No More Learning

We are of opinion that this motion is very
prevalent also in animal spirits, but are quite ignorant of the fact.
It is, however, conspicuous in the magnet, and magnetized iron. While
speaking of the motions of the magnet, we must plainly distinguish
them, for there are four distinct powers or effects of the magnet which
should not be confounded, although the wonder and astonishment of
mankind has classed them together. 1. The attraction of the magnet to
the magnet, or of iron to the magnet, or of magnetized iron to iron.
2. Its polarity toward the north and south, and its variation. 3. Its
penetration through gold, glass, stone, and all other substances.
4. The communication of power from the mineral to iron, and from iron
to iron, without any communication of the substances. Here, however, we
only speak of the first. There is also a singular motion of attraction
between quicksilver and gold, so that the gold attracts quicksilver
even when made use of in ointment; and those who work surrounded by
the vapors of quicksilver, are wont to hold a piece of gold in their
mouths, to collect the exhalations, which would otherwise attack their
heads and bones, and this piece soon grows white. [155] Let this suffice
for the motion of lesser congregation.

Let the ninth be the magnetic motion, which, although of the nature of
that last mentioned, yet, when operating at great distances, and on
great masses, deserves a separate inquiry, especially if it neither
begin in contact, as most motions of congregation do, nor end by
bringing the substances into contact, as all do, but only raise them,
and make them swell without any further effect. For if the moon raise
the waters, or cause moist substances to swell, or if the starry
sphere attract the planets toward their apogees, or the sun confine
the planets Mercury and Venus to within a certain distance of his
mass;[156] these motions do not appear capable of being classed under
either of those of congregation, but to be, as it were, intermediately
and imperfectly congregative, and thus to form a distinct species.

Let the tenth motion be that of avoidance, or that which is opposed
to the motion of lesser congregation, by which bodies, with a kind of
antipathy, avoid and disperse, and separate themselves from, or refuse
to unite themselves with others of a hostile nature. For although this
may sometimes appear to be an accidental motion, necessarily attendant
upon that of the lesser congregation, because the homogeneous parts
cannot unite, unless the heterogeneous be first removed and excluded,
yet it is still to be classed separately,[157] and considered as a
distinct species, because, in many cases, the desire of avoidance
appears to be more marked than that of union.

It is very conspicuous in the excrements of animals, nor less, perhaps,
in objects odious to particular senses, especially the smell and
taste; for a fetid smell is rejected by the nose, so as to produce a
sympathetic motion of expulsion at the mouth of the stomach; a bitter
and rough taste is rejected by the palate or throat, so as to produce
a sympathetic concussion and shivering of the head. This motion is
visible also in other cases. Thus it is observed in some kinds of
antiperistasis, as in the middle region of the air, the cold of which
appears to be occasioned by the rejection of cold from the regions
of the heavenly bodies; and also in the heat and combustion observed
in subterranean spots, which appear to be owing to the rejection of
heat from the centre of the earth. For heat and cold, when in small
quantities, mutually destroy each other, while in larger quantities,
like armies equally matched, they remove and eject each other in
open conflict. It is said, also that cinnamon and other perfumes
retain their odor longer when placed near privies and foul places,
because they will not unite and mix with stinks. It is well known that
quicksilver, which would otherwise reunite into a complete mass, is
prevented from so doing by man’s spittle, pork lard, turpentine and
the like, from the little affinity of its parts with those substances,
so that when surrounded by them it draws itself back, and its
avoidance of these intervening obstacles is greater than its desire of
reuniting itself to its homogeneous parts; which is what they term the
mortification of quicksilver. Again, the difference in weight of oil
and water is not the only reason for their refusing to mix, but it is
also owing to the little affinity of the two; for spirits of wine,
which are lighter than oil, mix very well with water. A very remarkable
instance of the motion in question is seen in nitre, and crude bodies
of a like nature, which abhor flame, as may be observed in gunpowder,
quicksilver and gold. The avoidance of one pole of the magnet by iron
is not (as Gilbert has well observed), strictly speaking, an avoidance,
but a conformity, or attraction to a more convenient situation.

Let the eleventh motion be that of assimilation, or self-multiplication,
or simple generation, by which latter term we do not mean the simple
generation of integral bodies, such as plants or animals, but of
homogeneous bodies. By this motion homogeneous bodies convert those
which are allied to them, or at least well disposed and prepared, into
their own substance and nature. Thus flame multiplies itself over
vapors and oily substances and generates fresh flame; the air over
water and watery substances multiplies itself and generates fresh air;
the vegetable and animal spirit, over the thin particles of a watery
or oleaginous spirit contained in its food, multiplies itself and
generates fresh spirit; the solid parts of plants and animals, as the
leaf, flower, the flesh, bone and the like, each of them assimilate
some part of the juices contained in their food, and generate a
successive and daily substance. For let none rave with Paracelsus, who
(blinded by his distillations) would have it, that nutrition takes
place by mere separation, and that the eye, nose, brain and liver lie
concealed in bread and meat, the root, leaf and flower, in the juice of
the earth; asserting that just as the artist brings out a leaf, flower,
eye, nose, hand, foot and the like, from a rude mass of stone or wood
by the separation and rejection of what is superfluous; so the great
artist within us brings out our several limbs and parts by separation
and rejection. But to leave such trifling, it is most certain that
all the parts of vegetables and animals, as well the homogeneous as
organic, first of all attract those juices contained in their food,
which are nearly common, or at least not very different, and then
assimilate and convert them into their own nature. Nor does this
assimilation, or simple generation, take place in animated bodies only,
but the inanimate also participate in the same property (as we have
observed of flame and air), and that languid spirit, which is contained
in every tangible animated substance, is perpetually working upon the
coarser parts, and converting them into spirit, which afterward is
exhaled, whence ensues a diminution of weight, and a desiccation of
which we have spoken elsewhere. [158]

Nor should we, in speaking of assimilation, neglect to mention the
accretion which is usually distinguished from aliment, and which is
observed when mud grows into a mass between stones, and is converted
into a stony substance, and the scaly substance round the teeth is
converted into one no less hard than the teeth themselves; for we are
of opinion that there exists in all bodies a desire of assimilation,
as well as of uniting with homogeneous masses. Each of these powers,
however, is confined, although in different manners, and should be
diligently investigated, because they are connected with the revival
of old age. Lastly, it is worthy of observation, that in the nine
preceding motions, bodies appear to aim at the mere preservation of
their nature, while in this they attempt its propagation.

Let the twelfth motion be that of excitement, which appears to be
a species of the last, and is sometimes mentioned by us under that
name. It is, like that, a diffusive, communicative, transitive and
multiplying motion; and they agree remarkably in their effect, although
they differ in their mode of action, and in their subject matter. The
former proceeds imperiously and with authority; it orders and compels
the assimilated to be converted and changed into the assimilating
body. The latter proceeds by art, insinuation and stealth, inviting
and disposing the excited toward the nature of the exciting body. The
former both multiplies and transforms bodies and substances; thus a
greater quantity of flame, air, spirit and flesh is formed; but in
the latter, the powers only are multiplied and changed, and heat,
the magnetic power, and putrefaction, in the above instances, are
increased. Heat does not diffuse itself when heating other bodies
by any communication of the original heat, but only by exciting the
parts of the heated body to that motion which is the form of heat, and
of which we spoke in the first vintage of the nature of heat. Heat,
therefore, is excited much less rapidly and readily in stone or metal
than in air, on account of the inaptitude and sluggishness of those
bodies in acquiring that motion, so that it is probable, that there may
be some substances, toward the centre of the earth, quite incapable of
being heated, on account of their density, which may deprive them of
the spirit by which the motion of excitement is usually commenced. Thus
also the magnet creates in the iron a new disposition of its parts, and
a conformable motion, without losing any of its virtue. So the leaven
of bread, yeast, rennet and some poisons, excite and invite successive
and continued motion in dough, beer, cheese or the human body; not so
much from the power of the exciting, as the predisposition and yielding
of the excited body.

