the olives, and the sycamores amply re-
pay the labour of the cultivator; natural groves arise,
consisting of evergreen oaks, cypresses, andrachnes,
>>nd turpentines. The face of the earth is embellished
with the rosemary, tbe cytisus, and the hyacinth. In
I word, the vegetation of these mountains has been
compared to that of Crete. European visiters have
dined under the shade of a lemon-tree as large as
one of our strongest oaks, and have seen sycamores,
the foliage of which was sufficient to cover thirty per-
sons, along with their horses and camels. On the
eastern side, however, the scanty coating of mould
yields a less magnificent crop. From the summit of
the hills a desert stretches along to the Lake Asphal-
tites, presenting nothing but stones and ashes, and a
few thorny shrubs. The sides of the mountains en-
large, and assume an aspect at once more grand and
more barren.
By little and little, the scanty vegeta-
tion languishes and dies; even mosses disappear, and
a rod, burning hue succeeds to the whiteness of the
rock*. In the centre of this amphitheatre there is an
arid basin, enclosed on all sides with summits scat-
tered over with a yellow-coloured pebble, and afford-
ing a single aperture to the east, through which the
surface of the Dead Sea and the distant hills of Ara-
bia present themselves to the eye. In the midst of
this country of stones, encircled by a wall, we perceive
titensive ruins, stunted cypresses, bushes of the aloe
aad prickly pear, while some huts of the meanest or-
4*r, ruecbling whitewashed sepulchres, are spread
'in; to? desolated mass. This spot is Jerusalem.
Mm, Observations, &c. ,p. 140. --Hasielquist, Trav-
ail, p. tt. --Shultze's Travelt, vd. 2, p. 86. )--This
nelancholy delineation, which was suggested by the
Mate of the Jewish metropolis in the third century, is
not -i'. i itr inapplicable at the present hour. The scen-
ery if external nature is the same, and the general as-
pect of the venerable city is very little changed. But
is beauty is strictly a relative term, and is everywhere
greatly affected by association, we must not be sur-
prised when we read in the works of Eastern authors
the high encomiums which are lavished upon the vi-
cinity of the holy capital. Abulfeda, for example,
maintains, not only that Palestine is the most fertile
part of Syria, but also that the neighbourhood of Jeru-
valem is one of the most fertile districts'of Palestine.
In his eye, the vines, the fig-trees, and the olive-
graves, with which the limestone cliffs of Judxa were
once covered, identified themselves with the richest
returns of agricultural wealth, and more than com-
pensated for the absence of those spreading fields,
waring with corn, which are necessary to convey to
the mind of a European the ideas of fruitfulness, com-
fort, and abundance. --Following the enlightened nar-
ntive of Malte-Brun, the reader will find that south-
ward of Damascus, tbe point where the modern Pal-
estine may be said to begin, are the countries called
? f the Romans Auranitis and Gaulonitis, consisting
ef one extensive and noble plain, bounded on the north
? ? by Hermon or Djibel-cl-Sheik, on the southwest by
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? JUDAEA.
J I. G
>>y toe densest fogs--The Shechem of the Scriptures,
successively known by the names of Neapolis and Nab-
lous, still contains a considerable population, although
is dwellings are mean and its inhabitants poor. The
luina of Samaria itself are now covered with orchards;
and the people of the district, who have forgotten their
native dialect, as well, perhaps, as their angry disputes
with tho Jews, continue to worship the Deity on the
verdant slopes of Gerizim. --Palestine, agreeably to
the modern acceptation of the term, embraces the
country of the ancient Philistines, the most formida-
ble enemies of the Hebrew tribes prior to the reign
of David. Besides Gaza, the chief town, we recog-
nise tl e celebrated port of Jaffa or Yaffa, correspond-
ing to the Joppa mentioned in the sacred writings.
Repeatedly fortified and dismantled, this famous har-
bour has presented such a variety of appearances, that
the description givon of it in one age has hardly ever
been found to apply to its condition in the very next.
