1666;, Clauberg( 1622-1665 De
Conjunctione
Corpo
ris et Animae in Homine), Cordemoy (f.
ris et Animae in Homine), Cordemoy (f.
Windelband - History of Philosophy
2 vols.
, Paris, 1875.
Natural science acquired its decisive influence upon the develop ment of modern philosophy by first gaining its own independence with the aid of a conscious use of a scientific method, and then from this position being able to determine the general movement of thought as regards both form and content. In so far the develop ment of the method of natural science from Kepler and Galileo down to Newton is not indeed itself the evolution of modern philos ophy, but is yet that series of events in reference to which this evolution constantly proceeds.
For this reason the positive beginnings of modern philosophy are in general to be sought, not so much in new conceptions with new content, as in methodical reflection, out of which, with the progress of time, there resulted of course new material and so new points of view for the treatment of both theoretical and practical problems. But at first the points of departure of modern thought were in all cases where permanently fruitful conceptions of the task and thereby conditioned procedure of the new science grew out of the humanistic opposition against Scholasticism, and out of the excited metaphysical fantasies of the transitional period.
In this consists from the outset an essential difference between modern and ancient philosophy. The former is as reflective in its beginning as the latter was nai've, and this is self-explaining, since the former must develop out of those traditions which the latter created. In this way it is characteristic of the greater number of the systems of modern philosophy to seek the path to the real or " material " problems by considering the science of method and the theory of knowledge ; and in particular the seventeenth century with
respect to its philosophy may be characterised as a strife of methods. 378
Chap. 2. ]
While, however, the movement of the humanistic period had in the main taken place in Italy and Germany, the cooler and more considerate temper of the two western civilised peoples now became prominent Italy was made dumb by the counter-reformation, Ger many was crippled by the ruinous war between the confessions. England and France, on the contrary, experienced in the seventeenth century the bloom of their intellectual civilisation, and between them the Netherlands became a flourishing seat of art and science.
In the development of the method of natural science the lines of empiricism and of mathematical theory converged : in philosophical generalisation the two came forward in an independent attitude. The programme of the experience philosophy was laid down by Bacon, but the method which formed its fundamental thought was not car ried out by him in the fruitful manner which he had anticipated. Much more comprehensive was the form in which Descartes brought together the scientific movement of his time to establish rationalism anew, by filling the scholastic system of conceptions with the rich content of the Galilean research. From this resulted far-reaching metaphysical problems, which in the second half of the seventeenth century called forth an extraordinarily vigorous movement of philo sophical thought, — a movement in which the new principles entered into manifold antithetical combinations with the principles of mediae
val philosophy. Out of the Cartesian school rose Occasionalism, of which Oeulincx and Malebranclie are the chief representatives. But the complete issue of this development was found in the two great philosophical systems brought forward by Spinoza and Leibniz.
The influence which the powerful development of theoretical phil osophy exercised also upon the treatment of practical problems shows itself principally in the field of the philosophy of law (or right). In thia department Hobbes, who was in like measure a disciple of Bacon and of Descartes, and as such marks an important point in the line of development of methods and metaphysics above noted, takes the decisive position as the introducer of an ethical naturalism which is found in altered form even with his opponents, such as Herbert oj
Cherbury and Cumberland. In these antitheses the problems of the philosophy of the Enlightenment are in process of preparation.
The teriea of great natural scientists who exercised an immediate influence also upon philosophical questions was opened by Johann Kepler ( IftM-HMO) of Weil, a town in WUrtt*mberg, who died in Regensburg after a life spent in struggle with need and anxiety. Among his works (ed. by Krisch, Frankfurt, 1868-71, 8 vols. ), the most important are Mytterium Cotmngraphieum, Harmo nize Mundi. Aflronomia . Vara leu Phyrica Catlentis Tradita CommeutariU de
Motibu* Stella- Mortis. Cf. Ohr. Sigwart, Kleine Srhriflen. I. 182 ff. ; R. Kucken, Pkilut. Monatih. , 1878, pp. 30 ff. — In immediate attachment to htm stands OaUleo Galilei (born I'M at I'Ua, died 1042 at ArcetriJ. Ilia works were
Natural Science Period. 379
380 Philosophy of the Renaissance. [Part IV.
published in 15 vols. (Florence, 1842-56) with a biographical supplementary volume by Arrago. Vols. 11-14 contain the Fisico-Mathematica ; among which we notice II Saggiatore (1623) and the dialogue on the Ptolemaic and the Copernican systems (1632). Cf. II. Martin, Galileo, let droits de la science et la methode de* sciences physiques (Paris, 1668) ; P. Natorp, Gal. als Philo- soph. (PAi'ios. Monatsh. , 1882, pp. 193 ft\). Isaac Newton (1642-1727) comes into consideration chiefly on account of his Philosophim Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687; 2d ed. by Cotes, 1713; German by Wolfers, 1872) and his Optics (1704). —Of his contemporaries we notice the chemist, Robert Boyle (1626-1691; Chemista Scepticus ; Origo Formarum et Qualitatum; De Ipsa Natura), and the Netherlander, Christian Huyghens (1629-1695; De Causa Gravitatis; De Lumine).
