No More Learning

The chief interest of Mary Barton) lies
in the touching simplicity of the descrip-
tions of daily life among the artisan
class. Their graphic power brings the
reader into a vital sympathy with the life
and scenes described. Some of the sad
pictures of those toiling, suffering peo-
ple are presented with intense pathos.
Lavengro: The Scholar, Girsy, Priest.
Romany Rye (Sequel to Lavengro).
By George Borrow. These books com-
prise a tale of loosely connected advent-
ures introducing romantic, grotesque, and
exciting episodes, and interwoven with
reflections on the moral and religious
condition of the world, with a large
intermixture of mystic and philosophic
lore. They suggest Le Sage's story;
and like the (Gil Blas,' the characters
are drawn largely from Spanish sources.
Gipsy life and legends form a kind of
background to the writer's reflections on
the men and morals of his time. The
author, born in East Dereham, Norfolk,
England, 1803, had been employed in
1840-50 as an agent of the British and
Foreign Bible Society in distributing
Bibles in the mountainous districts of
Spain, and had met with hardships and
rough usage which helped to embitter his
feelings toward the Roman Catholic reli-
gion, at the same time that they afforded
him glimpses of the simple life of the
lower classes, and especially an acquaint-
ance with the Gipsy tribe-life, which had
a peculiar charm for him. “Lavengro »
is depicted as a dreamy youth follow-
ing the fortunes of his father, who is in
military service. His visits are divided
between the Gipsy camp, the Romany
chal,” and the “parlor of the Anglo-
German philosopher. ” The title «Ro-
many Rye” [Gipsy Gentleman] is in-
troduced in the verse of a song, “The
Gipsy Gentleman, sung in Chapter liv.
of Lavengro:-
" Here the Gipsy gemman see,
With his Kernan jib and his rome and dree;
Rome and dree, rum and dry,
Rally round the Romany Rye. "
The song is sung by Mr. Petulengro, )
the author's favorite Gipsy character.
The hero's trials of mind and faith are
depicted, when, at the age of nineteen,
he is cast upon the world in London to
make his living as a hack author. Meet-
ing with success with one of his books,
he leaves London to roam abroad, and
becomes in turn tinker, gipsy, postilion,
and hostler; but ever preserves the self-
respect of the poor gentleman and the
scholar in disguise. His object in writ-
ing is to show the goodness of God, and
to reveal the plots of popery; he shows
much contempt for the pope, whom he
calls Mumbo-Jumbo,” and for all his
ceremonies. He would encourage char-
ity, free and genial manners, the ex-
posure of the humbugs of “gentility,”
and the appreciation of genuine worth
of character in whatever social station.
The titles «Scholar, Gipsy, Priest,” are
not successive characters assumed by the
author, but stand for these various types
of humanity. A marked feature of these
XXX-4


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50
SYNOPSES OF NOTED BOOKS
books is their use of elaborate fables for which reveals the real woman: and a
moral instruction, Such are those of touching interview follows, in which the
the Rich Gentleman) and the Magic courted actress begs the simple young
Touch,' the Old Applewoman,' and wife to be her friend. Then comes
(Peter William, the Missionary. ?
The on the scene Sir Charles Pomander, in
author had previously published (Gip- amorous pursuit of Mabel; closely fol-
sies in Spain) in 1841, and The Bible lowed by her husband, whom Triplet has
in Spain) in 1844,- works possessing summoned to the rescue. A reconcilia-
the same lively interest as the later tion between the married pair results,
novels.
and Sir Charles retires discomfited.
Woffington takes an affectionate leave
Peg Woffington, Charles Reade's first of the Vanes, who soon return to their
novel, was published in 1852, when Shropshire home and domestic bliss;
he was thirty-eight. This charming while the noble-hearted Peg, after a few
story of eighteenth-century manners has years more of stage triumphs, retires
been dramatized under the title Masks before her bloom has faded, to a life
and Faces. ) It opens in the green-room in the country, and there ends her days,
of Covent Garden, where the Irish act- (the Bible in her hand, the Cross in
ress, Margaret Woffington, in the hey- her heart; quiet; amidst grass and flow-
day of her fame and beauty, tricks the ers, and charitable deeds. ”
entire dramatic company, including Col-
ley Cibber the famous playwright and
Henry Esmond.
This splendid ro-
comedian, by personating the great mance, published in 1752, is one of
tragic actress Mrs. Brạcegirdle. At the the most important of Thackeray's novels.
same time she achieves the conquest
It is a
romance of the time of Queen
of a wealthy and accomplished Shrop- Anne, and purports to be told by the
shire gentleman, Ernest Vane, who is hero in the years of rest after the storm
presented to her by a London fop, Sir and stress of a checkered life. It is writ-
Charles Pomander. Vane besieges her ten after the manner of the time, which
with flowers and verses until he arouses gives it a pleasant flavor of quaintness.
the jealousy of Sir Charles, who is also The hero, a boy of noble character, is
her admirer. In the midst of a ban- the true heir to the Castlewood estate,
quet which Mr. Vane is giving in honor but is supposed to be illegitimate, and
of the actress, his lovely country bride grows up as a dependent in the home
appears unexpectedly upon the scene. of his second cousin, the titular vis-
Peg Woffington, who had believed Vane count, where he is treated with kindness
to be a single man and her loyal and affection. The family consists of
suitor, hides her grief and resentment the young and lovely Lady Castlewood;
under a guise of mockery; but the in- a son, Francis, and a beautiful daugh-
nocent young wife faints away on find- ter, Beatrix. Lord Castlewood neglects
ing out how she has been betrayed. his wife, and exposes her to the unwel.
Woffington next appears in the garret come attentions of Lord Mohun, with
of a poor
scrub author and scene- whom he subsequently fights a duel, in
painter, James Triplet, whom she has which he is killed. Without justifica-
befriended by sitting to him for her tion, Lady Castlewood holds Esmond
portrait.
Here, after fooling a party responsible for the duel. Having
of her theatrical comrades and would- learned that he is legally heir to Castle-
be art critics, who have come to abuse wood, he is constrained by gratitude to
the picture, by the ingenious device of conceal the knowledge, and goes off to
cutting out the painted face and insert-
the wars.