Bethlehem, where the divine Messias was born, is a
large village inhabited promiscuously by Christians and
Mussulmans, who agree in nothing but their detestation
of the tyranny by which they are both unmercifully
oppressed. The locality of the sacred manger is oc-
cupied by an elegant church, ornamented by the pious
offerings of all the nations of Europe. It is not our
intention to enter into a more minute discussion of
those old traditions, by which the particular places
rendered sacred by the Redeemer's presence are still
marked out for the veneration of tho faithful. They
present much vagueness, mingled with no small por-
tion of unquestionable truth. At all events, we must
not regard them in the same light in which we are
compelled to view the story that claims for Hebron
the possession of Abraham's tomb, and attracts on this
account the veneration both of Nazarenes and Mos-
lems. --To the northeast of Jerusalem, in the large and
""ertib valley called El-Gaur, and watered by the Jor-
dan, wa iuid t:v village of Rir. ha, near the ancient Jeri-
*r/J, denominated by Moses the City of Palms. This
is a name to which it is still entitled; but the groves
of opobalsamum, or balm of Mecca, hare long disap-
peared ; nor is the neighbourhood any longer adorned
with those singular flowers known among the Crusa-
ders by the familiar appellation of Jericho roses. A
little farther south two rough and barren chains of
afcills encompass with their dark steeps a long basin
wormed in a clay soil mixed with bitumen and rock-
salt. The water contained in this hollow . s impreg-
nated with a solution of different saline substances,
having lime, magnesia, and soda for their base, par-
tially neutralized with muriatic and sulphuric acid.
The salt which it yields by evaporation is about one
fourth of its weight. The bituminous matter rises
from time to time from the bottom of the lake, floats
on the surface, and is thrown out on the shores, where
it is gathered for various purposes. (Vid. Mare
Mortuum. )--This brief outline of the geographical
limits and physical character of the Holy Land must
suffice here. Details much more ample are to be
found in numerous works, whose authors, fascinated
by the interesting recollections which almost every
object in Palestine is fitted to suggest, have endeav-
. oured to transfer to the minds of their readers the
profound impressions which they themselves experi-
enced from a personal review of ancient scenes and
monuments. But we purposely refrain from the mi-
? ? nute description to which the subject so natuially in-
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? JUL
JUL
however, he obtained from the consul C'alpurnius,
under the most favourable conditions, the quiet pos-
session of the usurped kingdom. But this treaty was
not ratified at Rome; Calpurnius was recalled, and
the new consul Posthumius Albums was appointed to
the command in Africa. Meanwhile Jugurtha, being
summoned, appeared at Rome; but as he then suc-
ceeded in bribing several of the senators, and also
Batbius, a tribune of the people, no judgment was giv-
en. Imboldened by this success, he thereupon caus-
ed Massiva, son of his uncle Gulussa, whom he sus-
pected of aiming at the kingdom, to be assassinated
in the Roman capital. The crime was fixed upon
him; but as he was under the public guarantee, the
senate, instead of bringing him to trial, ordered him
to leave Rome immediately. It was while departing
from the city on this occasion that he is said to have
uttered those memorable words against the corrup-
tion of the Roman capital which arc recorded in the
pages of Sallust: "Ah, venal city, and destined quick-
ly to perish, if it could but find a purchaser! " Pos-
thumius was now sent to his province in Africa, to
prosecute the war; but he soon returned to Rome
without having effected anything, leaving the army
under the command of his brother Aulus Posthumius,
who allowed himself to be surprised in his camp by
Jugurtha, to whom he surrendered; and his troops,
having passed under the yoke, evacuated Numidia.
The new consul Metellus, arriving soun after with
fresh troops, carried on the war with great vigour,
and, being himself above temptation, reduced Jugur-
tha to the last extremity. Caius Marius was serving
as lieutenant to Metellus, and in the year B. C. 107,
supplanted him. in the command. Jugurtha, mean-
time, having allied himself with Bocchus, king of
Mauritania, gave full employment to the Romans.
Marius took the townofCapsa, and in a hard-contest-
ed battle defeated the two kings. Bocchus now made
offers of peace, and Marius sent to him his quaestor
Sylla, who, after much negotiation, induced the Mau-
ritanian king to give up Jugurtha into the hands of
the Romans, as the price of bis own peace and secu-
rity. Jugurtha followed in chains with his two sons,
the triumph of Marius, after which he was thrown into
a subterraneous dungeon, where he was starved to
death, or, according to others, was strangled. His
sons were sent to Venusia, where they lived in ob-
scurity. The war against Jugurtha lasted five years;
it ended B. C. 106, and has been immortalized by the
pen of Salluet. (Sail, Bell. Jug. --Plut. , Vit. Mar. )
"It is said," observes Plutarch, " that when Jugurtha
was led before the car of the conqueror, he lost his
senses. After the triumph he was thrown into prison,
where, in their haste to strip him, some tore his robe
off his back, and others, catching eagerly at his pen-
dants, pulled off the tips of his ears along with them.