Cf. W. Whewell, History of the Inductive Sciences (Loud. 1837 ; German by Littrow, Leips. 1839 ff. ) ; E. F. Apelt, Die Epochen der Geschichte der Mensch- heit (Jena, 1845) ; E. DUhring, Kritische Geschichte der Principien der Mechanilc (Leips. 1872) ; A. Lange, Gfsch. des Materialismus, 2d ed. , Iseriobn, 1873 [Eng. tr. History of Materialism by E. C. Thomas, Lond. , 4th ed. , 1892J ; K. Lasswitz, Gesch. der Atomistik, 2 vols. (Hamburg and Leips. 1890).
Francis Bacon, Baron of Verulam, Viscount of St. Albans, was born in 1561, studied in Cambridge, had a brilliant career under the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. , until, as the result of political opposition, he was proceeded against, convicted of venality, and deposed from the position of Lord High Chancellor. He died 1626. The latest edition of his works is that by Spedding and Heath (Lond. 1857 ff. ). Aside from the Essays (Sermones Fideles) the main writings are De Dignilate et Augmentis Scientiarum (1623 ; originally published under the title, The Two Books of Frattis Bacon on the Proftrience and Advancementof Learning, Divine and Human, 1605) and Novum Organon Scientiarum (1620; originally under the title, Cogitata et Visa, 1012). ' Cf. Ch. de Remusat, Bacon, Sa vie, son temps, sa philosophic et son influence
jusqu'a nos jours (Paris, 1864) ; H. Heussler, Fr. B. und seine geschichtlichf Stellung (Breslau, 1889) ; [Bacon, by J. Nichol, in Blackwood's series, Edin. 1888 : Ed. of the Novum Organum by Fowler, Oxford, 1878].
Rene Descartes (Cartesius), born 1596, in Touraine, and educated in the Jesuit school at La Fleche, was originally destined for a soldier and took part in the campaigns of 1618-1621 in the service of various leaders, but then betook himself for the first time to Paris, and later, withdrew for many years, at differ ent places in the Netherlands, into a scientific solitude, which he kept in the most diligent and careful manner. After controversies in which his doctrine had become involved at the universities in that country had rendered this place of residence disagreeable, he accepted, in 1649, an invitation of Queen Christine of Sweden to Stockholm, where he died the following year. His works have been collected in Latin in the Amsterdam editions (1650, etc. ), and in French by V. Cousin (11 vols. , Paris, 1824 ff. ) ; the important writings have been trans lated into German by Kuno Fischer (Mannheim, 1863) [Eng. tr. of the Method,
Meditations and Selections from the Principles by J. Veitch, Edin. and Lond. , 1st ed. , 1850-62, 10th ed. , 1890 ; of the Meditations by Lowndes, Lond. 1878, also in Jour. Spec. Phil. , Vol. IV. , 1870, by W. R. Walker; and of the Rules for the Direction of the Mind, with selections from the Med. 's, The World, The Passions of the Soul, etc. , by H. A. P. Torrey, N. Y. 1892]. The main works are Le Monde ou Traiti de la Lumiere (posthumously printed, 1654) ; Fssays, 16:17, among them the Discours de la Methode and the Dioptrics ; Meditationes de Prima Philosophia, 1641, supplemented by the objections of various savants and Descartes' replies ; Principia Philosophia;, 1644 ; Passions de VAme, 1650. Cf. F. Bouillier, Histoire de la Philosophic Cartisienne (Paris, 1854) ; X. Schmid-
1 It is well known that very recently much noise has been made over the discovery that Lord Bacon wrote Shakspere's works also, in his leisure hours. To fuse two great literary phenomena into one may have something alluring in it, but in any case a mistake has been made in the person. For it would be much more probable that Shakspere had incidentally composed the Baconian philosophy. [The Germans seem to take this "noise" much more seriously than Shakspere's countrymen. — Tr. ]
Chap. 2. ]
schwarzenberg, It. D. nnd seine Reform der Philosophic (Nordlingen, 1850) ; G. Glogau in Zeifehr. f. Philos. , 1878, pp. 209 S. ; P. Natorp, D. 's Erkenntniss- theorie (Marburg, 1882). [Descartes by J. P. Mahaffy in Blackwood's series, K. liii. and l'liila . 1881 ; W. Wallace, Art. Descartes in Ene. Brit. ; H. Sidgwick in Mind, Vol. VII. ; Rhodes in Jour. Spec. Phil. , XVII.