Returning to England on fur-
ing her own in the aperture, she prac- lough, he is received with great affec-
tices the same trick upon Mabel Vane, tion, and immediately falls in love with
Ernest's wife, who has sought refuge Beatrix, whom he wooes unavailingly
with Triplet from the persecutions of Sir for ten years. The brilliant beauty be-
Charles Pomander. Mabel, seeing the comes engaged to the Duke of Hamil-
image of her rival, pours forth to it a ton, but he is killed in a duel. Esmond,
pathetic appeal that Peg will not rob a devoted Jacobite, brings the Pretender
her of her only treasure, her husband's to England in readiness to
succeed
heart; when to her dismay, she per- Queen Anne, who is dying; but the
ceives a tear upon the portrait's face, Prince lays siege to the fair Beatrix


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SYNOPSES OF NOTED BOOKS
51
instead of the throne. This wrecks the loved as the beautiful and coquettish
project; and Henry, now discovering his Beatrix Esmond. He is deep in debt,
purposes, crosses swords with him. The and has promised to marry an elderly
Pretender then returns to Paris, where cousin, when he is rescued from his
Beatrix joins him.
folly by the arrival of his shrewd and
Henry now discovers that his very generous brother George. George re-
long attachment for Beatrix has given sumes his heirship, and Harry is no
place to a tender affection for her longer a prey for cupidity. In the story
mother, notwithstanding her eight years of their subsequent adventures, the ex-
of superior age.
This is the weakest position of social baseness and hypocrisy
point in the novel, but the author man- would be grewsome if it were not for
ages it skillfully. The attachment being the kindly humor which mollifies the
mutual, no obstacle appears to their satire.
marriage. Frank is left in possession of
the estate, while Esmond and his bride Tom Brown's School Days, the finest
to
and stories
Virginia; where their subsequent for- depicting English public-school life, was
tunes form the theme of “The Virgin- written by Thomas Hughes, and pub-
ians. ”
lished in 1857, when the author was a
young barrister of three-and-thirty. It
Virginians, The, by William Make- leaped at once into a deserved popular-
peace Thackeray (1859), is a sequel ity it has never lost. Tom is a typical
to (Henry Esmond,' and revives a past middle-class lad, with the distinctive
society with the same brilliant skill. British virtues of pluck, honesty, and the
The chivalric Colonel Esmond, dear to love of fair play. The story portrays his
readers of the earlier novel, goes to life from the moment he enters the lowest
Virginia after his marriage with Lady form of the great school, a homesick,
Castlewood, and there builds a country- timid lad, who has to fag for the older
seat, which he names Castlewood in boys and has his full share of the rough
remembrance of his family's ancestral treatment which obtained in the Rugby
home in England. In the American of his day, to the time when he has
Castlewood his twin grandsons developed into a big, brawny fellow, the
reared by their widowed mother, Ma- head of the school, a football hero, and
dame Rachel Warrington, that sharp- ready to pass on to Oxford, - another
tongued colonial dame so kind and gen- story being devoted to his experiences
to her favorites, so bitter and there. A faithful, lifelike, and most en-
unjust to who oppose her. She is tertaining picture of the Rugby of Dr.
a loving but tyrannical mother; and Arnold is given; its social habits, meth-
after the Colonel's death, exercises auto- ods of teaching, its sports, beliefs, and
cratic rule over the Castlewood domain. ideals. The wide influence of that great
Among her frequent visitors is young man is sketched with hearty apprecia-
Colonel Washington, a brave, attractive tion; and in another figure — that of the
figure, with fame yet to win.
gentle, high-charactered lad Arthur-one
Virginian life in
in pre-Revolutionary may recognize Dean Stanley in his stu-
days is made very real to the reader; dent days. Individual scenes, like the
and is clearly distinguished from the bullying of Tom when he is green in the
English life upon which young Harry school, the football match, and the boat
Warrington ent after hi brother's race, will always cling in memory for
supposed death in a disastrous campaign their graphic lines and fullness of life.
of the French and Indian War, upon An honester, manlier story was
which he has accompanied Colonel written, for the author had been through
Washington. The lavish and generous it all, - the novel is by an old boy,” the
young Virginian is at first repelled by title-page declares; moreover, it teaches,
the cold courtesy and selfish thrift of his by the contagion of example, those ster-
Old World cousins. But his fortune ling virile virtues which have made the
soon wins him favor; and, too simple to English one of the great dominant races
detect mercenary motives, he plunges of civilization. To read (Tom Brown)
into social dissipation under the direc- is to have an exhilarating sense of the
tion of Baroness Bernstein, anti- vigorous young manhood of that nation,
quated egotist, whom his grandfather had its joy in fruitful activity.
are
erous
never
in


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52
SYNOPSES OF NOTED BOOKS
master-
Moonstone, The, by Wilkie Collins few pounds in his pocket (and unlimited
(1868), is one of the best examples credit at his bankers'), unincumbered by
of the author's general purpose to mys- letters of introduction or social fetters.
tify the reader. At the storming of Se- His adventures, which are in keeping with
ringapatam, a holy city of India, by the his personality, extend over a few years,
British in 1799, a certain John Hern- varied by periodical returns to his fam-
castle possessed himself, by the massa- ily and reappearances in society; where
cre of its keepers, of a large and pecul- he is courted for his wealth, his gentle
iar diamond known as the moonstone. birth, and his eccentricities. The culmi-
With his dying breath, one of the Brah- nation of his fortunes is reached in an
mins cursed the Englishman, declaring unfortunate love affair with Lily Mor-
that the diamond would bring disaster daunt, a spirituelle creature, half child,
and misfortune to its unlawful possessors. half woman, a “human poem,” who dies
The story treats of the mysterious dis- broken-hearted when a cruel fate sepa-
appearance of the stone, bequeathed by rates her from her lover.
Herncastle to his niece, Miss Verinder, (Kenelm Chillingly) is less the life
and of the tragedy that ensued before of a man than the prelude to a life; a
the guilty persons could be with cer- preface of dreams, of disappointments,
tainty apprehended. The closing lines of disillusionments, before the realities
of the story find the moonstone once begin. He himself epitomizes his future
again in India, fixed as formerly in the and his past, when he says to his father,
forehead of an idol.
in their last recorded interview, “We
must- at whatever cost to ourselves -
Kenelm
enelm Chillingly, His ADVENTURES we must go through the romance of life
AND OPINIONS, by Edward Bulwer before we clearly detect what is grand
Lytton (Lord Lytton). (1873. ) This, one in its possibilities”; and again, My
of Bulwer's artistic novels of English choice is made: not that of deserter, but
life, is considered by many a
that of soldier in the ranks. »
piece, and is certainly one of his most Round him are grouped many inter-
popular works.