When he was thrust down naked into the dungeon, all
confused, he said, with a frantic smile,'Heavens! bow
cold is this bath of yours! ' There, having struggled
for six days with extreme hunger, and to the last hour
labouring for the preservation of life, he came to such
an end as his crimes deserved. " (Plut. , Vit. Mar. )
Jui. f a Lex, I. Ag raria, proposed by Julius Ca<<ar
in his first consulship, A. U. C. 694. Its object was to
distribute the lands of Campania and Stella to 20,000
poor citizens, who had three children or more. (Ctc,
Ef. ad Att. , 2, 16. --Veil. Paterc, 2, 44. )--II. An-
? ? other by the same, entitled de Puhlieanis, about re-
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? JULI. V
JUL
lias, Julia, Agtippina, and Agrippa Postumus. Agrip-
pa died A. U C. 741, and Julia was married, for the ihird
time, to Tiberius Claudius Nero, the son of Livia, and
afterward emperor. Tiberius subsequently, for whatev-
er reasons, thought proper to withdraw from Rome to
tho ialand of Rhodes, where he lived in the greatest
retirement. During his absence, his wife Julia was
guilty of such gross infidelities towards him, that Au-
gustus himself divorced her in the name of his son-in-
Fav, and banished her to the island of Pandataria, off
the Campanian coast, where she was closely confined
for some time, and treated with the greatest rigour;
ior would Augustus ever forgive her, or receive her
sgain into his presence, although he afterward removed
her from Pandataria to Rhegium, and somewhat soft-
ened the severity of her treatment. When her hus-
band Tiberius ascended the throne, she was again se-
verely dealt with, and finally died of ill-treatment and
atarvation (iiro Kaxovxiac xai Xi/iov. --Zonaras, p.
648. --Sutton. , Vit. Aug. , 63. --Id. , Vit. Aug. , 65 --
Id. , Vit. Tib. , 7. --Id. ib. , 60. --Tacit. , Ann. , 1, 53. )
--V. The grand-daughter of Augustus, and daughter
of Agrippa and Julia (IV). She was married to L.
Paulus, but, imitating the licentious conduct of her
mother, she was banished by Augustus for her adul-
terous practices to the island of Tremitus, off the
coast of Apulia, where she continued to live for the
space of 20 years, and where at last she terminated
her existence. (Tacit. , Ann. , 4, 71. )--VI. A daugh-
ter of Drusus Caesar, the son of Tiberius, by Livia or
Livilla, the daughter of Nero Claudius Drusus. She
was married first to Nero Caesar, son of Gennanicus
and Agrippina, and afterward to Rubelliua Blandus.
She was cut off by the intrigues of Messalina, A. U. C.
7>6. (Tacit. , Ann. , 3, 29-- Id. ib. , 6, 27-- Id. lb. ,
11, 19. )--VII. Daughter of Caligula and Mi Ionia Caj-
<< nia. Her frantic father carried her to the temples
of all the goddesses, and dedicated her to Minerva,
te to the patroness of her education. She discovered
U her infancy strong indications of the cruelty that
branded both her parents. She suffered death with
ber mother after the assassination of Caligula. (Sue-
ton. , Vit. Calig. , 25. --Id. ib. , 69. )--VIII. A Syrian
female, daughter of Bassianus, priest of the Sun.
She became the wife of Severus before his advance-
ment to the throne, and after the death of his first
consort. The superstitious Roman was determined,
it seems, in his choice, by hearing that Julia had been
bom with a royal nativity; in other words, that she
was destined to be the wife of a sovereign prince.
(Spartian. , Vit. Sets. , 3, seqq. ) Her full name was
Julia Domna (Salnuu. , ad Spart. , Vit. Scv. , 20), the
latter part of it not being contracted, as some sup-
pose, from Domir. a, but being the actual surname of
a family. (Tristan, Comment. Hist. , vol. 2, p. 119,
seqq--Menag, Aman. Jut. , c. 25. ) , Julia is said
to have been a female of cultivated mind and con-
siderable literary attainments. She applied herself
also to the Btudy of philosophy, and employed a large
portion of her time in liatening to, and taking part in,
the disputations of philosophers and sophists. Hence
Philostratus calls her $t\6oo$oc 'IouXio. (Vit.