Natural Science Period. 381
Between these two leaders of modern philosophy stands Thomas Hobbea, born 1688, educated at Oxford, who was early drawn over to France by his studies, and frequently afterwards returned thither, was personally acquainted with Bacon, Gassendi, Campanella, and the Cartesian circle, and died 1879. Complete edition of his works, English and Latin by Molesworth, I. ond. 1830 ff. His first treatise, Elements of Late, Natural and Political (1639), was pub lished by his friends in 1660, in two parte, Human Nature and De Corpore Politico. He published previously Elementa Philosophic de Cive, 1642 and 1647, and further Leviathan or The Matter, Form, and Authority of Government, 1661. A comprehensive statement is given in the Elementa PhUosuphice, De Cor
pore, II. , De Homine, 1668 (both previously in English in 1666 and 1668. Cf. K. Touniea in Vierteljahrschr. w. Philos. , 1879 S. [Hobbes, by G. C. Robert son in Blackwood's series, Edin. and Phil. 1886, also Art Hobbes, In Ene. Bra. by same author. F. Tonnies. Hobbes (Stuttgart, 1896).
Of the Cartesian School (cf. Bouillier, op. cit. ) are to be noted the Jansen- ists of Port-Royal, from whose circles came the Logique ou Vart depenser (1662), ed. by Anton Arnauld (1612-1694), and Pierre Nicole (1626-1696) also the Mystics, Blaise Pascal (1623-1662 Penseis sur la Religion cf. the monographs by J. G. Dreydorff, Leips. 1870 and 1875), and Pierre Polret (1646-1719; De Eruditione Triplici, Solida Superjiciaria et Falsa.
The development to Occasionalism proceeds gradually in Louis de la Forge Trail* de Esprit llumain.
1666;, Clauberg( 1622-1665 De Conjunctione Corpo
ris et Animae in Homine), Cordemoy (f. e Discernement du Corps et de I'Ame, Irttlti), but finds its complete development independently of these thinkers in Arnold Oeullncz (1626-1669; university teacher in Loeweti and Leyden). His main works are the Ethics (1666; 2d ed. with notes, 1676); Logic, 1662, and Methodus, 1663. New ed. of his works by J. P. N. Land vols. , The Hague, 1891-3). Cf. E. Pfleiderer, A. G. als Hauptvertrrter der orr. Metaphysik
nnd Ethik (TUbingen, 1882) V. van der Hasghen, G. Etude sur sa Vie, sa Philosophic et set Ouvrages (LOttich, 1886).
From the Oratorlum founded by Cardinal Berulle, friend of Descartes, to which Oibieuf also belonged (De Libertate Dei et Creatura, Paris, 1630), went forth Nicole Malebranche (1638-1716). His main work, De la Recherche de la
X'rrite, appeared 1675, the Entretiens sur la Alitaphysique et sur la Religion in 1088. Coll. works by J. Simon (Paris, 1871).
Baruch (Benedict de) Spinosa, born in 1632 at Amsterdam in the commu nity of Portuguese Jews, and later expelled from this community on account of his opinions, lived in noble simplicity and solitude at various places in Hol land, and died at The Hague 1677. He had published an exposition of the Cartesian philosophy with an Independent metaphysical appendix (1663) and the Tract at us Theologieo-politieus (anonymously in 1670). After his death appeared in his Opera Posthuma (1677), his main work, Ethica More Geometrico
Demonstrate, the Traetatus Politicus, and the fragment De Intellecius Emenda- linne. His correspondence and his recently discovered youthful work, Traetatus ihrevis) de Den et Homine ejusque Felicitate, also come into consideration. <>n the latter cf. Chr. Sigwart (Tubingen, 1870). The best edition of his works to that by Van Vloten and Land vols. . Amsterdam, 1882 f. ). Cf. T. Camerer. Die Lehrt Sp. 's (Stuttgart, 1877). [Spinous, by J. Caird, Edin. 1888; Spinoza by Martineau, Lond. 1883 also in Types of Ethical Theory, Oxford, 1886 F. Pollock. Spinoza. His Life and Phil. , Lond. 1880; Seth, Art. Spinoza, in Ene. Brit. Arts, in Jour. Spec. Phil. , Vols. 11 and 16, by Morris and Dewey Eng. \x. of prin. works by F. lwes, Bonn Lib. , 1884, of the Ethics by White, Lond. 1883, and of Selections by Fullerton, NY. 1892. ]
Of philosophical writers in Germany who attached themselves to the train of the movement among the two civilised peoples of the West are to be mentioned Joachim Jung (1587-1667 Logica Hamburgiensis, 1638); cf. G. E. Guhrauer.