Let the thirteenth motion be that of impression, which is also a
species of motion of assimilation, and the most subtile of diffusive
motions. We have thought it right, however, to consider it as a
distinct species, on account of its remarkable difference from the
last two; for the simple motion of assimilation transforms the bodies
themselves, so that if you remove the first agent, you diminish not
the effect of those which succeed; thus, neither the first lighting
of flame, nor the first conversion into air, are of any importance to
the flame or air next generated. So, also, the motion of excitement
still continues for a considerable time after the removal of the first
agent, as in a heated body on the removal of the original heat, in the
excited iron on the removal of the magnet, and in the dough on the
removal of the leaven. But the motion of impression, although diffusive
and transitive, appears, nevertheless, to depend on the first agent,
so that upon the removal of the latter the former immediately fails
and perishes; for which reason also it takes effect in a moment, or at
least a very short space of time. We are wont to call the two former
motions the motions of the generation of Jupiter, because when born
they continue to exist; and the latter, the motion of the generation
of Saturn, because it is immediately devoured and absorbed. It may be
seen in three instances: 1, in the rays of light; 2, in the percussions
of sounds; 3, in magnetic attractions as regards communication. For,
on the removal of light, colors and all its other images disappear,
as on the cessation of the first percussion and the vibration of the
body, sound soon fails, and although sounds are agitated by the wind,
like waves, yet it is to be observed, that the same sound does not
last during the whole time of the reverberation. Thus, when a bell is
struck, the sound appears to be continued for a considerable time, and
one might easily be led into the mistake of supposing it to float and
remain in the air during the whole time, which is most erroneous. [159]
For the reverberation is not one identical sound, but the repetition
of sounds, which is made manifest by stopping and confining the
sonorous body; thus, if a bell be stopped and held tightly, so as to
be immovable, the sound fails, and there is no further reverberation,
and if a musical string be touched after the first vibration, either
with the finger (as in the harp), or a quill (as in the harpsichord),
the sound immediately ceases. If the magnet be removed the iron falls.
The moon, however, cannot be removed from the sea, nor the earth from
a heavy falling body, and we can, therefore, make no experiment upon
them; but the case is the same.

Let the fourteenth motion be that configuration or position, by
which bodies appear to desire a peculiar situation, collocation, and
configuration with others, rather than union or separation. This is
a very abstruse notion, and has not been well investigated; and, in
some instances, appears to occur almost without any cause, although
we be mistaken in supposing this to be really the case. For if it be
asked, why the heavens revolve from east to west, rather than from
west to east, or why they turn on poles situate near the Bears, rather
than round Orion or any other part of the heaven, such a question
appears to be unreasonable, since these phenomena should be received
as determinate and the objects of our experience. There are, indeed,
some ultimate and self-existing phenomena in nature, but those which
we have just mentioned are not to be referred to that class: for we
attribute them to a certain harmony and consent of the universe, which
has not yet been properly observed. But if the motion of the earth from
west to east be allowed, the same question may be put, for it must also
revolve round certain poles, and why should they be placed where they
are, rather than elsewhere? The polarity and variation of the needle
come under our present head. There is also observed in both natural and
artificial bodies, especially solids rather than fluids, a particular
collocation and position of parts, resembling hairs or fibres, which
should be diligently investigated, since, without a discovery of them,
bodies cannot be conveniently controlled or wrought upon. The eddies
observable in liquids by which, when compressed, they successively
raise different parts of their mass before they can escape, so as to
equalize the pressure, is more correctly assigned to the motion of
liberty.

Let the fifteenth motion be that of transmission or of passage, by
which the powers of bodies are more or less impeded or advanced by
the medium, according to the nature of the bodies and their effective
powers, and also according to that of the medium. For one medium is
adapted to light, another to sound, another to heat and cold, another
to magnetic action, and so on with regard to the other actions.

Let the sixteenth be that which we term the royal or political motion,
by which the predominant and governing parts of any body check,
subdue, reduce, and regulate the others, and force them to unite,
separate, stand still, move, or assume a certain position, not from any
inclination of their own, but according to a certain order, and as best
suits the convenience of the governing part, so that there is a sort
of dominion and civil government exercised by the ruling part over its
subjects. The motion is very conspicuous in the spirits of animals,
where, as long as it is in force, it tempers all the motions of the
other parts. It is found in a less degree in other bodies, as we have
observed in blood and urine, which are not decomposed until the spirit,
which mixed and retained their parts, has been emitted or extinguished.
Nor is this motion peculiar to spirits only, although in most bodies
the spirit predominates, owing to its rapid motion and penetration;
for the grosser parts predominate in denser bodies, which are not
filled with a quick and active spirit (such as exists in quicksilver
or vitriol), so that unless this check or yoke be thrown off by some
contrivance, there is no hope of any transformation of such bodies. And
let not any one suppose that we have forgotten our subject, because
we speak of predominance in this classification of motions, which is
made entirely with the view of assisting the investigation of wrestling
instances, or instances of predominance. For we do not now treat of
the general predominance of motions or powers, but of that of parts in
whole bodies, which constitutes the particular species here considered.

Let the seventeenth motion be the spontaneous motion of revolution,
by which bodies having a tendency to move, and placed in a favorable
situation, enjoy their peculiar nature, pursuing themselves and nothing
else, and seeking, as it were, to embrace themselves. For bodies seem
either to move without any limit, or to tend toward a limit, arrived at
which they either revolve according to their peculiar nature, or rest.
Those which are favorably situated, and have a tendency to motion,
move in a circle with an eternal and unlimited motion; those which
are favorably situated and abhor motion, rest. Those which are not
favorably situated move in a straight line (as their shortest path),
in order to unite with others of a congenial nature. This motion of
revolution admits of nine differences: 1, with regard to the centre
about which the bodies move; 2, the poles round which they move; 3,
the circumference or orbit relatively to its distance from the centre;
4, the velocity, or greater or less speed with which they revolve;
5, the direction of the motion as from east to west, or the reverse;
6, the deviation from a perfect circle, by spiral lines at a greater
or less distance from the centre; 7, the deviation from the circle,
by spiral lines at a greater or less distance from the poles; 8, the
greater or less distance of these spirals from each other; 9, and
lastly, the variation of the poles if they be movable; which, however,
only affects revolution when circular. The motion in question is,
according to common and long-received opinion, considered to be that
of the heavenly bodies. There exists, however, with regard to this, a
considerable dispute between some of the ancients as well as moderns,
who have attributed a motion of revolution to the earth. A much more
reasonable controversy, perhaps, exists (if it be not a matter beyond
dispute), whether the motion in question (on the hypothesis of the
earth’s being fixed) is confined to the heavens, or rather descends and
is communicated to the air and water. The rotation of missiles, as in
darts, musket-balls, and the like, we refer entirely to the motion of
liberty.