weight is to be given to the language of the poets, nor
how far particular descriptions or expressions may have
been occasioned by peculiar local circumstances. The
statement of the younger Pliny (Evitt. , 2,17), that the
bay-tree would rarely live through the winter without
shelter, either at Rome or at his own villa at Lanuvium,
if taken absolutely, would prove too much; for, although
the bay is less hardy than some other evergreens, yet
how can it be conceived that a climate in which the
olive would flourish could be too severe for the bay 1
There must either have been some local peculiarity of
winds or soil which the tree did not like, or else the fact,
as is sometimes the case, must have been too hastily
assumed; and men were afraid, from long custom, to
! eave the bay unprotected in the winter, although, in
/act, they might have done it with safety. Yet the
elder Pliny (17, 2) speaks of long snows being useful
to the corn, which shows that he is not speaking of
the mountains; and a long snow lying in the valleys
of centra! or southern Italy would surely be a very un-
teard-of phenomenon now. Again: the freezing of
the rivers, as spoken of by Virgil and Horace, is an
image of winter which could not, we think, naturally
, *uggcst itself tj Italian poets of the present day, at
any point to the south of the Apennines. Other ar-
guments to the same effect may be seen in a paper by
Dames Barrington, in the 58th volume of the Philo-
sophical Transactions. Gibbon, too, after stating the
arguments on both sides of the question, comes to the
same conclusion. {Misc. Works, I. c. ) He quotes,
however, the Abbe de Longuerue as saying that the
Tiber was frozen in the bitter winter of 1709. --Again:
the olive, which cannot bear a continuance of severe
cold, was not introduced into Italy till long after the
vine: Feneatella asserted, that its cultivation was un-
known as late as the reign of Tarquinius Priscus
(Plin. , 15, 1); and such was the notion entertained
of the cold of all inland countries, that Theophrastus
(Plin. , 15, 1) held it impossible to cultivate the olive
at the distance of more than 400 stadia from the sea.
But the cold of winter is perfectly consistent with great
heat in the summer. The vine is cultivated with suc-
cess on the Rhine, in the latitude of Devonshire and
Cornwall, although the winter at Coblentz and Bonn
is far more severe than it is in Westmoreland; and
evergreens will flourish through the winter in the
Westmoreland valleys far better than on the Rhine or
in the heart of France. The summer heat of Italy
? ? was probably much the same in ancient times as it is
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? ITH
JUB
<<ei from the surface, has been the increased unhealthi-
ntsa of the country, and the more extended range of
the malaria. 'ArnolVt History of Rome, vol. 1, p.
501, seqq. )
ItalIca, I. the capital of the Peligni in Italy. (Vid.
Cornnium. j--II. A city of Spain, north of Mispalis,
and situate on the western side of the river Banis.
(Strabo, Hl. --Oros. , 5, 23. ) It was founded by Pub-
lius Scipio in the second Punic war, who placed here
tho old soldiers whom age had incapacitated from the
performance of military service. (Appian, B. Hisp. ,
c. 38 -- Cat. , B. Civ. , 2, 20. ) It was the birthplace
of the Emperor Trajan, and is supposed to correspond
with Sevilla la Vieja, about a league distant from the
city of Seville. (Surita, ad It. Ant. , p. 413, 432. --
Florez, Esp. S. F. , 12, p. 227. --Vkert, Geogr. , vol.
S, p. 372. )
ItalIcus, a poet. (Vid. Sihua Italicus. )
Italus, a fabled monarch of early Italy. (Consult
remarks under the article Italia, page 693, col. 1. )
Ithaca, a celebrated island in the Ionian Sea, north-
east of Cephallenia. It lies directly south of Leuca-
dia, from which it is distant about six miles. The ex-
tent of this celebrated island, as given by ancient au-
thorities, does not correspond with modern computa-
tion. Dicaarchus describes it as narrow, and meas-
uring eighty stadia, meaning probably in length (Grac.
Stat. v. 51), but Strabo (455) affirms, in circumfer-
ence, which is very wide of the truth, since it is not
less than thirty miles in circuit, or, according to Pliny
(4, 12), twenty-fire. Its length is nearly seventeen
miles, but its breadth not more than four. Ithaca is
well known as the native island of Ulysses. Eusta-
thius asserts (ad 11. , 2, 632) that it derived its name
from the hero Ithacus, who is mentioned by Homer
(Oi, 17, 207). That it was throughout rugged and
mountainous we learn from more than one passage of
the Odyssey, but especially from the fourth book, v.
805, scqq--It is evident, from several passages of the
same poem, that there was also a city named Ithaca,
probably the capital of the island, and the residence of
Ulysses (3,80). Its ruins are generally identified with
those crowning the summit of the hill of Aito. (Dod-
vell, vol. I, p. 66. ) "The Venetian geographers,"
observes Sir William Gell, "have in a great degree
contributed to raise doubts concerning the identity of
the modern with the ancient Ithaca, by giving in their
charts the name of Vol di Compare to this island.