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382 The Renaissance : Natural Science Period. [Part IV.
J. J. und sein Zeitalter (Stuttg. and Tfib. 1859); the Jena mathematician, Erhard VVeigel, the teacher of Leibniz and Puffendorf ; Walther von Tschirn- hausen (1661-1708 ; Medicina Mentis sive Artis Inveniendi Prcecepta Generalia, Amsterdam, 1087), and Samuel Puffendorf (1032-1694; under the pseudonym Severinus a Monzambano, De Statu Bei publico: Germanicce, 1667, German by H. Bresslau, Berlin, 1870 ; De Jure Naturae et Gentium, London, 1672).
Leibniz belongs in this period, not only in point of time, but also as regards the origination and the motives of his metaphysics, while with other interests of his incredibly many-sided nature, he ranges on into the age of the Enlighten ment ; cf. on this, Part V. Here, therefore, we have to consider principally his methodological and metaphysical writings : De Principio Individui, 1663 ; De Arte Combinatoria, 1666 ; Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis, 1684 ; De Scientia Universali seu Calculo Philosophico, 1684 (cf. A. Trendelenburg, Hist. Beitrage zur Philos. , III. 1 ff. ); De Prima: Philosophies Emendatione, 1694; Systeme Nouveau de la Nature, 1695, with the three Eclaircissements connected with it, 1696 ; also the Monadologie, 1714, the Principes de la Nature et de la Grace, 1714, and a great part of his extended correspondence. Among the editions of his philosophical writings the excellent edition by J. E. Erdmann (^Berlin, 1840) has now been surpassed by that of C. J. Gerhardt (7 vols. , Ber lin, 1875-91). — On the system as a whole cf. L. Feuerbach, Darstellung, Ent- vricklnng und Kritik der Leibnizischen Philos. (Ansbach, 1837), A. Nourisson, La Philos. de L. (Paris, 1860); E. Wendt, Die Entwicklung der LSschen Mo- nadenlehre bis 1695 (Berlin, 1886). [E. Dillmann, Sine neue Darst. der L. 'schen Monadenlehre, Leips. 1891. See also the lit. on p. 444. ]
On the historical and systematic relation of the systems to one another : H. C. W. Sigwart, Ueber den Zusammenhang des Spinozismus mit der cartes. Philos. (Tub. 1816) and Die Leibniz'sche Lehre von der prastabilirten Harmonie in ihrem Zusammenhang mit fruheren Philosophemen (ib. 1822) ; C. Schaar- schmidt, Descartes und Spinoza (Bonn, 1860) ; A. Foucher de Careil, Leibniz, Descartes et Spinoza (Paris, 1863) ; E. Pfleiderer, L. und Geulincx (Tub. 1884); E. Zeller, Sitz. -Ber. d. Berliner Akad, 1884, pp. 673 ff. ; F. Tonnies, Leibniz und Hobbes in Philos. Monatsh; 1887, pp. 357 ft*. ; L. Stein, Leibniz und Spinoza (Berlin, 1890). [E. Caird, Art Cartesianism, in Enc. Brit. , reprinted in Vol. 2 of his Essays, Lond. and N. Y. 1892 ; Saisset's Modern Pantheism. ]
To the founders of the philosophy of law (cf. C. v. Kaltenborn, Die Vorlaufer des Hugo Grotius, Leips. 1848 ; and B. v. Mohl, Gesch. und Litteratur der Staatswissenschaften, Erlangen, 1866-68) belong Nicolo Macchiavelli (1469- 1627 ; H Principe, Discorsi sulla prima decade di Tito Livio ; [Works, tr. by C. E. Detmold, Boston, 1883. ] Thomas More (1480-1636 ; De Optimo Bei publico- Statu sive de Nova Insula Utopia, 1516) ; Jean Bodin (1530-1697) ; Six Livres de la Bipublique, 1577; an extract from the Heptaplomeres has been given by Guhrauer, Berlin, 1841) ; Albericus Oentilis (1551-1611 ; De Jure Belli, 1688) ; Johannes Althus (1557-1638 ; Politico, Groningen, 1610, cf. O. Gierke, Unters. z. deutsch. Staats- u. Bechtsgesch. , Breslau, 1880); Hugo de Groot (1583-1645 ; De Jure Belli et Pacis, 1646; cf. H. Luden, H. G. , Berlin, 1806).