Let the eighteenth motion be that of trepidation,[160] to which (in
the sense assigned to it by astronomers) we do not give much credit;
but in our serious and general search after the tendencies of natural
bodies, this motion occurs, and appears worthy of forming a distinct
species. It is the motion of an (as it were) eternal captivity; when
bodies, for instance, being placed not altogether according to their
nature, and yet not exactly ill, constantly tremble, and are restless,
not contented with their position, and yet not daring to advance.
Such is the motion of the heart and pulse of animals, and it must
necessarily occur in all bodies which are situated in a mean state,
between conveniences and inconveniences; so that being removed from
their proper position, they strive to escape, are repulsed, and again
continue to make the attempt.

Let the nineteenth and last motion be one which can scarcely be termed
a motion, and yet is one; and which we may call the motion of repose,
or of abhorrence of motion. It is by this motion that the earth stands
by its own weight, while its extremes move toward the middle, not
to an imaginary centre, but in order to unite. It is owing to the
same tendency, that all bodies of considerable density abhor motion,
and their only tendency is not to move, which nature they preserve,
although excited and urged in a variety of ways to motion. But if they
be compelled to move, yet do they always appear anxious to recover
their former state, and to cease from motion, in which respect they
certainly appear active, and attempt it with sufficient swiftness and
rapidity, as if fatigued, and impatient of delay. We can only have a
partial representation of this tendency, because with us every tangible
substance is not only not condensed to the utmost, but even some spirit
is added, owing to the action and concocting influence of the heavenly
bodies.

We have now, therefore, exhibited the species, or simple elements of
the motions, tendencies, and active powers, which are most universal
in nature; and no small portion of natural science has been thus
sketched out. We do not, however, deny that other instances can perhaps
be added, and our divisions changed according to some more natural
order of things, and also reduced to a less number; in which respect
we do not allude to any abstract classification, as if one were to
say, that bodies desire the preservation, exaltation, propagation, or
fruition of their nature; or, that motion tends to the preservation and
benefit either of the universe (as in the case of those of resistance
and connection), or of extensive wholes, as in the case of those of
the greater congregation, revolution, and abhorrence of motion, or
of particular forms, as in the case of the others. For although such
remarks be just, yet, unless they terminate in matter and construction,
according to true definitions, they are speculative, and of little use.
In the meantime, our classification will suffice, and be of much use
in the consideration of the predominance of powers, and examining the
wrestling instances which constitute our present subject.

For of the motions here laid down, some are quite invincible, some more
powerful than others, which they confine, check, and modify; others
extend to a greater distance, others are more immediate and swift,
others strengthen, increase, and accelerate the rest.

The motion of resistance is most adamantine and invincible. We are
yet in doubt whether such be the nature of that of connection; for
we cannot with certainty determine whether there be a vacuum, either
extensive or intermixed with matter. Of one thing, however, we are
satisfied, that the reason assigned by Leucippus and Democritus for
the introduction of a vacuum (namely, that the same bodies could not
otherwise comprehend, and fill greater and less spaces) is false. For
there is clearly a folding of matter, by which it wraps and unwraps
itself in space within certain limits, without the intervention of a
vacuum. Nor is there two thousand times more of vacuum in air than in
gold, as there should be on this hypothesis; a fact demonstrated by
the very powerful energies of fluids (which would otherwise float like
fine dust _in vacuo_), and many other proofs. The other motions direct,
and are directed by each other, according to their strength, quantity,
excitement, emission, or the assistance or impediments they meet with.

For instance; some armed magnets hold and support iron of sixty times
their own weight; so far does the motion of lesser congregation
predominate over that of the greater; but if the weight be increased,
it yields. A lever of a certain strength will raise a given weight,
and so far the motion of liberty predominates over that of the greater
congregation, but if the weight be greater, the former motion yields.
A piece of leather stretched to a certain point does not break, and
so far the motion of continuity predominates over that of tension,
but if the tension be greater, the leather breaks, and the motion of
continuity yields. A certain quantity of water flows through a chink,
and so far the motion of greater congregation predominates over that
of continuity, but if the chink be smaller it yields. If a musket be
charged with ball and powdered sulphur alone, and fire be applied,
the ball is not discharged, in which case the motion of greater
congregation overcomes that of matter; but when gunpowder is used, the
motion of matter in the sulphur predominates, being assisted by that
motion, and the motion of avoidance in the nitre; and so of the rest.
For wrestling instances (which show the predominance of powers, and in
what manner and proportion they predominate and yield) must be searched
for with active and industrious diligence.

The methods and nature of this yielding must also be diligently
examined, as for instance, whether the motions completely cease, or
exert themselves, but are constrained. For in the bodies with which
we are acquainted, there is no real but an apparent rest, either in
the whole or in parts. This apparent rest is occasioned either by
equilibrium, or the absolute predominance of motions. By equilibrium,
as in the scales of the balance, which rest if the weights be equal. By
predominance, as in perforated jars, in which the water rests, and is
prevented from falling by the predominance of the motion of connection.
It is, however, to be observed (as we have said before), how far the
yielding motions exert themselves. For if a man be held stretched out
on the ground against his will, with arms and legs bound down, or
otherwise confined, and yet strive with all his power to get up, the
struggle is not the less, although ineffectual. The real state of the
case (namely, whether the yielding motion be, as it were, annihilated
by the predominance, or there be rather a continued, although an
invisible effort) will, perhaps, appear in the concurrence of motions,
although it escape our notice in their conflict. For instance: let an
experiment be made with muskets; whether a musket-ball, at its utmost
range in a straight line, or (as it is commonly called) point-blank,
strike with less force when projected upward, where the motion of the
blow is simple, than when projected downward, where the motion of
gravity concurs with the blow.

The rules of such instances of predominance as occur should be
collected: such as the following; the more general the desired
advantage is, the stronger will be the motion; the motion of
connection, for instance, which relates to the intercourse of the parts
of the universe, is more powerful than that of gravity, which relates
to the intercourse of dense bodies only. Again, the desire of a private
good does not in general prevail against that of a public one, except
where the quantities are small. Would that such were the case in civil
matters!

XLIX. In the twenty-fifth rank of prerogative instances we will place
suggesting instances; such as suggest, or point out, that which is
advantageous to mankind; for bare power and knowledge in themselves
exalt rather than enrich human nature. We must, therefore, select from
the general store such things as are most useful to mankind. We shall
have a better opportunity of discussing these when we treat of the
application to practice; besides, in the work of interpretation, we
leave room, on every subject, for the human or optative chart; for it
is a part of science to make judicious inquiries and wishes.

L. In the twenty-sixth rank of prerogative instances we will place the
generally useful instances. They are such as relate to various points,
and frequently occur, sparing by that means considerable labor and new
trials. The proper place for treating of instruments and contrivances,
will be that in which we speak of the application to practice, and the
methods of experiment. All that has hitherto been ascertained, and
made use of, will be described in the particular history of each art.
At present, we will subjoin a few general examples of the instances in
question.

Man acts, then, upon natural bodies (besides merely bringing them
together or removing them) by seven principal methods: 1, by the
exclusion of all that impedes and disturbs; 2, by compression,
extension, agitation, and the like; 3, by heat and cold; 4, by
detention in a suitable place; 5, by checking or directing motion;
6, by peculiar harmonies; 7, by a seasonable and proper alternation,
series, and succession of all these, or, at least, of some of them.