Kenelm Chillingly is esting characters,— Sir Peter and Lady
the long-desired heir of an old family, Caroline, his father and mother; his
who develops symptoms of remarkable cousin, Gordon Chillingly, the ambitious
precocity, to the anxiety of his parents politician; Chillingly Mivers, the caustic
and teachers. After leaving school, he is editor of The Londoner; the reformed
given an insight into London society, bully, Tom Bowles; the pretty village
and enters Cambridge with matured belle, Jessie Somers, and her crippled
opinions and judgment, graduating with husband; Cecilia Travers, who remains
honors. Coming of age in the early part faithful to her unreciprocated attachment
of the nineteenth century, —
,-a time of
for Kenelm; Mr. Welby, the polished
unwonted progress, of unsettlement of man of society; Walter Melville, the cel-
beliefs, and of dissatisfaction with the ebrated artist and “Wandering Min-
existing state of affairs,— he adds to the strel”); and several others.
general unrest of his generation an in-
dividual melancholy of temperament, a Far from the Madding Crowd, a paşa
phenomenal clearness of vision which
, is
detects and despises shams, and an in- perhaps the best example of his earlier
ability to fit himself into commonplace manner, and of his achievements in the
grooves and the ruts of inherited habit. domain of comedy. The story is mainly
In various phrases throughout his bi- concerned with the love affairs of Bath-
ography he is described, or describes sheba Everdene, a country girl with
himself — (A mere dreamer ); He had enough cleverness in her composition
a solitude round him out of his to render her impatient of the rustic
own heart”; “I do not stand in this Darby-and-Joan conception of marriage.
world: like a ghost I glide beside it and Her first wooer, honest Farmer Oak,
look on. With the temperament of the promises her all the insignia of married
idealist, Kenelm possesses an attractive rank if she will accept him. She is
face and figure, a fondness for athletic pleased with the prospect of possessing
exercise, and a perfect physical develop- a piano, and a “ten-pound gig for mar-
ment. He leaves home in search of ad- ket"; but when Oak adds, and at home
ventures, an unknown pedestrian with a by the fire, whenever you look up, there
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SYNOPSES OF NOTED BOOKS
53
a
I shall be, and whenever I look up,
there will be you,” the intolerable ennui
of married life instantly weighs upon
her imagination. She throws Oak over
for a possible lover of more worldly pre-
tensions. Only through an unfortunate
marriage with a certain dashing Ser-
geant Troy does she learn to appreciate
her first suitor's sterling worth. He for
his part proves his devotion to her by
serving her faithfully as her farm bailiff,
after a change in her fortunes has
placed her apparently out of his reach.
(Far from the Madding Crowd' is ex-
ceedingly rich in humor, in descriptions
of rustic scenes, and of rustic character.
The day laborers who gather at the
malt-house to pass around the huge mug
called “The God-Forgive-Me” (“probably
because its size makes any given toper
feel ashamed of himself »)— these clowns
are hardly surpassed in Shakespeare for
their natural humor, their rustic talk, or
their shrewd observation. Not less re-
markable are certain rustic pictures, as
that of the lambing on
a windy St.
Thomas's night, the starlight and the
light from Oak's lantern making a pict-
ure worthy of Rembrandt. The novel
takes rank as a classic in pastoral fiction.
Diana
iana of the Crossways, a remarkable
novel by George Meredith, appeared
in 1885. It displays his power of draw-
ing a living vibrant woman, in whom
beauty and intellect and noble character
are united. Diana is the centre of the
book. In her light the other men and
women live and move, and by her light
they are judged. She is an Irishwoman
of good family. As a girl she makes an
unfortunate marriage with a Mr. War-
wick, who so little knows her true charac-
ter that he suspects her of an intrigue
with a Lord Dannisburg, and begins pro-
ceedings against her. Diana's separation
from her husband is the beginning of her
picturesque but always honorable career,
and the true initial point of the story.
She is one of the most charming of Mer-
edith's women: it was believed that she
was drawn from Lady Caroline Norton,
Sheridan's granddaughter, famous for her
beauty, her wit, and her independence of
conventional opinion; but this is now
disproved.
David Grieve, The History of, a novel
by Mrs. Humphry Ward, was pub-
lished in 1892. Like R pert Elsinere,
it takes greatly into account social and
educational forces of contemporary life.
It was written apparently under the in-
fluence of Amiel's Journal, as it em-
bodies the same cheerless and somewhat
negative philosophy.
The hero, David Grieve, and his sister
Louie, are the children of Sandy Grieve,
a Scotch workingman, and of a French-
woman, a grisette, of depraved tenden-
cies. The girl inherits the mother's
nature, the boy the father's. David be-
gins life as a country boy in Derbyshire,
tending his uncle's sheep. His leisure
moments are devoted to reading and
study. As a boy of sixteen he leaves
the home that had become intolerable,
and goes to Manchester, where he learns
the bookseller's trade and educates himself
further, becoming finally the head of a
publishing-house well known for its pub-
lications of economic and political works.
His life, however, is far from happy.
His sister goes to the bad in Paris. He
marries woman unworthy of him.
Throughout, he clings to a high ethical
ideal as the only hope, the only faith
open to a nineteenth-century man. Con-
duct is for him the whole of life. On
right-doing his soul rests and depends,
in the stress of the tempest of passion
and sin about him.
The novel is well written, abounding
in striking and dramatic scenes, and rich
in delineation of character.
Deemster, The, by Hall Caine. The
Deemster) is a sensational novel, set-
ting forth the righteousness of just retri-
bution. The author calls it the story of
the Prodigal Son. The scene is laid in
the Isle of Man, in the latter part of the
seventeenth century and the early part of
the eighteenth
The Deemster is Thorkell Mylrea, whose
brother Gilchrist is bishop of the island.