That name, however, is totally unknown in the coun-
try, where the isle is invariably called Ithaca by the
upper ranks, and Theaki by the vulgar. It has been
asserted in the north of Europe, that Ithaca is too in-
considerable a rock to have produced any contingent of
ships which could er. tr. '. e its king to so much consider-
ation among the neighbouring isles; yet the unrivalled
excellence of its port has in modern times created a
fleet of 50 vessels of all denominations, which trade to
every part of the Mediterranean, and from which four
might be selected capable of transporting the whole
army of Ulysses to the shores of Asia. " The same
writer nukes the population of the island 8000. It is
said to contain sixty-six square miles. (GcWs Geog-
raphy and Antiquities of Ithaca, p. 30. )
Ithacesia, I. three islands opposite Vibo, on the
coast of Bruttium. They are thought to answer to
the modern Brace*, Praca, and Torricella. (Bisehqff
and Miller, Worterb. der Geogr. , p. 651. )--II. Baira
? ? is called by Silius Italicus "sedes Ithacesia Baii," be-
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? JTJD
moved, it is said, to this course by a gross insult which,
in his youth, he had received from Cesar. He gained,
B. C. 49, a great victory over Curio, Ceaar's lieuten-
ant in Africa. After the battle of Pharaalia and the
death of Pompey, he continued steady to his cause;
and when Caesar invaded Africa, B. C. 46, he support-
ad Scipio and Cato with all his power, and in the first
instance reduced the dictator to much difficulty. The
battle of Thapsus, however, turned the scale in Cae-
aar'a favour. Juba fled, and, finding that his subjects
would not receive him, put an end to his life in de-
spair, along with Petreius. (Vid. Petreius. ) His con-
nexion with Cato has suggested the underplot of Ad-
dison's tragedy. (Plut. , Vit. Pomp. --Id. , Vit. Cas.
--Ftor. , 4, 13. -- Sutton. , Vit. Jul. , 35. -- Lucan, 4,
490. --Patere. , 2, 54. )--II. The second of the name,
was son of the preceding. He was carried to Rome
by Cesar, kindly treated, and well and learnedly ed-
ucated. He gained the friendship, and fought in the
cause, of Augustus, who gave him the kingdom of
Mauritania, his paternal kingdom of Numidia having
been erected into a Roman province. Juba cultivated
diligently the arts of peace, was beloved by his sub-
ccts, and had a high reputation for learning. He
wrote, in Greek, of Arabia, with observations on its
natural history; of Assyria; of Rome; of painting
and painters; of theatres; of the qualities of animals;
on the source of the Nile, dec, all which arc now lost.
Juba married Cleopatra, the daughter of Antony and
Cleopatra, queen of Egypt. Strabo, in his sixth book,
speaks of Juba as living, and in his seventeenth and
last book as then just dead. This would probably fix
his death about A. D. 17. (Clinton, Fast. Hellen. ,
vol. 2, p. 651, in notis. --Phot. , Cod. , 161. --Athena-
us, 8, p. 343, e. -- Plut. , Mar. , p. 269, c, dec. -r-
Consult the dissertation of the Abbe Sevin, Sur la Vit
tt Us Outrages de Juba, in the Mem. de VAead. ties
hser. , Ate, vol. 4, p. 457, seqq. )
JuDiBi, a province of Palestine, forming the southern
division. It did not assume the name of Judaea until
after the return of the Jews from the Babylonian cap-
ivity; though it had been denominated, long before,
ho kingdom of Judaea, in opposition to that of Israel.
After the return, the tribe of Judah settled first at Je-
rusalem; but afterward, spreading gradually over the
whole country, they gave it the name of Judaea. Ju-
daea, being the seat of religion and government, claimed
many privileges. It was not lawful to intercalate the
year out of Judaea, while they might do it in that coun-
try. Nor was the sheaf of first-fruits of the barley to
be brought from any other district than Judaea, and as
near as possible to Jerusalem. The extent of this re-
markable country has varied at different times, accord-
ing to the nature of the government which it has en-
loyed or been compelled to acknowledge. When it
was first occupied by the Israelites, the land of Ca-
naan, properly so called, was confined between the
shores of the Mediterranean and the western bank of
the Jordan; the breadth at no part exceeding fifty
niles, while the length hardly amounted to three times
hat space. At a later period, the arms of David and
of his immediate successor carried the boundaries of
the kingdom to the Euphrates and Orontes on the one
hand, and in an opposite direction to the remotest con-
fines of Edom and Moab. The population, as might
be expected, has undergone a similar variation. It is
true, that no particular in ancient history is liable to a
better founded suspicion, than the numerical statements
? ? which respect nations and armies; for pride and fear
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? JUD. EA.