1. With regard to the first--common air, which is always at hand, and
forces its admission, as also the rays of the heavenly bodies, create
much disturbance. Whatever, therefore, tends to exclude them may
well be considered as generally useful. The substance and thickness
of vessels in which bodies are placed when prepared for operations
may be referred to this head. So also may the accurate methods of
closing vessels by consolidation, or the _lutum sapientiæ_, as the
chemists call it. The exclusion of air by means of liquids at the
extremity is also very useful, as when they pour oil on wine, or the
juices of herbs, which by spreading itself upon the top like a cover,
preserves them uninjured from the air. Powders, also, are serviceable,
for although they contain air mixed up in them, yet they ward off
the power of the mass of circumambient air, which is seen in the
preservation of grapes and other fruits in sand or flour. Wax, honey,
pitch, and other resinous bodies, are well used in order to make the
exclusion more perfect, and to remove the air and celestial influence.
We have sometimes made an experiment by placing a vessel or other
bodies in quicksilver, the most dense of all substances capable of
being poured round others. Grottoes and subterraneous caves are of
great use in keeping off the effects of the sun, and the predatory
action of air, and in the north of Germany are used for granaries.
The depositing of bodies at the bottom of water may be also mentioned
here; and I remember having heard of some bottles of wine being let
down into a deep well in order to cool them, but left there by chance,
carelessness, and forgetfulness for several years, and then taken out;
by which means the wine not only escaped becoming flat or dead, but
was much more excellent in flavor, arising (as it appears) from a more
complete mixture of its parts. But if the case require that bodies
should be sunk to the bottom of water, as in rivers or the sea, and
yet should not touch the water, nor be inclosed in sealed vessels, but
surrounded only by air, it would be right to use that vessel which has
been sometimes employed under water above ships that have sunk, in
order to enable the divers to remain below and breathe occasionally
by turns. It was of the following nature: A hollow tub of metal was
formed, and sunk so as to have its bottom parallel with the surface of
the water; it thus carried down with it to the bottom of the sea all
the air contained in the tub. It stood upon three feet (like a tripod),
being of rather less height than a man, so that, when the diver was
in want of breath, he could put his head into the hollow of the tub,
breathe, and then continue his work. We hear that some sort of boat
or vessel has now been invented, capable of carrying men some distance
under water. Any bodies, however, can easily be suspended under some
such vessel as we have mentioned, which has occasioned our remarks upon
the experiment.

Another advantage of the careful and hermetical closing of bodies is
this--not only the admission of external air is prevented (of which we
have treated), but the spirit of bodies also is prevented from making
its escape, which is an internal operation. For any one operating on
natural bodies must be certain as to their quantity, and that nothing
has evaporated or escaped, since profound alterations take place in
bodies, when art prevents the loss or escape of any portion, while
nature prevents their annihilation. With regard to this circumstance,
a false idea has prevailed (which if true would make us despair of
preserving quantity without diminution), namely, that the spirit of
bodies, and air when rarefied by a great degree of heat, cannot be so
kept in by being inclosed in any vessel as not to escape by the small
pores. Men are led into this idea by the common experiments of a cup
inverted over water, with a candle or piece of lighted paper in it,
by which the water is drawn up, and of those cups which, when heated,
draw up the flesh. For they think that in each experiment the rarefied
air escapes, and that its quantity is therefore diminished, by which
means the water or flesh rises by the motion of connection. This is,
however, most incorrect. For the air is not diminished in quantity, but
contracted in dimensions,[161] nor does this motion of the rising of
the water begin till the flame is extinguished, or the air cooled, so
that physicians place cold sponges, moistened with water, on the cups,
in order to increase their attraction. There is, therefore, no reason
why men should fear much from the ready escape of air: for although it
be true that the most solid bodies have their pores, yet neither air,
nor spirit, readily suffers itself to be rarefied to such an extreme
degree; just as water will not escape by a small chink.

2. With regard to the second of the seven above-mentioned methods, we
must especially observe, that compression and similar violence have a
most powerful effect either in producing locomotion, and other motions
of the same nature, as may be observed in engines and projectiles, or
in destroying the organic body, and those qualities, which consist
entirely in motion (for all life, and every description of flame and
ignition are destroyed by compression, which also injures and deranges
every machine); or in destroying those qualities which consist in
position and a coarse difference of parts, as in colors; for the color
of a flower when whole, differs from that it presents when bruised, and
the same may be observed of whole and powdered amber; or in tastes,
for the taste of a pear before it is ripe, and of the same pear when
bruised and softened, is different, since it becomes perceptibly
more sweet. But such violence is of little avail in the more noble
transformations and changes of homogeneous bodies, for they do not,
by such means, acquire any constantly and permanently new state, but
one that is transitory, and always struggling to return to its former
habit and freedom. It would not, however, be useless to make some
more diligent experiments with regard to this; whether, for instance,
the condensation of a perfectly homogeneous body (such as air, water,
oil, and the like) or their rarefaction, when effected by violence,
can become permanent, fixed, and, as it were, so changed, as to become
a nature. This might at first be tried by simple perseverance, and
then by means of helps and harmonies. It might readily have been
attempted (if we had but thought of it), when we condensed water (as
was mentioned above), by hammering and compression, until it burst
out. For we ought to have left the flattened globe untouched for some
days, and then to have drawn off the water, in order to try whether it
would have immediately occupied the same dimensions as it did before
the condensation. If it had not done so, either immediately, or soon
afterward, the condensation would have appeared to have been rendered
constant; if not, it would have appeared that a restitution took place,
and that the condensation had been transitory. Something of the same
kind might have been tried with the glass eggs; the egg should have
been sealed up suddenly and firmly, after a complete exhaustion of
the air, and should have been allowed to remain so for some days, and
it might then have been tried whether, on opening the aperture, the
air would be drawn in with a hissing noise, or whether as much water
would be drawn into it when immersed, as would have been drawn into it
at first, if it had not continued sealed. For it is probable (or, at
least, worth making the experiment) that this might have happened, or
might happen, because perseverance has a similar effect upon bodies
which are a little less homogeneous. A stick bent together for some
time does not rebound, which is not owing to any loss of quantity in
the wood during the time, for the same would occur (after a larger
time) in a plate of steel, which does not evaporate. If the experiment
of simple perseverance should fail, the matter should not be given up,
but other means should be employed. For it would be no small advantage,
if bodies could be endued with fixed and constant natures by violence.
Air could then be converted into water by condensation, with other
similar effects; for man is more the master of violent motions than of
any other means.