These two brothers, with Ewan and Mona,
the son and daughter of the Deemster,
and Daniel, the son of the Bishop, are
the chief actors in the story. Ewan is a
young clergyman, but Dan is the prodigal
who wastes his father's substance. He
loves his cousin Mona deeply, but her
brother considers this love dishonorable
to her. The cousins engage in a duel,
which results in the death of Ewan. Dan
surrenders himself to justice, is declared
guilty, and receives a sentence worse than
death. He is declared cut off forever
from his people. None shall speak to him
or look upon him or give him aid. He


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54
SYNOPSES OF NOTED BOOKS
shall live and die among the beasts in a horror. At last, by the aid of letters left
remote corner of the island.
by Dr. Lanyon, another of Dr. Jekyll's
At length a strange plague comes upon lawyer friends, to whom he has revealed
the people. Daniel obtains the privilege the secret and who is killed by the shock
of taking the place of Father Dalby, the of the discovery, the strange facts are
Irish priest. He effects many cures, and exposed. Utterson breaks into Jekyll's
at last dies of the pestilence, after the laboratory, only to find Hyde, who has
office of deemster made vacant by his just taken his own life; and Jekyll is
uncle's death has been offered to him as
gone forever. It was the first of Ste-
a reward for his services. Like all of venson's books to become widely pop-
Hall Caine's work, it is sombre and op- ular. Its date is 1886.
pressive, but its delineation of Manx
character is striking and convincing. Li
ittle Minister, The, by J. M. Barrie.
It was published in 1877. A drama- (Published in 1891. ) A love story,
tization has been produced by Wilson the scene of which is laid in the little
Barrett under the title (Ben-Ma-Chree. ) Scotch weaving village of Thrums at
about the middle of the present century.
Donal Grant, a novel by George Mac-
Aside from its intrinsic interest, there
donald, was published in 1883, when
is much skillful portrayal of the com-
he was fifty-nine. It is a modern story;
plexities of Scotch character, and much
the hero, Donal Grant, being one of the
muscular and intellectual young Scotch-
sympathy with the homely lives of the
men whom Macdonald loves to describe.
poverty-stricken weavers, whose narrow
creed may make them cruel, but never
Introduced as a poor student seeking a
dishonorable. The hero, Gavin Dishart,
situation, he reaches the town of Auchars,
is a boy preacher of twenty-one, small
where he meets a spiritually minded cob-
bler and his wife with whom he lodges.
of stature but great in authority, and
given to innocent frolic in exuberant
In Auchars he finds a field of work, and
moments. Grouped about him are his
the story deals with the effect produced on
people, who watch him with lynx-eyed
careless and selfish characters by contact
vigilance, ready to adore, criticize, and
with an upright and generous nature.
interfere ; while all-pervasive in-
The plot involves a forced marriage, and
fluence is the mother love and worship
other well-known incidents; but the book
of «soft-faced » Margaret Dishart.
shows all Macdonald's familiar quali-
Across the narrow path of the Little
ties, though it is less eventful and more
Minister, and straight into his orthodox
didactic than many of his stories.
life, dances Babbie the Egyptian, in a
·Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, by Robert wild gipsy frock, with red rowans in
Louis Stevenson, is a psychologic her hair. Against the persuasiveness
romance illustrating the complex quality of her beautiful eyes and her madcap
of man's nature. The scene is London. pranks, even three scathing sermons
Dr. Jekyll is a physician of position against Woman, preached by Gavin in
and good character, a portly, kindly self-defense, are of no avail; and the
In his youth, however, he showed reader follows with absorbed interest his
that he had strong capacities for evil, romantic meetings with the reprehensible
which he succeeded in suppressing for Babbie, and the gossip of the scandal-
years. His professional tastes lead him ized community. The rapid unfolding
to experiment in drugs, and he hits on of the story reveals Babbie's sorrow-
one whereby he is changed physically ful and unselfish renunciation of Gavin,
so that his lower nature receives ex- and her identity as the promised bride
ternal dress. He becomes Mr. Hyde, of Lord Rintoul, who is many years her
a pale, misshapen, repulsive creature of senior. A false report of Gavin's death
evil and violent passions. Again and brings the lovers together again on the
again Dr. Jekyll effects this change, eve of Babbie's marriage. Fearing pur-
and gives his bad side more and more suit, she consents to a hasty gipsy
power. His friend Utterson, a lawyer, is marriage with Gavin in the woods; and
puzzled by Jekyll's will in favor of Hyde, the climax is reached when a flash of
and seeks to unravel the mystery. The lightning reveals the ceremony to Lord
brutal murder of Sir Danvers Carew, Rintoul, two stern elders of the Kirk,
which is traced to Hyde, who of course and Rob Dow, who is seeking to save
disappears, adds to the mystery and the Little Minister from his wrathful
an
man.
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SYNOPSES OF NOTED BOOKS
55
W
cur-
own
people by killing the Egyptian. In the beasts in Æsop's fables, those of the
food that follows, the chief actors in Jungle Books) are not men in hides
this dramatic scene are scattered; but and on all fours discussing human prob-
Gavin and Babbie, after many advent- lems. Kipling's genius represents them
ures, are reunited, a deed of heroism on thinking and behaving, each according
the part of the Little Minister having to his own peculiar beastly habit and
reinstated him in the love of his people.
experience, with such dramatic skill that
The story is recounted by Dominie one is almost forced to believe that he
Ogilvy, who is at last revealed as the has intimately dwelt among them as
father of Gavin. It is lighted by Mowgli did. The stories were published
touches of quaint humor that soften in St. Nicholas, and collected into two
what might otherwise seem stern and volumes in 1894 and 1895.
forbidding in the picture. An instance
in point is that of Tibbie Craik, who
Fairy Tales. The stories of Cinderella,
would be fine pleased with any bride Beauty and the Beast, Hop o' my
that the minister. might choose, because Thumb, Sleeping Beauty, and others, so
she “had a magenta silk, and so was fascinating to children and to peasants,
jealous of no one. )
were looked on merely as amusing tales,
In 1897 the book was dramatized, with until the efforts of Grimm and his suc-
a violent wrenching of the plot to meet cessors drew back, as it were, a
dramatic necessities.