JUDAEA.
wnuh arc known in Italy, besides balm and dates.
Hut it has never been denied that there is a remarka-
ble difference between the two sides of the ridge which
forms the central chain of Judxa. On the western
itdivity, the soil rises from the sea towards the ele-
rated ground in four distinct terraces, which are cov-
ered with an unfading verdure. The shore is lined
with inastic-trees, palms, and prickly pears. Higher
op, the vines, the olives, and the sycamores amply re-
pay the labour of the cultivator; natural groves arise,
consisting of evergreen oaks, cypresses, andrachnes,
>>nd turpentines. The face of the earth is embellished
with the rosemary, tbe cytisus, and the hyacinth. In
I word, the vegetation of these mountains has been
compared to that of Crete. European visiters have
dined under the shade of a lemon-tree as large as
one of our strongest oaks, and have seen sycamores,
the foliage of which was sufficient to cover thirty per-
sons, along with their horses and camels. On the
eastern side, however, the scanty coating of mould
yields a less magnificent crop. From the summit of
the hills a desert stretches along to the Lake Asphal-
tites, presenting nothing but stones and ashes, and a
few thorny shrubs. The sides of the mountains en-
large, and assume an aspect at once more grand and
more barren.
By little and little, the scanty vegeta-
tion languishes and dies; even mosses disappear, and
a rod, burning hue succeeds to the whiteness of the
rock*. In the centre of this amphitheatre there is an
arid basin, enclosed on all sides with summits scat-
tered over with a yellow-coloured pebble, and afford-
ing a single aperture to the east, through which the
surface of the Dead Sea and the distant hills of Ara-
bia present themselves to the eye. In the midst of
this country of stones, encircled by a wall, we perceive
titensive ruins, stunted cypresses, bushes of the aloe
aad prickly pear, while some huts of the meanest or-
4*r, ruecbling whitewashed sepulchres, are spread
'in; to? desolated mass. This spot is Jerusalem.
Mm, Observations, &c. ,p. 140. --Hasielquist, Trav-
ail, p. tt. --Shultze's Travelt, vd. 2, p. 86. )--This
nelancholy delineation, which was suggested by the
Mate of the Jewish metropolis in the third century, is
not -i'. i itr inapplicable at the present hour. The scen-
ery if external nature is the same, and the general as-
pect of the venerable city is very little changed. But
is beauty is strictly a relative term, and is everywhere
greatly affected by association, we must not be sur-
prised when we read in the works of Eastern authors
the high encomiums which are lavished upon the vi-
cinity of the holy capital. Abulfeda, for example,
maintains, not only that Palestine is the most fertile
part of Syria, but also that the neighbourhood of Jeru-
valem is one of the most fertile districts'of Palestine.
In his eye, the vines, the fig-trees, and the olive-
graves, with which the limestone cliffs of Judxa were
once covered, identified themselves with the richest
returns of agricultural wealth, and more than com-
pensated for the absence of those spreading fields,
waring with corn, which are necessary to convey to
the mind of a European the ideas of fruitfulness, com-
fort, and abundance. --Following the enlightened nar-
ntive of Malte-Brun, the reader will find that south-
ward of Damascus, tbe point where the modern Pal-
estine may be said to begin, are the countries called
? f the Romans Auranitis and Gaulonitis, consisting
ef one extensive and noble plain, bounded on the north
? ? by Hermon or Djibel-cl-Sheik, on the southwest by
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? JUDAEA.
J I. G
>>y toe densest fogs--The Shechem of the Scriptures,
successively known by the names of Neapolis and Nab-
lous, still contains a considerable population, although
is dwellings are mean and its inhabitants poor. The
luina of Samaria itself are now covered with orchards;
and the people of the district, who have forgotten their
native dialect, as well, perhaps, as their angry disputes
with tho Jews, continue to worship the Deity on the
verdant slopes of Gerizim. --Palestine, agreeably to
the modern acceptation of the term, embraces the
country of the ancient Philistines, the most formida-
ble enemies of the Hebrew tribes prior to the reign
of David. Besides Gaza, the chief town, we recog-
nise tl e celebrated port of Jaffa or Yaffa, correspond-
ing to the Joppa mentioned in the sacred writings.
Repeatedly fortified and dismantled, this famous har-
bour has presented such a variety of appearances, that
the description givon of it in one age has hardly ever
been found to apply to its condition in the very next.