3. The third of our seven methods is referred to that great practical
engine of nature, as well as of art, cold and heat. Here, man’s power
limps, as it were, with one leg. For we possess the heat of fire, which
is infinitely more powerful and intense than that of the sun (as it
reaches us), and that of animals. But we want cold,[162] except such
as we can obtain in winter, in caverns, or by surrounding objects
with snow and ice, which, perhaps, may be compared in degree with
the noontide heat of the sun in tropical countries, increased by the
reflection of mountains and walls. For this degree of heat and cold can
be borne for a short period only by animals, yet it is nothing compared
with the heat of a burning furnace, or the corresponding degree of
cold. [163] Everything with us has a tendency to become rarefied,
dry and wasted, and nothing to become condensed or soft, except
by mixtures, and, as it were, spurious methods. Instances of cold,
therefore, should be searched for most diligently, such as may be found
by exposing bodies upon buildings in a hard frost, in subterraneous
caverns, by surrounding bodies with snow and ice in deep places
excavated for that purpose, by letting bodies down into wells, by
burying bodies in quicksilver and metals, by immersing them in streams
which petrify wood, by burying them in the earth (which the Chinese
are reported to do with their china, masses of which, made for that
purpose, are said to remain in the ground for forty or fifty years, and
to be transmitted to their heirs as a sort of artificial mine) and the
like. The condensations which take place in nature, by means of cold,
should also be investigated, that by learning their causes, they may
be introduced into the arts; such as are observed in the exudation of
marble and stones, in the dew upon the panes of glass in a room toward
morning after a frosty night, in the formation and the gathering of
vapors under the earth into water, whence spring fountains and the like.

Besides the substances which are cold to the touch, there are others
which have also the effect of cold, and condense; they appear, however,
to act only upon the bodies of animals, and scarcely any further. Of
these we have many instances, in medicines and plasters. Some condense
the flesh and tangible parts, such as astringent and inspissating
medicines, others the spirits, such as soporifics. There are two modes
of condensing the spirits, by soporifics or provocatives to sleep;
the one by calming the motion, the other by expelling the spirit. The
violet, dried roses, lettuces, and other benign or mild remedies,
by their friendly and gently cooling vapors, invite the spirits to
unite, and restrain their violent and perturbed motion. Rose-water,
for instance, applied to the nostrils in fainting fits, causes the
resolved and relaxed spirits to recover themselves, and, as it were,
cherishes them. But opiates, and the like, banish the spirits by
their malignant and hostile quality. If they be applied, therefore,
externally, the spirits immediately quit the part and no longer readily
flow into it; but if they be taken internally, their vapor, mounting
to the head, expels, in all directions, the spirits contained in the
ventricles of the brain, and since these spirits retreat, but cannot
escape, they consequently meet and are condensed, and are sometimes
completely extinguished and suffocated; although the same opiates, when
taken in moderation, by a secondary accident (the condensation which
succeeds their union), strengthen the spirits, render them more robust,
and check their useless and inflammatory motion, by which means they
contribute not a little to the cure of diseases, and the prolongation
of life.

The preparations of bodies, also, for the reception of cold should not
be omitted, such as that water a little warmed is more easily frozen
than that which is quite cold, and the like.

Moreover, since nature supplies cold so sparingly, we must act like the
apothecaries, who, when they cannot obtain any simple ingredient, take
a succedaneum, or _quid pro quo_, as they term it, such as aloes for
xylobalsamum, cassia for cinnamon. In the same manner we should look
diligently about us, to ascertain whether there may be any substitutes
for cold, that is to say, in what other manner condensation can be
effected, which is the peculiar operation of cold. Such condensations
appear hitherto to be of four kinds only. 1. By simple compression,
which is of little avail toward permanent condensation, on account
of the elasticity of substances, but may still, however, be of some
assistance. 2. By the contraction of the coarser, after the escape
or departure of the finer parts of a given body; as is exemplified
in induration by fire, and the repeated heating and extinguishing of
metals, and the like. 3. By the cohesion of the most solid homogeneous
parts of a given body, which were previously separated, and mixed with
others less solid, as in the return of sublimated mercury to its simple
state, in which it occupies much less space than it did in powder, and
the same may be observed of the cleansing of all metals from their
dross. 4. By harmony, or the application of substances which condense
by some latent power. These harmonies are as yet but rarely observed,
at which we cannot be surprised, since there is little to hope for from
their investigation, unless the discovery of forms and confirmation
be attained. With regard to animal bodies, it is not to be questioned
that there are many internal and external medicines which condense
by harmony, as we have before observed, but this action is rare in
inanimate bodies. Written accounts, as well as report, have certainly
spoken of a tree in one of the Tercera or Canary Islands (for I do
not exactly recollect which) that drips perpetually, so as to supply
the inhabitants, in some degree, with water; and Paracelsus says that
the herb called _ros solis_ is filled with dew at noon, while the sun
gives out its greatest heat, and all other herbs around it are dry. We
treat both these accounts as fables; they would, however, if true, be
of the most important service, and most worthy of examination.
As to
the honey-dew, resembling manna, which is found in May on the leaves
of the oak, we are of opinion that it is not condensed by any harmony
or peculiarity of the oak leaf, but that while it falls equally upon
other leaves it is retained and continues on those of the oak, because
their texture is closer, and not so porous as that of most of the other
leaves. [164]

With regard to heat, man possesses abundant means and power; but his
observation and inquiry are defective in some respects, and those of
the greatest importance, notwithstanding the boasting of quacks. For
the effects of intense heat are examined and observed, while those of
a more gentle degree of heat, being of the most frequent occurrence
in the paths of nature, are, on that very account, least known. We
see, therefore, the furnaces, which are most esteemed, employed in
increasing the spirits of bodies to a great extent, as in the strong
acids, and some chemical oils; while the tangible parts are hardened,
and, when the volatile part has escaped, become sometimes fixed; the
homogeneous parts are separated, and the heterogeneous incorporated and
agglomerated in a coarse lump; and (what is chiefly worthy of remark)
the junction of compound bodies, and the more delicate conformations
are destroyed and confounded. But the operation of a less violent heat
should be tried and investigated, by which more delicate mixtures and
regular conformations may be produced and elicited, according to the
example of nature, and in imitation of the effect of the sun, which we
have alluded to in the aphorism on the instances of alliance. For the
works of nature are carried on in much smaller portions, and in more
delicate and varied positions than those of fire, as we now employ
it. But man will then appear to have really augmented his power, when
the works of nature can be imitated in species, perfected in power,
and varied in quantity; to which should be added the acceleration in
point of time. Rust, for instance, is the result of a long process, but
_crocus martis_ is obtained immediately; and the same may be observed
of natural verdigris and ceruse. Crystal is formed slowly, while glass
is blown immediately: stones increase slowly, while bricks are baked
immediately, etc. In the meantime (with regard to our present subject)
every different species of heat should, with its peculiar effects, be
diligently collected and inquired into; that of the heavenly bodies,
whether their rays be direct, reflected, or refracted, or condensed by
a burning-glass; that of lightning, flame, and ignited charcoal; that
of fire of different materials, either open or confined, straitened or
overflowing, qualified by the different forms of the furnaces, excited
by the bellows, or quiescent, removed to a greater or less distance,
or passing through different media; moist heats, such as the _balneum
Mariæ_, and the dunghill; the external and internal heat of animals;
dry heats, such as the heat of ashes, lime, warm sand; in short, the
nature of every kind of heat, and its degrees.

We should, however, particularly attend to the investigation and
discovery of the effects and operations of heat, when made to approach
and retire by degrees, regularly, periodically, and by proper intervals
of space and time. For this systematical inequality is in truth the
daughter of heaven and mother of generation, nor can any great result
be expected from a vehement, precipitate, or desultory heat. For this
is not only most evident in vegetables, but in the wombs of animals
also there arises a great inequality of heat, from the motion, sleep,
food, and passions of the female. The same inequality prevails in
those subterraneous beds where metals and fossils are perpetually
forming, which renders yet more remarkable the ignorance of some of the
reformed alchemists, who imagined they could attain their object by the
equable heat of lamps, or the like, burning uniformly. Let this suffice
concerning the operation and effects of heat; nor is it time for us
to investigate them thoroughly before the forms and conformations
of bodies have been further examined and brought to light. When we
have determined upon our models, we may seek, apply, and arrange our
instruments.