Of the Protestants who treat of the philosophy of law may be named, be sides Melancthon, J. Oldendorf (Elementaris Introductio, 1539), Nic. Hemming
(De Lege Natural, 1562), Ben Winkler (Principia Juris, 1615) ; of the Catho lics besides Suarez, Rob. Bellarmin (1642-1621 ; De Potentate Pontijicis in
Temporalibus) and Mariana (1537-1624 ; De Bege et Begis Institutione).
Natural religion and natural morals in the seventeenth century found in England their main supporters in Herbert of Cnerbury (1581-1648 ; Tractatus de Veritate, 1624 ; De Beligione Gentilium Errorumque apud eos Causis, 1663 ; on him Ch. de Remusat, Paris, 1873), and Richard Cumberland (De Legibu* Natural Disquisitio Philosophica, Lond. 1672). Among the Platonists or Neo-
Platonists of England at the same time are prominent Ralph Cudworth (1617— 1688 ; The Intellectual System of the Universe, Lond. 1678, Latin, Jena, 1783) and Henry More (1614-1687 ; Encheiridion Metaphysicum. His correspondence with Descartes is printed in the latter's works, Vol. X. , Cousin's ed. ). [Pfcrt. of Cudworth, by C. E. Lowrey, with bibliog. , N. Y. 1884; Tulloch's Rational Theol. and Christian Phil, in Eng. in ^^th Cent. ] Theophilus Gale and his son, Thomas Gale, may be added to the authors above.
Chap. 2, $ 30. ] Problem of Method : Bacon. 383
§ 30. The Problem of Method.
All beginnings of modern philosophy have in common an impul sive opposition against "Scholasticism," and at the same time a naive lack of understanding for the common attitude of dependence upon some one of its traditions, which they nevertheless all occupy. This fundamental oppositional character brings with it the conse quence, that in all cases where it is not merely wants of the feelings, or fanciful views that are set over against the old doctrines, reflec tion on new methods of knowledge stands in the foreground. Out of the insight into the unfruitfulness of the " syllogism," which could merely set forth in proof or refutation that which was already known, or apply the same to a particular case, arises the demand for an ars inveniendi, a method of investigation, a sure way to the discovery of the new.
1. If now nothing was to be accomplished with the help of rhetoric, the nearest expedient was to attack the matter by the reverse method, proceeding from the particular, from the facts. This had been commended by Vives and Sanchez, and practised by Telesio and Campanella. But they had neither gained full confi dence in experience nor known afterwards how to make any right beginning with their facts. In both lines Bacon believed that he could point out new paths for science, and in this spirit he set up his " New Organon " as over against the Aristotelian.
Every -day perception — he confesses, admitting the well-known sceptical arguments — offers, indeed, no sure basis for a true knowl edge of Nature ; in order to become an experience that can be used by science it must first be purified from all the erroneous additions which have grown together with it in our involuntary way of regard ing things. These perversions or falsifications of pure experience Bacon calls idols, and presents his doctrine of these fallacious images in analog}' with the doctrine of the fallacious conclusions in the old dialectic. 1 There are first the "idols of the tribe" (idola tribus), the illusions that are given in connection with human nature in general, following which we are always suspecting an order and an end in things, making ourselves the measure of the outer world, blindly retaining a mode of thought which has once been excited by impressions, and the like; then the "idols of the cave" (idola specus), by reason of which every individual by his natural disposi tion, and his situation in life, finds himself shut into his cave;*
• Nov.
Natural science acquired its decisive influence upon the develop ment of modern philosophy by first gaining its own independence with the aid of a conscious use of a scientific method, and then from this position being able to determine the general movement of thought as regards both form and content. In so far the develop ment of the method of natural science from Kepler and Galileo down to Newton is not indeed itself the evolution of modern philos ophy, but is yet that series of events in reference to which this evolution constantly proceeds.
For this reason the positive beginnings of modern philosophy are in general to be sought, not so much in new conceptions with new content, as in methodical reflection, out of which, with the progress of time, there resulted of course new material and so new points of view for the treatment of both theoretical and practical problems. But at first the points of departure of modern thought were in all cases where permanently fruitful conceptions of the task and thereby conditioned procedure of the new science grew out of the humanistic opposition against Scholasticism, and out of the excited metaphysical fantasies of the transitional period.