Bethlehem, where the divine Messias was born, is a
large village inhabited promiscuously by Christians and
Mussulmans, who agree in nothing but their detestation
of the tyranny by which they are both unmercifully
oppressed. The locality of the sacred manger is oc-
cupied by an elegant church, ornamented by the pious
offerings of all the nations of Europe. It is not our
intention to enter into a more minute discussion of
those old traditions, by which the particular places
rendered sacred by the Redeemer's presence are still
marked out for the veneration of tho faithful. They
present much vagueness, mingled with no small por-
tion of unquestionable truth. At all events, we must
not regard them in the same light in which we are
compelled to view the story that claims for Hebron
the possession of Abraham's tomb, and attracts on this
account the veneration both of Nazarenes and Mos-
lems. --To the northeast of Jerusalem, in the large and
""ertib valley called El-Gaur, and watered by the Jor-
dan, wa iuid t:v village of Rir. ha, near the ancient Jeri-
*r/J, denominated by Moses the City of Palms. This
is a name to which it is still entitled; but the groves
of opobalsamum, or balm of Mecca, hare long disap-
peared ; nor is the neighbourhood any longer adorned
with those singular flowers known among the Crusa-
ders by the familiar appellation of Jericho roses. A
little farther south two rough and barren chains of
afcills encompass with their dark steeps a long basin
wormed in a clay soil mixed with bitumen and rock-
salt. The water contained in this hollow . s impreg-
nated with a solution of different saline substances,
having lime, magnesia, and soda for their base, par-
tially neutralized with muriatic and sulphuric acid.
The salt which it yields by evaporation is about one
fourth of its weight. The bituminous matter rises
from time to time from the bottom of the lake, floats
on the surface, and is thrown out on the shores, where
it is gathered for various purposes. (Vid. Mare
Mortuum. )--This brief outline of the geographical
limits and physical character of the Holy Land must
suffice here. Details much more ample are to be
found in numerous works, whose authors, fascinated
by the interesting recollections which almost every
object in Palestine is fitted to suggest, have endeav-
. oured to transfer to the minds of their readers the
profound impressions which they themselves experi-
enced from a personal review of ancient scenes and
monuments. But we purposely refrain from the mi-
? ? nute description to which the subject so natuially in-
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? JUL
JUL
however, he obtained from the consul C'alpurnius,
under the most favourable conditions, the quiet pos-
session of the usurped kingdom. But this treaty was
not ratified at Rome; Calpurnius was recalled, and
the new consul Posthumius Albums was appointed to
the command in Africa. Meanwhile Jugurtha, being
summoned, appeared at Rome; but as he then suc-
ceeded in bribing several of the senators, and also
Batbius, a tribune of the people, no judgment was giv-
en. Imboldened by this success, he thereupon caus-
ed Massiva, son of his uncle Gulussa, whom he sus-
pected of aiming at the kingdom, to be assassinated
in the Roman capital. The crime was fixed upon
him; but as he was under the public guarantee, the
senate, instead of bringing him to trial, ordered him
to leave Rome immediately. It was while departing
from the city on this occasion that he is said to have
uttered those memorable words against the corrup-
tion of the Roman capital which arc recorded in the
pages of Sallust: "Ah, venal city, and destined quick-
ly to perish, if it could but find a purchaser! " Pos-
thumius was now sent to his province in Africa, to
prosecute the war; but he soon returned to Rome
without having effected anything, leaving the army
under the command of his brother Aulus Posthumius,
who allowed himself to be surprised in his camp by
Jugurtha, to whom he surrendered; and his troops,
having passed under the yoke, evacuated Numidia.
The new consul Metellus, arriving soun after with
fresh troops, carried on the war with great vigour,
and, being himself above temptation, reduced Jugur-
tha to the last extremity. Caius Marius was serving
as lieutenant to Metellus, and in the year B. C. 107,
supplanted him. in the command. Jugurtha, mean-
time, having allied himself with Bocchus, king of
Mauritania, gave full employment to the Romans.
Marius took the townofCapsa, and in a hard-contest-
ed battle defeated the two kings. Bocchus now made
offers of peace, and Marius sent to him his quaestor
Sylla, who, after much negotiation, induced the Mau-
ritanian king to give up Jugurtha into the hands of
the Romans, as the price of bis own peace and secu-
rity. Jugurtha followed in chains with his two sons,
the triumph of Marius, after which he was thrown into
a subterraneous dungeon, where he was starved to
death, or, according to others, was strangled. His
sons were sent to Venusia, where they lived in ob-
scurity. The war against Jugurtha lasted five years;
it ended B. C. 106, and has been immortalized by the
pen of Salluet. (Sail, Bell. Jug. --Plut. , Vit. Mar. )
"It is said," observes Plutarch, " that when Jugurtha
was led before the car of the conqueror, he lost his
senses. After the triumph he was thrown into prison,
where, in their haste to strip him, some tore his robe
off his back, and others, catching eagerly at his pen-
dants, pulled off the tips of his ears along with them.