4. The fourth mode of action is by continuance, the very steward and
almoner, as it were, of nature. We apply the term continuance to the
abandonment of a body to itself for an observable time, guarded and
protected in the meanwhile from all external force. For the internal
motion then commences to betray and exert itself when the external and
adventitious is removed. The effects of time, however, are far more
delicate than those of fire. Wine, for instance, cannot be clarified
by fire as it is by continuance. Nor are the ashes produced by
combustion so fine as the particles dissolved or wasted by the lapse
of ages. The incorporations and mixtures, which are hurried by fire,
are very inferior to those obtained by continuance; and the various
conformations assumed by bodies left to themselves, such as mouldiness,
etc. , are put a stop to by fire or a strong heat. It is not, in the
meantime, unimportant to remark that there is a certain degree of
violence in the motion of bodies entirely confined; for the confinement
impedes the proper motion of the body. Continuance in an open vessel,
therefore, is useful for separations, and in one hermetically sealed
for mixtures, that in a vessel partly closed, but admitting the air,
for putrefaction. But instances of the operation and effect of
continuance must be collected diligently from every quarter.

5. The direction of motion (which is the fifth method of action) is
of no small use. We adopt this term, when speaking of a body which,
meeting with another, either arrests, repels, allows, or directs
its original motion. This is the case principally in the figure and
position of vessels. An upright cone, for instance, promotes the
condensation of vapor in alembics, but when reversed, as in inverted
vessels, it assists the refining of sugar. Sometimes a curved form,
or one alternately contracted and dilated, is required. Strainers may
be ranged under this head, where the opposed body opens a way for
one portion of another substance and impedes the rest. Nor is this
process or any other direction of motion carried on externally only,
but sometimes by one body within another. Thus, pebbles are thrown
into water to collect the muddy particles, and syrups are refined by
the white of an egg, which glues the grosser particles together so as
to facilitate their removal. Telesius, indeed, rashly and ignorantly
enough attributes the formation of animals to this cause, by means of
the channels and folds of the womb. He ought to have observed a similar
formation of the young in eggs which have no wrinkles or inequalities.
One may observe a real result of this direction of motion in casting
and modelling.

6. The effects produced by harmony and aversion (which is the
sixth method) are frequently buried in obscurity; for these occult
and specific properties (as they are termed), the sympathies and
antipathies, are for the most part but a corruption of philosophy. Nor
can we form any great expectation of the discovery of the harmony which
exists between natural objects, before that of their forms and simple
conformations, for it is nothing more than the symmetry between these
forms and conformations.

The greater and more universal species of harmony are not, however,
so wholly obscure, and with them, therefore, we must commence. The
first and principal distinction between them is this; that some bodies
differ considerably in the abundance and rarity of their substance, but
correspond in their conformation; others, on the contrary, correspond
in the former and differ in the latter. Thus the chemists have well
observed, that in their trial of first principles sulphur and mercury,
as it were, pervade the universe; their reasoning about salt, however,
is absurd, and merely introduced to comprise earthy dry fixed bodies.
In the other two, indeed, one of the most universal species of natural
harmony manifests itself. Thus there is a correspondence between
sulphur, oil, greasy exhalations, flame, and, perhaps, the substance of
the stars. On the other hand, there is a like correspondence between
mercury, water, aqueous vapor, air, and, perhaps, pure inter-sidereal
ether. Yet do these two quaternions, or great natural tribes (each
within its own limits), differ immensely in quantity and density of
substance, while they generally agree in conformation, as is manifest
in many instances. On the other hand, the metals agree in such quantity
and density (especially when compared with vegetables, etc. ), but
differ in many respects in conformation. Animals and vegetables, in
like manner, vary in their almost infinite modes of conformation, but
range within very limited degrees of quantity and density of substance.

The next most general correspondence is that between individual bodies
and those which supply them by way of menstruum or support. Inquiry,
therefore, must be made as to the climate, soil, and depth at which
each metal is generated, and the same of gems, whether produced in
rocks or mines, also as to the soil in which particular trees, shrubs,
and herbs, mostly grow and, as it were, delight; and as to the best
species of manure, whether dung, chalk, sea sand, or ashes, etc. , and
their different propriety and advantage according to the variety of
soils. So also the grafting and setting of trees and plants (as regards
the readiness of grafting one particular species on another) depends
very much upon harmony, and it would be amusing to try an experiment
I have lately heard of, in grafting forest trees (garden trees alone
having hitherto been adopted), by which means the leaves and fruit
are enlarged, and the trees produce more shade. The specific food of
animals again should be observed, as well as that which cannot be used.
Thus the carnivorous cannot be fed on herbs, for which reason the order
of feuilletans, the experiment having been made, has nearly vanished;
human nature being incapable of supporting their regimen, although the
human will has more power over the bodily frame than that of other
animals. The different kinds of putrefaction from which animals are
generated should be noted.

The harmony of principal bodies with those subordinate to them (such
indeed may be deemed those we have alluded to above) are sufficiently
manifest, to which may be added those that exist between different
bodies and their objects, and, since these latter are more apparent,
they may throw great light when well observed and diligently examined
upon those which are more latent.

The more internal harmony and aversion, or friendship and enmity
(for superstition and folly have rendered the terms of sympathy and
antipathy almost disgusting), have been either falsely assigned,
or mixed with fable, or most rarely discovered from neglect. For if
one were to allege that there is an enmity between the vine and the
cabbage, because they will not come up well when sown together, there
is a sufficient reason for it in the succulent and absorbent nature
of each plant, so that the one defrauds the other. Again, if one were
to say that there is a harmony and friendship between the corn and
the corn-flower, or the wild poppy, because the latter seldom grow
anywhere but in cultivated soils, he ought rather to say, there is an
enmity between them, for the poppy and the corn-flower are produced and
created by those juices which the corn has left and rejected, so that
the sowing of the corn prepares the ground for their production. And
there are a vast number of similar false assertions. As for fables,
they must be totally exterminated. There remains, then, but a scanty
supply of such species of harmony as has borne the test of experiment,
such as that between the magnet and iron, gold and quicksilver, and
the like. In chemical experiments on metals, however, there are some
others worthy of notice, but the greatest abundance (where the whole
are so few in numbers) is discovered in certain medicines, which,
from their occult and specific qualities (as they are termed), affect
particular limbs, humors, diseases, or constitutions. Nor should we
omit the harmony between the motion and phenomena of the moon, and
their effects on lower bodies, which may be brought together by an
accurate and honest selection from the experiments of agriculture,
navigation, and medicine, or of other sciences. By as much as these
general instances, however, of more latent harmony, are rare, with
so much the more diligence are they to be inquired after, through
tradition, and faithful and honest reports, but without rashness
and credulity, with an anxious and, as it were, hesitating degree of
reliance. There remains one species of harmony which, though simple in
its mode of action, is yet most valuable in its use, and must by no
means be omitted, but rather diligently investigated. It is the ready
or difficult coition or union of bodies in composition, or simple
juxtaposition. For some bodies readily and willingly mix, and are
incorporated, others tardily and perversely; thus powders mix best with
water, chalk and ashes with oils, and the like. Nor are these instances
of readiness and aversion to mixture to be alone collected, but others,
also, of the collocation, distribution, and digestion of the parts when
mingled, and the predominance after the mixture is complete.