In this consists from the outset an essential difference between modern and ancient philosophy. The former is as reflective in its beginning as the latter was nai've, and this is self-explaining, since the former must develop out of those traditions which the latter created. In this way it is characteristic of the greater number of the systems of modern philosophy to seek the path to the real or " material " problems by considering the science of method and the theory of knowledge ; and in particular the seventeenth century with
respect to its philosophy may be characterised as a strife of methods. 378
Chap. 2. ]
While, however, the movement of the humanistic period had in the main taken place in Italy and Germany, the cooler and more considerate temper of the two western civilised peoples now became prominent Italy was made dumb by the counter-reformation, Ger many was crippled by the ruinous war between the confessions. England and France, on the contrary, experienced in the seventeenth century the bloom of their intellectual civilisation, and between them the Netherlands became a flourishing seat of art and science.
In the development of the method of natural science the lines of empiricism and of mathematical theory converged : in philosophical generalisation the two came forward in an independent attitude. The programme of the experience philosophy was laid down by Bacon, but the method which formed its fundamental thought was not car ried out by him in the fruitful manner which he had anticipated. Much more comprehensive was the form in which Descartes brought together the scientific movement of his time to establish rationalism anew, by filling the scholastic system of conceptions with the rich content of the Galilean research. From this resulted far-reaching metaphysical problems, which in the second half of the seventeenth century called forth an extraordinarily vigorous movement of philo sophical thought, — a movement in which the new principles entered into manifold antithetical combinations with the principles of mediae
val philosophy. Out of the Cartesian school rose Occasionalism, of which Oeulincx and Malebranclie are the chief representatives. But the complete issue of this development was found in the two great philosophical systems brought forward by Spinoza and Leibniz.
The influence which the powerful development of theoretical phil osophy exercised also upon the treatment of practical problems shows itself principally in the field of the philosophy of law (or right). In thia department Hobbes, who was in like measure a disciple of Bacon and of Descartes, and as such marks an important point in the line of development of methods and metaphysics above noted, takes the decisive position as the introducer of an ethical naturalism which is found in altered form even with his opponents, such as Herbert oj
Cherbury and Cumberland. In these antitheses the problems of the philosophy of the Enlightenment are in process of preparation.
The teriea of great natural scientists who exercised an immediate influence also upon philosophical questions was opened by Johann Kepler ( IftM-HMO) of Weil, a town in WUrtt*mberg, who died in Regensburg after a life spent in struggle with need and anxiety. Among his works (ed. by Krisch, Frankfurt, 1868-71, 8 vols. ), the most important are Mytterium Cotmngraphieum, Harmo nize Mundi. Aflronomia . Vara leu Phyrica Catlentis Tradita CommeutariU de
Motibu* Stella- Mortis. Cf. Ohr. Sigwart, Kleine Srhriflen. I. 182 ff. ; R. Kucken, Pkilut. Monatih. , 1878, pp. 30 ff. — In immediate attachment to htm stands OaUleo Galilei (born I'M at I'Ua, died 1042 at ArcetriJ. Ilia works were
Natural Science Period. 379
380 Philosophy of the Renaissance. [Part IV.
published in 15 vols. (Florence, 1842-56) with a biographical supplementary volume by Arrago. Vols. 11-14 contain the Fisico-Mathematica ; among which we notice II Saggiatore (1623) and the dialogue on the Ptolemaic and the Copernican systems (1632). Cf. II. Martin, Galileo, let droits de la science et la methode de* sciences physiques (Paris, 1668) ; P. Natorp, Gal. als Philo- soph. (PAi'ios. Monatsh. , 1882, pp. 193 ft\). Isaac Newton (1642-1727) comes into consideration chiefly on account of his Philosophim Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687; 2d ed. by Cotes, 1713; German by Wolfers, 1872) and his Optics (1704). —Of his contemporaries we notice the chemist, Robert Boyle (1626-1691; Chemista Scepticus ; Origo Formarum et Qualitatum; De Ipsa Natura), and the Netherlander, Christian Huyghens (1629-1695; De Causa Gravitatis; De Lumine).
Cf. W. Whewell, History of the Inductive Sciences (Loud. 1837 ; German by Littrow, Leips. 1839 ff. ) ; E. F. Apelt, Die Epochen der Geschichte der Mensch- heit (Jena, 1845) ; E. DUhring, Kritische Geschichte der Principien der Mechanilc (Leips. 1872) ; A. Lange, Gfsch. des Materialismus, 2d ed. , Iseriobn, 1873 [Eng. tr. History of Materialism by E. C. Thomas, Lond. , 4th ed. , 1892J ; K. Lasswitz, Gesch. der Atomistik, 2 vols. (Hamburg and Leips. 1890).