tain, and disclosed another fairy region
of almost limitless perspective, whose
Jungle Books, The, by Rudyard Kip- vanishing-point may be nearly identical
ling. The central figure in these with the origin of the human race. For
books is the boy Mowgli, who, straying by the study of comparative mythology,
from his village home when an infant, it was discovered that these tales are not
had been lost in the forest, and there restricted to Europe alone, but are to be
sheltered and nursed with her
found, in varying forms, among almost
cubs by a mother-wolf, and the hairy all nations. Comparative philology then
Orson. Joined to this element of human showed the original union of the Teu-
interest, and with the coloring of high tonic, Celtic, Latin, Greek, Persian, and
romance, these stories picture the per- Hindu races in the primitive Aryan race,
sonal characteristics and social and po- whose home has been variously fixed in
litical life of the gaunt wolf-family in Western Central Asia, in Europe, and
their cave and the free republic of wolves, even in Africa; from which they broke
assembled in the Pack; the snarling away in prehistoric dispersions. This
Bengal tiger, Shere Khan, who, though was discovered by tracing words through
fearful, like the other beasts, of man's the German, Latin, Greek, and Persian
superior wit, roams boastfully for prey, forms up to the Sanskrit, the oldest lit-
attended by his obsequious but mischief- erary form of all; their identity proves
making jackal servant, Tabaqui, the their descent from a common stock. Thus
Dish-Licker; they tell about Baloo, the most of our popular tales date from the
sleepy brown bear who teaches the wolf- days when the primitive Aryan took his
cubs the Law of the Jungle, which is evening meal of yava, and sipped his
the reproof of human codes in its com- fermented mead, while the Laplander was
prehensive justice ); the black panther, master of Europe, and the dark-skinned
Bagheera; Kaa, the big rock python; Sudra roamed through the Punjab. ”
and many others, including the monkey The survival of popular tales is due to
people, filthy chatterers despised by all their being unconscious growths, to
the rest. They describe also how Mow- the strict adherence to form shown by
gli's coming disturbed these forest creat- illiterate and savage people in recitals,
ures; how his human will proved more proved also by a child's insistence on
powerful than Shere Khan's jaws and accuracy, and to the laws of the perma-
claws; and how the brown bear and nence of culture. All these make the
other friends rescued him with some science of folk-lore possible.
trouble when he had been carried off There are several theories in regard
through the tree-tops by the monkey to the origin of folk-tales. The oldest
people; and how he finally went back is the Oriental theory, which traces all
to ve among men, but with a better back to a common origin in the Vedas,
knowledge of beasts. Unlike the talking the Sanskrit sacred books of Buddhism.


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SYNOPSES OF NOTED BOOKS
mer.
dating probably from 2000 B. C. It is
true that the germs of most tales are
found in the Vedas, but proofs of the
Indian origin of stories are lack
the discovery of tales in Egypt which
were written down in the period of the
early empire are objections to its accept-
ance, and the idea of diffusion will not
account for similar tales found in Aus-
tralia, New Zealand, and America. The
Aryan theory, supported by Max Müller,
Grimm, and others, gives as their origin
the explanation of natural phenomena,
as the sun's daily course, the change of
day and night, dawn, winter, and sum-
These nature-myths must not be
regarded as originally metaphors; they
were primitive man's philosophy of na-
ture, in the days when he could not dis-
tinguish between it and his personality;
when there was no supernatural, because
it was not yet discovered that there was
such a thing as nature”; and so every
object was endowed with a personal life.
This view is supported by the proper
names in myths having been originally
names of natural phenomena. The sav-
age myths of to-day explain the myth-
making of old: instance the New Zealand
tale of "The Children of Heaven and
Earth) in Grey's Polynesian Mythol-
ogy,' connected with the Sanskrit Dyaus-
pitar (Jupiter ), Heaven-father, and
Prithivi-mâtar, Earth-mother, in the Ve-
das. Folk-lore is “the débris brought
down by the streams of tradition from
the distant highlands of ancient mythol-
ogy," and the survivals which are unin-
telligible singly must be explained by
comparing them with others. The tales
have enough likeness to show that they
come from the same source, and enough
difference to show they were not copied
from each other. Müller says, Nursery
tales are generally the last things to be
adopted by one nation from another. »
The danger is that too many may be
assigned to nature-myths. Even the
(Song of Sixpence) has been claimed as
one: the pie representing earth and sky;
the birds, the twenty-four hours; the
opened pie, the daybreak, with sing-
ing birds; the king, the sun, with his
money, sunshine; the queen, the moon;
the maid, dawn, hanging out the clothes,
clouds, is frightened away by the black-
bird, sunrise. Another theory, supported
by Tylor and Lang, traces the origin
of folk-lore to a far earlier source than
the Aryan, — the customs and practices
of early man: such as totemism, descent
from animals or things, which were at
last worshiped; and curious taboos or
prohibitions, which ca be explained by
similar savage customs of the present.
Thus tales become valuable both for the
anthropologist and the mythologist. But
late authorities declare that it is use-
less to seek any common origin of folk-
tales; since the incidents, which are few,
and the persons, who are types, are
based on ideas that might occur to un-
civilized races anywhere.
Our popular fairy-tales, or contes, have
been, in the main, handed down orally.
However, some of their elements or vari-
ants at least have come down through
literary collections in the following suc-
cession: The Vedas, the Sanskrit sacred
books; the Persian Zend-Avesta; the
Jatakas of about the fifth century B. C. ;
from some lost Sanskrit books came the
Panchatantra,' a book of fables earlier
than 550 A. D. , of which the Hitopadeça
is a compilation; a Pahlavi version of
the same period; an Arabic version be-
fore the tenth century; and a Persian of
about 1100 A. D. ; the “Syntipas,' a Greek
version, belongs to the eleventh century.
Then followed translations into several
European languages. The earliest col-
lection of European tales was made by
Straparola, who published at Venice in
1550 his Notti Piacevola,' which was
translated into French, and was prob-
ably the origin of the Contes des Fées. )
It contains the tale of Puss in Boots,
and elements of some others. The best
early collection is · Basile's, the (Penta-
merone, published at Naples in 1637.
In 1696 there appeared in the Recueil,
a magazine published by Moetjens at
The Hague, the story (La Belle au Bois
Dormant) (our (Sleeping Beauty'), by
Charles Perrault; and in 1697 appeared
seven others: Little Red Riding Hood,'
(Bluebeard,' (Puss in Boots,' (The Fairy,'
"Cinderella, (Riquet of the Tuft,' and
(Hop o' My Thumb. )
These were pub-
lished in 1697 under the title (Contes du
Temps Passé, Avec des Moralités,' by
P. Darmancour, Perrault's son, for whom
he wrote them down from a nurse's
stories. These fairy-tales became part of
the world's literature; and in England
at least, where scarcely any tales existed
in literary form except Jack the Giant-
Killer,' they superseded all the national
versions. Within this century the inves-
tigations of Jacob and William Grimm,
>


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SYNOPSES OF NOTED BOOKS
57
and their successors in this field, have
reduced to written form the tales of
nearly all nations, revealing the same
characters and incidents under countless
names and shapes. The method used by
them has been to take down the tales
from the recitals of the common people,
- generally of the old women who have
been the chief conservers of stories,-
exactly as given, rough or uncouth as
the narrative may be.