7. Lastly, there remains the seventh, and last of the seven, modes
of action; namely, that by the alternation and interchange of the
other six; but of this, it will not be the right time to offer any
examples, until some deeper investigation shall have taken place of
each of the others. The series, or chain of this alternation, in its
mode of application to separate effects, is no less powerful in its
operation than difficult to be traced. But men are possessed with the
most extreme impatience, both of such inquiries, and their practical
application, although it be the clew of the labyrinth in all greater
works. Thus far of the generally useful instances.

LI. The twenty-seventh and last place we will assign to the magical
instances, a term which we apply to those where the matter or efficient
agent is scanty or small, in comparison with the grandeur of the work
or effect produced; so that even when common they appear miraculous,
some at first sight, others even upon more attentive observation.
Nature, however, of herself, supplies these but sparingly. What she
will do when her whole store is thrown open, and after the discovery
of forms, processes, and conformation, will appear hereafter. As far
as we can yet conjecture, these magic effects are produced in three
ways, either by self-multiplication, as in fire, and the poisons termed
specific, and the motions transferred and multiplied from wheel to
wheel; or by the excitement, or, as it were, invitation of another
substance, as in the magnet, which excites innumerable needles without
losing or diminishing its power; and again in leaven, and the like; or
by the excess of rapidity of one species of motion over another, as
has been observed in the case of gunpowder, cannon, and mines. The two
former require an investigation of harmonies, the latter of a measure
of motion. Whether there be any mode of changing bodies _per minima_
(as it is termed), and transferring the delicate conformations of
matter, which is of importance in all transformations of bodies, so as
to enable art to effect, in a short time, that which nature works out
by divers expedients, is a point of which we have as yet no indication.
But, as we aspire to the extremest and highest results in that which is
solid and true, so do we ever detest, and, as far as in us lies, expel
all that is empty and vain.

LII. Let this suffice as to the respective dignity of prerogatives of
instances. But it must be noted, that in this our organ, we treat of
logic, and not of philosophy. Seeing, however, that our logic instructs
and informs the understanding, in order that it may not, with the small
hooks, as it were, of the mind, catch at, and grasp mere abstractions,
but rather actually penetrate nature, and discover the properties and
effects of bodies, and the determinate laws of their substance (so
that this science of ours springs from the nature of things, as well as
from that of the mind); it is not to be wondered at, if it have been
continually interspersed and illustrated with natural observations and
experiments, as instances of our method. The prerogative instances are,
as appears from what has preceded, twenty-seven in number, and are
termed, solitary instances, migrating instances, conspicuous instances,
clandestine instances, constitutive instances, similar instances,
singular instances, deviating instances, bordering instances,
instances of power, accompanying and hostile instances, subjunctive
instances, instances of alliance, instances of the cross, instances
of divorce, instances of the gate, citing instances, instances of the
road, supplementary instances, lancing instances, instances of the
rod, instances of the course, doses of nature, wrestling instances,
suggesting instances, generally useful instances, and magical
instances. The advantage, by which these instances excel the more
ordinary, regards specifically either theory or practice, or both. With
regard to theory, they assist either the senses or the understanding;
the senses, as in the five instances of the lamp; the understanding,
either by expediting the exclusive mode of arriving at the form, as in
solitary instances, or by confining, and more immediately indicating
the affirmative, as in the migrating, conspicuous, accompanying, and
subjunctive instances; or by elevating the understanding, and leading
it to general and common natures, and that either immediately, as in
the clandestine and singular instances, and those of alliance; or very
nearly so, as in the constitutive; or still less so, as in the similar
instances; or by correcting the understanding of its habits, as in
the deviating instances; or by leading to the grand form or fabric of
the universe, as in the bordering instances; or by guarding it from
false forms and causes, as in those of the cross and of divorce. With
regard to practice, they either point it out, or measure, or elevate
it. They point it out, either by showing where we must commence in
order not to repeat the labors of others, as in the instances of power;
or by inducing us to aspire to that which may be possible, as in the
suggesting instances; the four mathematical instances measure it. The
generally useful and the magical elevate it.

Again, out of these twenty-seven instances, some must be collected
immediately, without waiting for a particular investigation of
properties. Such are the similar, singular, deviating, and bordering
instances, those of power, and of the gate, and suggesting, generally
useful, and magical instances; for these either assist and cure
the understanding and senses, or furnish our general practice. The
remainder are to be collected when we finish our synoptical tables for
the work of the interpreter, upon any particular nature; for these
instances, honored and gifted with such prerogatives, are like the
soul amid the vulgar crowd of instances, and (as we from the first
observed) a few of them are worth a multitude of the others. When,
therefore, we are forming our tables they must be searched out with the
greatest zeal, and placed in the table. And, since mention must be made
of them in what follows, a treatise upon their nature has necessarily
been prefixed. We must next, however, proceed to the supports and
corrections of induction, and thence to concretes, the latent process,
and latent conformations, and the other matters, which we have
enumerated in their order in the twenty-first aphorism, in order that,
like good and faithful guardians, we may yield up their fortune to
mankind upon the emancipation and majority of their understanding;
from which must necessarily follow an improvement of their estate, and
an increase of their power over nature. For man, by the fall, lost
at once his state of innocence, and his empire over creation, both
of which can be partially recovered even in this life, the first by
religion and faith, the second by the arts and sciences. For creation
did not become entirely and utterly rebellious by the curse, but in
consequence of the Divine decree, “in the sweat of thy brow shalt
thou eat bread,” she is compelled by our labors (not assuredly by our
disputes or magical ceremonies), at length, to afford mankind in some
degree his bread, that is to say, to supply man’s daily wants.

END OF “NOVUM ORGANUM”


FOOTNOTES

[71] Τὸ τὶ ἦν εἶναι, or ἦν οὐσία of Aristotle. --See lib. iii. Metap.

[72] These divisions are from Aristotle’s Metaphysics, where they are
termed, 1. ὓλη ἢ τὸ ὑποκείμενον. 2. τὸ τὶ ἦν εἶναι. 3. ὅθεν ἡ ἀρχὴ τῆς
κινήσεως. 4. τὸ οὗ ἕνεκεν--καὶ τὸ ἀγαθόν.

[73] See Aphorism li. and second paragraph of Aphorism lxv. in the
first book.