Francis Bacon, Baron of Verulam, Viscount of St. Albans, was born in 1561, studied in Cambridge, had a brilliant career under the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. , until, as the result of political opposition, he was proceeded against, convicted of venality, and deposed from the position of Lord High Chancellor. He died 1626. The latest edition of his works is that by Spedding and Heath (Lond. 1857 ff. ). Aside from the Essays (Sermones Fideles) the main writings are De Dignilate et Augmentis Scientiarum (1623 ; originally published under the title, The Two Books of Frattis Bacon on the Proftrience and Advancementof Learning, Divine and Human, 1605) and Novum Organon Scientiarum (1620; originally under the title, Cogitata et Visa, 1012). ' Cf. Ch. de Remusat, Bacon, Sa vie, son temps, sa philosophic et son influence
jusqu'a nos jours (Paris, 1864) ; H. Heussler, Fr. B. und seine geschichtlichf Stellung (Breslau, 1889) ; [Bacon, by J. Nichol, in Blackwood's series, Edin. 1888 : Ed. of the Novum Organum by Fowler, Oxford, 1878].
Rene Descartes (Cartesius), born 1596, in Touraine, and educated in the Jesuit school at La Fleche, was originally destined for a soldier and took part in the campaigns of 1618-1621 in the service of various leaders, but then betook himself for the first time to Paris, and later, withdrew for many years, at differ ent places in the Netherlands, into a scientific solitude, which he kept in the most diligent and careful manner. After controversies in which his doctrine had become involved at the universities in that country had rendered this place of residence disagreeable, he accepted, in 1649, an invitation of Queen Christine of Sweden to Stockholm, where he died the following year. His works have been collected in Latin in the Amsterdam editions (1650, etc. ), and in French by V. Cousin (11 vols. , Paris, 1824 ff. ) ; the important writings have been trans lated into German by Kuno Fischer (Mannheim, 1863) [Eng. tr. of the Method,
Meditations and Selections from the Principles by J. Veitch, Edin. and Lond. , 1st ed. , 1850-62, 10th ed. , 1890 ; of the Meditations by Lowndes, Lond. 1878, also in Jour. Spec. Phil. , Vol. IV. , 1870, by W. R. Walker; and of the Rules for the Direction of the Mind, with selections from the Med. 's, The World, The Passions of the Soul, etc. , by H. A. P. Torrey, N. Y. 1892]. The main works are Le Monde ou Traiti de la Lumiere (posthumously printed, 1654) ; Fssays, 16:17, among them the Discours de la Methode and the Dioptrics ; Meditationes de Prima Philosophia, 1641, supplemented by the objections of various savants and Descartes' replies ; Principia Philosophia;, 1644 ; Passions de VAme, 1650. Cf. F. Bouillier, Histoire de la Philosophic Cartisienne (Paris, 1854) ; X. Schmid-
1 It is well known that very recently much noise has been made over the discovery that Lord Bacon wrote Shakspere's works also, in his leisure hours. To fuse two great literary phenomena into one may have something alluring in it, but in any case a mistake has been made in the person. For it would be much more probable that Shakspere had incidentally composed the Baconian philosophy. [The Germans seem to take this "noise" much more seriously than Shakspere's countrymen. — Tr. ]
Chap. 2. ]
schwarzenberg, It. D. nnd seine Reform der Philosophic (Nordlingen, 1850) ; G. Glogau in Zeifehr. f. Philos. , 1878, pp. 209 S. ; P. Natorp, D. 's Erkenntniss- theorie (Marburg, 1882). [Descartes by J. P. Mahaffy in Blackwood's series, K. liii. and l'liila . 1881 ; W. Wallace, Art. Descartes in Ene. Brit. ; H. Sidgwick in Mind, Vol. VII. ; Rhodes in Jour. Spec. Phil. , XVII.
Natural Science Period. 381
Between these two leaders of modern philosophy stands Thomas Hobbea, born 1688, educated at Oxford, who was early drawn over to France by his studies, and frequently afterwards returned thither, was personally acquainted with Bacon, Gassendi, Campanella, and the Cartesian circle, and died 1879. Complete edition of his works, English and Latin by Molesworth, I. ond. 1830 ff. His first treatise, Elements of Late, Natural and Political (1639), was pub lished by his friends in 1660, in two parte, Human Nature and De Corpore Politico. He published previously Elementa Philosophic de Cive, 1642 and 1647, and further Leviathan or The Matter, Form, and Authority of Government, 1661. A comprehensive statement is given in the Elementa PhUosuphice, De Cor
pore, II. , De Homine, 1668 (both previously in English in 1666 and 1668. Cf. K. Touniea in Vierteljahrschr. w. Philos. , 1879 S. [Hobbes, by G. C. Robert son in Blackwood's series, Edin. and Phil. 1886, also Art Hobbes, In Ene. Bra. by same author. F. Tonnies. Hobbes (Stuttgart, 1896).