For in some ap-
parently absurd feature may be a sur-
vival of ancient custom or myth of great
historic interest; and the germs of these
universal stories, in becoming part of a
nation's folk-lore, take a local form and
so become valuable to the ethnologist.
Thus the beautiful myths of the South
in the Northern forms, where winter's
rigor alters the conditions of life, have
an entirely different setting. We must
include in the comparison of stories the
Greek myths; as the Odyssey is now
conceded to be a mass of popular tales
(Gerland's (Altgriechische Märchen in
der Odyssee,'—'Old Greek Tales in the
Odyssey. ') To these we must add the
tales of ancient Egypt; those narrated
by Herodotus, and other travelers and
historians; the beautiful story of Cupid
and Psyche,' given by Apuleius in his
Metamorphoses) of the second century
A. D. , which also was taken from a popu-
lar myth, as we shall see, very widely
distributed. Spreading all these before
us, with the wealth of Eastern lore, and
that gathered recently from every Euro-
pean nation, and from the savage or
barbarian tribes of Asia, Africa, Amer-
ica, and Polynesia, we shall find running
through them all the same germ, either
in varying form, or simply in detached
features, to our astonishment and de-
delight. We shall examine in detail the
most familiar of the popular fairy-tales,
noting the principal variants or recurring
incidents, what survival of nature-myth
they contain, what ancient custom or
religious rite, and their possible links
with Oriental literary collections; show-
ing thus in a limited way the basis on
which the before-mentioned theories of
their origin rest. Taking Perrault's
(Tales) as the best versions, we shall
find that actual fairies appear but sel-
dom, as is the case generally in tradi-
tional fairy stories; in Cinderella' and
(The Sleeping Beauty) the fairies are of
the genuine traditional type, but in other
tales we find merely the magical key or
the fairy (Seven-League Boots. ) Yet the
fairies have so identified themselves with
popular tales by giving them their titles,
that we may find it interesting to look
up their origin. The derivation of the
word is given from fatare, to enchant,
faé or fé, meaning enchanted, and run-
ning into the varying forms of fée, fata,
hada, feen, fay, and fairy; or with more
probability from fatum, what is spoken,
and Fata, the Fates, who speak, Faunus
or Fatuus, the god, and his sister 01
wife Fatua. This points to the primi
tive personification of natural phenom-
ena: all localities and objects were be-
lieved to be inhabited by spirits. Simi-
lar beings are found in the legend-lore
of all nations; as the Nereids of Greece,
the Apsaras of India, the Slavonic Wilis,
the Melanesian Vius, the Scotch fairies
or Good Ladies – as they are termed,
just as the daughter of Faunus was not
known by her real name, but as the
Good Goddess (“Bona Dea »). Their
mediæval connection with the nether-
world and the dead may possibly point
to their origin as ancestral ghosts. We
shall find that “the story of the heroes
of Teutonic and Hindu folk-lore, the
stories of Boots) and (Cinderella,' of
Logedas Rajah and Surya Bai, are the
story also of Achilleus and Oidipous,
of Perseus and Theseus, of Helen and
Odysseus, of Baldur and Rustem and
Sigurd. Everywhere there is the search
for the bright maiden who has been
stolen away, everywhere the long strug-
gle to reclaim her. ” (Cox. )
SLEEPING BEAUTY. —This story is re-
garded by mythologists as nature-
myth, founded on nature's long sleep
in winter. The Earth-goddess pricked
by winter's dart falls into a deep sleep,
from which she is aroused by the prince,
the Sun, who searches far for her. We
may find a slight parallel in Demeter's
search for her lost daughter, Proserpine
in the Greek myth; but a much more
evident resemblance is seen in the sleep
of Brynhild, stung to her sleep by the
sleep-thorn. 'The Two Brothers,' found
in an Egyptian papyrus of the Nine-
teenth Dynasty,— the time of Seti II. ,
- had several incidents similar to those
of (The Sleeping Beauty. ) The Hathors
who pronounce the fate of the prince
correspond to the old fairy, and both
tales show the impossibility of escaping
fate. The spindle whose prick causes
the long slumber is a counterpart of the
a


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58
SYNOPSES OF NOTED BOOKS
en-
arrow that wounds Achilles, the thorn incident occurs in the myth of Kronos
that pricks Sigurd, and the mistletoe swallowing his children; in the Maori
fatal to Baldur. In (Surya Bai? (from legend in which Ihani, the New Zealand
(Old Deccan Days') the mischief is cosmic hero, tries to creep through his
done by the poisoned nail of a demon. ancestress, Great-Woman or Night; in a
In the Greek myth of Orpheus, Eurydice Zulu version a princess is swallowed
is stung by the serpent of darkness. by a monster which becomes in a Karen
The hedge that surrounds the palace ap- tale a snake. We find it also in the
pears in the flames encircling Brynhild Algonkin legend repeated in Hiawatha';
on the Glittering Heath, and the seven among the Bushmen, Kaffirs, Zulus; and
coils of the dragon; also in the Hindu in Melanesia, where the monster is night,
tale of Panch Phul Ranee, in which showing quite plainly a savage nature-
the heroine is surrounded by seven myth. The story has been compared
ditches, surmounted by seven hedges of to the Sanskrit Vartika, rescued by the
spears.