When he was thrust down naked into the dungeon, all
confused, he said, with a frantic smile,'Heavens! bow
cold is this bath of yours! ' There, having struggled
for six days with extreme hunger, and to the last hour
labouring for the preservation of life, he came to such
an end as his crimes deserved. " (Plut. , Vit. Mar. )
Jui. f a Lex, I. Ag raria, proposed by Julius Ca<<ar
in his first consulship, A. U. C. 694. Its object was to
distribute the lands of Campania and Stella to 20,000
poor citizens, who had three children or more. (Ctc,
Ef. ad Att. , 2, 16. --Veil. Paterc, 2, 44. )--II. An-
? ? other by the same, entitled de Puhlieanis, about re-
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? JULI. V
JUL
lias, Julia, Agtippina, and Agrippa Postumus. Agrip-
pa died A. U C. 741, and Julia was married, for the ihird
time, to Tiberius Claudius Nero, the son of Livia, and
afterward emperor. Tiberius subsequently, for whatev-
er reasons, thought proper to withdraw from Rome to
tho ialand of Rhodes, where he lived in the greatest
retirement. During his absence, his wife Julia was
guilty of such gross infidelities towards him, that Au-
gustus himself divorced her in the name of his son-in-
Fav, and banished her to the island of Pandataria, off
the Campanian coast, where she was closely confined
for some time, and treated with the greatest rigour;
ior would Augustus ever forgive her, or receive her
sgain into his presence, although he afterward removed
her from Pandataria to Rhegium, and somewhat soft-
ened the severity of her treatment. When her hus-
band Tiberius ascended the throne, she was again se-
verely dealt with, and finally died of ill-treatment and
atarvation (iiro Kaxovxiac xai Xi/iov. --Zonaras, p.
648. --Sutton. , Vit. Aug. , 63. --Id. , Vit. Aug. , 65 --
Id. , Vit. Tib. , 7. --Id. ib. , 60. --Tacit. , Ann. , 1, 53. )
--V. The grand-daughter of Augustus, and daughter
of Agrippa and Julia (IV). She was married to L.
Paulus, but, imitating the licentious conduct of her
mother, she was banished by Augustus for her adul-
terous practices to the island of Tremitus, off the
coast of Apulia, where she continued to live for the
space of 20 years, and where at last she terminated
her existence. (Tacit. , Ann. , 4, 71. )--VI. A daugh-
ter of Drusus Caesar, the son of Tiberius, by Livia or
Livilla, the daughter of Nero Claudius Drusus. She
was married first to Nero Caesar, son of Gennanicus
and Agrippina, and afterward to Rubelliua Blandus.
She was cut off by the intrigues of Messalina, A. U. C.
7>6. (Tacit. , Ann. , 3, 29-- Id. ib. , 6, 27-- Id. lb. ,
11, 19. )--VII. Daughter of Caligula and Mi Ionia Caj-
<< nia. Her frantic father carried her to the temples
of all the goddesses, and dedicated her to Minerva,
te to the patroness of her education. She discovered
U her infancy strong indications of the cruelty that
branded both her parents. She suffered death with
ber mother after the assassination of Caligula. (Sue-
ton. , Vit. Calig. , 25. --Id. ib. , 69. )--VIII. A Syrian
female, daughter of Bassianus, priest of the Sun.
She became the wife of Severus before his advance-
ment to the throne, and after the death of his first
consort. The superstitious Roman was determined,
it seems, in his choice, by hearing that Julia had been
bom with a royal nativity; in other words, that she
was destined to be the wife of a sovereign prince.
(Spartian. , Vit. Sets. , 3, seqq. ) Her full name was
Julia Domna (Salnuu. , ad Spart. , Vit. Scv. , 20), the
latter part of it not being contracted, as some sup-
pose, from Domir. a, but being the actual surname of
a family. (Tristan, Comment. Hist. , vol. 2, p. 119,
seqq--Menag, Aman. Jut. , c. 25. ) , Julia is said
to have been a female of cultivated mind and con-
siderable literary attainments. She applied herself
also to the Btudy of philosophy, and employed a large
portion of her time in liatening to, and taking part in,
the disputations of philosophers and sophists. Hence
Philostratus calls her $t\6oo$oc 'IouXio. (Vit.