[74] Bacon means, that although there exist in nature only
individualities, yet a certain number of these may have common
properties, and be controlled by the same laws. Now, these homogeneous
qualities which distinguish them from other individuals, lead us to
class them under one expression, and sometimes under a single term. Yet
these classes are only pure conceptions in Bacon’s opinion, and cannot
be taken for distinct substances. He evidently here aims a blow at the
Realists, who concluded that the essence which united individualities
in a class was the only real and immutable existence in nature,
inasmuch as it entered into their ideas of individual substances as
a distinct and essential property, and continued in the mind as the
mold, type or pattern of the class, while its individual forms were
undergoing perpetual renovation and decay. --_Ed. _

[75] Bacon’s definition is obscure. All the idea we have of a law of
nature consists in invariable sequence between certain classes of
phenomena; but this cannot be the complete sense attached by Bacon to
the term form, as he employs it in the fourth aphorism as convertible
with the nature of any object; and again, in the first aphorism, as
the _natura naturans_, or general law or condition in any substance
or quality--_natura naturata_--which is whatever its form is, or that
particular combination of forces which impresses a certain nature upon
matter subject to its influence. Thus, in the Newtonian sense, the
form of whiteness would be that combination of the seven primitive
rays of light which give rise to that color. In combination with this
word, and affording a still further insight into its meaning, we have
the phrases, _latens processus ad formam, et latens schematismus
corporum_. Now, the _latens schematismus_ signifies the internal
texture, structure, or configuration of bodies, or the result of the
respective situation of all the parts of a body; while the _latens
processus ad formam_ points out the gradation of movements which takes
place among the molecula of bodies when they either conserve or change
their figure. Hence we may consider the form of any quality in body
as something convertible with that quality, _i. e. _, when it exists
the quality is present, and _vice versâ_. In this sense, the form of
a thing differs only from its efficient cause in being permanent,
whereas we apply cause to that which exists in order of time. The
_latens processus_ and _latens schematismus_ are subordinate to form,
as concrete exemplifications of its essence. The former is the secret
and invisible process by which change is effected, and involves the
principle since called the law of continuity. Thus, the succession of
events between the application of the match to the expulsion of the
bullet is an instance of latent progress which we can now trace with
some degree of accuracy. It also more directly refers to the operation
by which one form or condition of being is induced upon another. For
example, when the surface of iron becomes rusty, or when water is
converted into steam, some change has taken place, or latent process
from one form to another. Mechanics afford many exemplifications of
the first latent process we have denoted, and chemistry of the second.
The _latens schematismus_ is that visible structure of bodies on
which so many of their properties depend. When we inquire into the
constitution of crystals, and into the internal structure of plants, we
are examining into their latent schematism. --_Ed. _

[76] By the recent discoveries in electric magnetism, copper wires,
or, indeed, wires of any metal, may be transformed into magnets; the
magnetic law, or form, having been to that extent discovered.

[77] Haller has pursued this investigation in his “Physiology,”
and has left his successors little else to do than repeat his
discoveries. --_Ed. _

[78] Bacon here first seems pregnant with the important development of
the higher calculus, which, in the hands of Newton and Descartes, was
to effect as great a revolution in philosophy as his method. --_Ed. _

[79] By spirit, Bacon here plainly implies material fluid too fine to
be grasped by the unassisted sense, which rather operates than reasons.
We sometimes adopt the same mode of expression, as in the words spirits
of nitre, spirits of wine. Some such agency has been assumed by nearly
all the modern physicists, a few of whom, along with Bacon, would leave
us to gather from their expressions, that they believe such bodies
endowed with the sentient powers of perception. As another specimen
of his sentiment on this subject, we may refer to a paragraph on the
decomposition of compounds, in his essay on death, beginning--“The
spirit which exists in all living bodies, keeps all the parts in due
subjection; when it escapes, the body decomposes, or the similar parts
unite. ”--_Ed. _

[80] The theory of the Epicureans and others. The atoms are supposed
to be invisible, unalterable particles, endued with all the properties
of the given body, and forming that body by their union. They must
be separated, of course, which either takes a vacuum for granted, or
introduces a tertium quid into the composition of the body.

[81] Compare the three following aphorisms with the last three chapters
of the third book of the “De Augmentis Scientiarum. ”

[82] Bacon gives this unfortunate term its proper signification; μετα,
in composition, with the Greeks signifying change or mutation. Most of
our readers, no doubt, are aware that the obtrusion of this word into
technical philosophy was purely capricious, and is of no older date
than the publication of Aristotle’s works by Andronicus of Rhodes, one
of the learned men into whose hands the manuscripts of that philosopher
fell, after they were brought by Sylla from Athens to Rome. To fourteen
books in these MSS. with no distinguishing title, Andronicus is said to
have prefixed the words τα μετα τα φυσικα, to denote the place which
they ought to hold either in the order of Aristotle’s arrangement, or
in that of study. These books treat first of those subjects which are
common to matter and mind; secondly, of things separate from matter,
_i. e. _ of God, and of the subordinate spirits, which were supposed by
the Peripatetics to watch over particular portions of the universe. The
followers of Aristotle accepted the whimsical title of Andronicus, and
in their usual manner allowed a word to unite things into one science
which were plainly heterogeneous. Their error was adopted by the
Peripatetics of the Christian Church. The schoolmen added to the notion
of ontology, the science of the mind, or pneumatology, and as that
genus of being has since become extinct with the schools, metaphysics
thus in modern parlance comes to be synonymous with psychology. It were
to be wished that Bacon’s definition of the term had been accepted, and
mental science delivered from one of the greatest monstrosities in its
nomenclature, yet Bacon whimsically enough in his De Augmentis includes
mathematics in metaphysics. --_Ed. _

[83]

“Ne tenues pluviæ, rapidive potentia solis
Acrior, aut Boreæ penetrabile frigus adurat. ”
--Virg. Georg. i. 92, 93.

[84] This notion, which he repeats again, and particularizes in the
18th aph. of this book, is borrowed from the ancients, and we need not
say is as wise as their other astronomical conjectures. The sun also
approaches stars quite as large in other quarters of the zodiac, when
it looks down upon the earth through the murky clouds of winter. When
that luminary is in Leo, the heat of the earth is certainly greater
than at any other period, but this arises from the accumulation of heat
after the solstice, for the same reason that the maximum heat of the
day is at two o’clock instead of noon. --_Ed. _

[85] Bouguer, employed by Louis XIV. in philosophical researches,
ascended the Andes to discover the globular form of the earth, and
published an account of his passage, which verifies the statement of
Bacon.

[86] Montanari asserts in his book against the astrologers that he
had satisfied himself by numerous and oft-repeated experiments, that
the lunar rays gathered to a focus produced a sensible degree of
heat. Muschenbröck, however, adopts the opposite opinion, and asserts
that himself, De la Hire, Villet, and Tschirnhausen had tried with
that view the strongest burning-glasses in vain. (Opera de Igne. ) De
la Lande makes a similar confession in his Astronomy (vol. ii. vii.
§ 1413). Bouguer, whom we have just quoted, demonstrated that the
light of the moon was 300,000 degrees less than that of the sun; it
would consequently be necessary to invent a glass with an absorbing
power 300,000 degrees greater than those ordinarily in use, to try the
experiment Bacon speaks of. --_Ed. _

[87] In this thermometer, mercury was not dilated by heat or contracted
by cold, as the one now in use, but a mass of air employed instead,
which filled the cavity of the bulb. This being placed in an inverted
position to ours, that is to say, with the bulb uppermost, pressed
down the liquor when the air became dilated by heat, as ours press
it upward; and when the heat diminished, the liquor rose to occupy
the place vacated by the air, as the one now in use descends. It
consequently was liable to be affected by a change in the temperature,
as by the weight of air, and could afford only a rude standard of
accuracy in scientific investigations. This thermometer was not Bacon’s
own contrivance, as is commonly supposed, but that of Drebbel. --_Ed. _

[88] La Lande is indignant that the Chaldeans should have more correct
notions of the nature of comets than the modern physicists, and charges
Bacon with entertaining the idea that they were the mere effects of
vapor and heat. This passage, with two others more positive, in the
“De Aug. ” (cap. xl. ) and the “Descript. Globi Intellect.