In the northern form of the Açvins (the Vedic Dioscuri) from the
story an interesting feature is the pres- wolf's throat. Vartika is the Quail,
ence of the ivy, the one plant that can the bird that returns at evening; and
endure the winter's numbing touch. In the Greek word for quail is ortyx, allied
a Transylvanian variant a maiden spins possibly to Ortygia, the old name for
her golden hair in a cavern, from which Delos, birthplace of Apollo.
she is rescued by a man who undergoes BLUEBEARN. —
- This tale had been re-
an hour of torture for three nights. garded by some as partly historic, of
The awakening by a kiss corresponds to which the original was Gilles de Laval,
Sigurd's rousing Brynhild by his magic Baron de Retz, who was burned in 1440
sword; but the kiss may be a survival for his cruelty to children. It is, how-
of an ancient form of worship, thus sug- ever, really a märchen, and the leading
gesting that the princess in the earlier idea of curiosity punished is world-wide.
forms of the tradition may have been a The forbidden chamber is a counterpart
local goddess, which would support the of the treasure-house of Ixion, on
anthropological theory. The version most tering which the intruder was destroyed,
closely resembling Perrault's is Grimm's or betrayed by the gold or blood that
(Little Briar Rose,' which is however clung to him; also of Pandora's box, as
without the other's ending about the well as of Proserpine's pyx that Psyche
cruel mother-in-law. A few incidents opened in spite of the prohibition. There
are found in the Pentamerone,) and several parallels among the Ger-
a beautiful modern version is found in
fairy-tales collected by Grimm;
Tennyson's Day-Dream. '
and one feature at least is found in the
LITTLE RED RIDING-Hood. - In this Kaffir tale of the Ox (Callaway's Nurs-
story we may detect a myth of day and ery Tales of the Zulus'). Variants are
night. Red Riding-Hood, the Evening found in Russia, and among Gaelic pop-
Sun, goes to see her grandmother, the ular tales; and in the Sanskrit collection
Earth, who is the first to be swallowed Katha Sarit Sagara,' the hero Saktideva
by the wolf of Night or Darkness. The breaks the taboo, and like Bluebeard's
red cloak is the twilight glow. In the wife, is confronted with the horrible
German versions the wolf is cut open sight of dead women. Possibly in the
by the hunter, and both set free; here the punishment following the breaking of
hunter may stand for the rising sun that the taboo may be a survival of some
rescues all from night. The Russian ancient religious prohibition: among the
version in the tale of (Vasihassa) hints Australians, Greeks, and Labrador Ind-
at a nature-myth in the incident of the ians, such an error was regarded as the
white, red, and black horses, represent- means by which death came into the
ing the changing day. The German ver- world.
sion contains a widely spread incident, – Puss IN BOOTS. - Perrault's version of
the restoration of persons from mon- this popular and wide-spread tale was
sters who have swallowed them. We probably taken from Straparola's Pia-
find parallels in the Aryan story of the cevoli Notti. ? The story is found in a
dragon swallowing the sun, and killed Norse version in Lord Peter,' and in
by the sun-god Indra; here it is inter- the Swedish (Palace with Pillars of Gold,
esting to note that the Sanskrit word for in which the cat befriends a girl, whose
evening means mouth of night. ” The adventures are similar to those of the
are
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SYNOPSES OF NOTED BOOKS
59
Marquis of Carabas. In a Sicilian ver-
sion is found the first hint of a moral
which is lacking in the above-mentioned
tales; that is, the ingratitude of the man.
This moral appears more plainly in a
popular French version, where man's in-
gratitude is contrasted with the gratitude
of a beast. This occurs likewise in
the versions of the Avars and the Rus-
sians. Cosguin imagined from the moral
that its origin was Buddhistic, for the
story could only have arisen in a com-
paratively civilized community; but the
only Hindoo version, the Match-Making
Jackal, which was not discovered until
about 1884 in Bengal, has no moral at
all. The most complete moral is found
in Zanzibar, in the Swahili tale of (Sul-
tan Darai,' in which the beneficent beast
is a gazelle: the ingratitude of the man
is punished by the loss of all that he
had gained; the gazelle, which dies of
neglect, is honored by a public funeral.
An Arab tribe honors all dead gazelles
with public mourning; from which may
be inferred a primitive idea that the
tribal origin was from a gazelle stock, --
a hint of totemism. Variants of Puss
in Boots) are found among the Finns,
Bulgarians, Scotch, Siberians, and in
modern Hindustani stories; and some
features are found in Grimm, and in the
adventures of the Zulu hero Uhlakan-
yana.
TOADS AND DIAMONDS. — This story of
the good sister who was rewarded, and
the bad who was punished, is found in
many forms. Several variants are met
in Grimm's tales; it is found in the col-
lection of Mademoiselle L'Heritier dat-
ing from 1696; and again is met among
the Zulus, Kaffirs, Norse, and Scotch. In
many cases the story runs into the tale
of the substituted bride, - an example of
the curious combinations of the limited
number of incidents in popular lore.
CINDERELLA. — This fairy-tale, in the
majority of the variants, contains sev-
eral incidents which may be perhaps the
remains of totemism and of a very old
social custom. The position of Cinder-
ella in most versions as a stepchild may
without much difficulty be supposed to
have been that of the youngest, who by
(junior's right) would have been the
heir; the myth of ill-treatment would
be natural if it arose when the custom
was slipping away. By that older law
of inheritance, the hearth-place was the
share of the youngest; so that Cinder-
ella's position by it, and her consequent
blackened condition, would be quite in
keeping with this theory. This right
of the youngest is met in Hesiod, who
makes Zeus the youngest child of Kro-
nos; it is also found in Hungary, among
Slavic communities, in Central Asia, in
parts of China, in Germany and Celtic
lands; and it is alluded to in the Edda.
A similar custom among the Zulus is
shown in one of Callaway's (Zulu Nurs-
ery Tales. The fragment of totemism
is shown in the cases when the agent
is a friendly beast or tree, which has
some mystic connection with the hero-
ine's dead mother. The most striking
instance occurs in the Russian tale
of "The Wonderful Birch,' in which the
mother is changed by a witch into a
sheep, killed and buried by the daugh-
ter, and becomes a tree, that confers
the magical gifts. The two features of
a beast and a tree are found in the old
Egyptian tale (Two Brothers); and the
beast alone is seen in Servian, Mod-
ern Greek, Gaelic, and Lowland Scotch
variants. In two versions of barbarous
tribes, (The Wonderful Horns) of the
Kaffirs, and a tale of the Santals, a hill-
tribe of India, the girl's place is taken
by a boy whose adventures are similar
to Cinderella's, but the agents are an
ox and a cow. In Perrault's tale, the
more refined fairy godmother takes the
place of these beasts, which are in every
case domesticated animals.
The slip-
per is a feature that is found in the
whole cycle of tales. In the Greek myth
of (Rhodope, the slipper is carried off
by an eagle, and dropped in the lap of
the King of Egypt, who seeks and mar-
ries the owner. In the Hindu tale, the
Rajah's daughter loses her slipper in
a forest, where it is found by a prince,
on whom it makes the usual impression.
Here we find the false bride, which is
usually a part of these tales, but is
omitted by Perrault; and in most cases
the warning is given by a bird. In
several instances the recognition is ef-
fected by a lock of hair, which acts the
part of the glass slipper – which should
be fur (vair) according to some
thorities; this is found in the Egyptian
tale of the (Two Brothers, and reappears
in the Santal version and in the popu-
lar tales of Bengal. It occurs likewise
in an entirely different cycle, in the lock
of Iseult's hair which a swallow carries
to King Mark of Cornwall. We can
au-


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SYNOPSES OF NOTED BOOKS
also trace a slight resemblance in the
search of Orpheus for Eurydice, and
the Vedic myth of Mitra, the Sun-god,
as well as the beautiful Deccan tale of
(Sodewa Bai. If we search for indi-
cations of a nature-myth in the story of
Cinderella, we shall find that it belongs
to the myths of the Sun and the Dawn.
The maiden is the Dawn, dull and gray,
away from the brightness of the Sun;
the sisters are the clouds, that screen
and overshadow the Dawn, and the step-
mother takes the part of Night. The
Dawn fades away from the Sun, the
prince, who after a long search finds
her at last in her glorious robes of sun-
set. Max Müller gives the same mean-
ing to the Vedic myth of Urvasi, whose
name (“great-desires ») seems to imply a
search for something lost.
Hop o' MY THUMB. —A mythic theory
of this tale has been given, by which
the forest represents the night; the peb-
bles, the stars; and the ogre, the devour-
ing sun. The idea of cannibalism which
it contains may possibly be a survival
of an early savage state; and thus the
story very obligingly supports two of the
schools of mythic interpretation. It con-
tains traces of very great antiquity, and
the main features are frequently met
with. We find them, for instance, in
the Indian story of Surya Bai,' where a
handful of grain is scattered; in the Ger-
man counterpart, Hänsel and Gretel);
in the Kaffir tale, in which the girl drops
ashes; and that is found again in a story
in the Pentamerone. ) The incident of
the ogre's keen scent is found in a Nam-
aqua tale, in which the elephant takes the
part. In a Zulu story an ogress smells
the hero Uzembeni, and the same feature
is seen in Polynesian myths, and even
among the Canadian Indians. In Per-
rault's tale Hop o' My Thumb makes the
ogre kill his own children; but in many
forms the captor is either cooked, or forced
to eat some of his relatives, by means
generally of some trick. The substitution
of the ogre's daughters is suggested by
the story of Athamas and Themisto, whose
children are dressed by her orders in
white, while those of her rival are clad
in black; then by a reversal of the plan,
she murders her own. In most variants
the flight of the brothers is magically
helped; but Perrault uses only the Seven-
League Boots, which are no doubt iden-
tical with the sandals of Hermes and
Loki's magic shoes.
BEAUTY AND THE BEAST. -This ancient
story is very evidently a myth of the Sun
and the Dawn. In all the variants the
hero and the heroine cannot behold each
other without misfortune. Generally the
bride is forbidden to look upon her hus-
band, who is enchanted under the form of
a monster. The breaking of the taboo
results in separation, but they are finally
reunited after many adventures. The
anthropological school of myth interpret-
ers see in this feature a primitive mar-
riage custom, which still exists among
many savage races of the present day.
One of the earliest forms of the story is
the Vedic myth of Urvasî and Purûra-
vas. ) Another is the Sanskrit Bheki, who
mårries on condition she shall never see
water; thus typifying the dawn, vanish-
ing in the clouds of sunset. Müller gives
an interesting philological explanation of
this myth. Bhekî means frog, and stands
for the rising or setting sun, which like
amphibious creatures appears to pass
from clouds or water. But in its Greek
form Bhekî means seaweed which is red,
thus giving dark red; and the Latin
for toad means “the red one,» hence
the term represents the dawn-glow or
gloaming, which is quenched in water.
In Greek myths we find a resemblance
in some features of Orpheus and Eury-
dice); and the name of Orpheus in its
Sanskrit form of Arbhu, meaning the
sun, hints quite plainly at a solar origin
of this cycle of tales. A more marked
likeness exists in the myth of Eros and
Psyche by Apuleius, and in the Scandi-
navian tale of the Land East of the
Sun and West of the Moon. ) More or
less striking parallels are seen in the
Celtic (Battle of the Birds); in the “Soar-
ing Lark,' by Grimm; in the Kaffir (Story
of Five Heads); in Gaelic, Sicilian, and
Bengal folk-lore; and even in as remote
a quarter as Chili. The investigation of
minor fairy-tales, nursery rhymes, and
detached features running through many
myths, will yield an abundance of in-
teresting information. For instance, the
swan-maidens and werewolves, the bean-
stalk (which is probably a form of the
sacred ash of the Eddas, Yggdrasil, the
heaven-tree of many myths), can
found in ever-varying combinations.
We can allude to only a portion of the
voluminous literature on this subject. In
the general works on mythology, the
Aryan theory is maintained by Müller in
his Essay on Comparative Mythology
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61
new
(1856), and “Chips from a German Work.
shop' (1867–75); by Sir G. W. Cox in
Mythology of the Aryan Nations) (1870),
(Introduction to the Science of Compara-
tive Mythology and Folk-Lore' (1881), and
Popular Romances of the Middle Ages);
by Grimm in his «Teutonic Mythology)
('Deutsche Mythologie, translated by
Stallybrass) (1880–88); by A. Kuhn in
his (Teutonic Mythology, and the De-
scent of Fire (1872); and by W. Schwartz
in (Origin of Myths) (“Ursprung der
Mythe); 1860).
The most important works on the basis
of the anthropological theory are E. B.
Tylor's Primitive Culture) (1871); An-
drew Lang's Custom and Myth' (1885);
his Myth Ritual and Religion (1887);
and John Fiske's Myths and Myth-Mak-
ers) (1872); as well as J. G. Frazer's
(Golden Bough' (1890). W. A. Clouston
in Popular Tales and Fictions) (1887)
supports the Indian theory. The best
works directly bearing on Fairy Tales
are J. Ritson's Fairy Tales) (1831): T.
Keightley's Fairy Mythology) (1833),
both somewhat antiquated; J. T. Bunce's
(Fairy Tales, their Origin and Meaning)
(1878); J. O. Halliwell-Phillips's Popular
Rhymes and Nursery Tales (1849);
R. Koehler's European Popular Tales)
(1865), and his Essays on Fairy Tales
and Popular Songs) (1894); E. S.