Of the Cartesian School (cf. Bouillier, op. cit. ) are to be noted the Jansen- ists of Port-Royal, from whose circles came the Logique ou Vart depenser (1662), ed. by Anton Arnauld (1612-1694), and Pierre Nicole (1626-1696) also the Mystics, Blaise Pascal (1623-1662 Penseis sur la Religion cf. the monographs by J. G. Dreydorff, Leips. 1870 and 1875), and Pierre Polret (1646-1719; De Eruditione Triplici, Solida Superjiciaria et Falsa.
The development to Occasionalism proceeds gradually in Louis de la Forge Trail* de Esprit llumain.
1666;, Clauberg( 1622-1665 De Conjunctione Corpo
ris et Animae in Homine), Cordemoy (f. e Discernement du Corps et de I'Ame, Irttlti), but finds its complete development independently of these thinkers in Arnold Oeullncz (1626-1669; university teacher in Loeweti and Leyden). His main works are the Ethics (1666; 2d ed. with notes, 1676); Logic, 1662, and Methodus, 1663. New ed. of his works by J. P. N. Land vols. , The Hague, 1891-3). Cf. E. Pfleiderer, A. G. als Hauptvertrrter der orr. Metaphysik
nnd Ethik (TUbingen, 1882) V. van der Hasghen, G. Etude sur sa Vie, sa Philosophic et set Ouvrages (LOttich, 1886).
From the Oratorlum founded by Cardinal Berulle, friend of Descartes, to which Oibieuf also belonged (De Libertate Dei et Creatura, Paris, 1630), went forth Nicole Malebranche (1638-1716). His main work, De la Recherche de la
X'rrite, appeared 1675, the Entretiens sur la Alitaphysique et sur la Religion in 1088. Coll. works by J. Simon (Paris, 1871).
Baruch (Benedict de) Spinosa, born in 1632 at Amsterdam in the commu nity of Portuguese Jews, and later expelled from this community on account of his opinions, lived in noble simplicity and solitude at various places in Hol land, and died at The Hague 1677. He had published an exposition of the Cartesian philosophy with an Independent metaphysical appendix (1663) and the Tract at us Theologieo-politieus (anonymously in 1670). After his death appeared in his Opera Posthuma (1677), his main work, Ethica More Geometrico
Demonstrate, the Traetatus Politicus, and the fragment De Intellecius Emenda- linne. His correspondence and his recently discovered youthful work, Traetatus ihrevis) de Den et Homine ejusque Felicitate, also come into consideration. <>n the latter cf. Chr. Sigwart (Tubingen, 1870). The best edition of his works to that by Van Vloten and Land vols. . Amsterdam, 1882 f. ). Cf. T. Camerer. Die Lehrt Sp. 's (Stuttgart, 1877). [Spinous, by J. Caird, Edin. 1888; Spinoza by Martineau, Lond. 1883 also in Types of Ethical Theory, Oxford, 1886 F. Pollock. Spinoza. His Life and Phil. , Lond. 1880; Seth, Art. Spinoza, in Ene. Brit. Arts, in Jour. Spec. Phil. , Vols. 11 and 16, by Morris and Dewey Eng. \x. of prin. works by F. lwes, Bonn Lib. , 1884, of the Ethics by White, Lond. 1883, and of Selections by Fullerton, NY. 1892. ]
Of philosophical writers in Germany who attached themselves to the train of the movement among the two civilised peoples of the West are to be mentioned Joachim Jung (1587-1667 Logica Hamburgiensis, 1638); cf. G. E. Guhrauer.
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382 The Renaissance : Natural Science Period. [Part IV.
J. J. und sein Zeitalter (Stuttg. and Tfib. 1859); the Jena mathematician, Erhard VVeigel, the teacher of Leibniz and Puffendorf ; Walther von Tschirn- hausen (1661-1708 ; Medicina Mentis sive Artis Inveniendi Prcecepta Generalia, Amsterdam, 1087), and Samuel Puffendorf (1032-1694; under the pseudonym Severinus a Monzambano, De Statu Bei publico: Germanicce, 1667, German by H. Bresslau, Berlin, 1870 ; De Jure Naturae et Gentium, London, 1672).
Leibniz belongs in this period, not only in point of time, but also as regards the origination and the motives of his metaphysics, while with other interests of his incredibly many-sided nature, he ranges on into the age of the Enlighten ment ; cf. on this, Part V. Here, therefore, we have to consider principally his methodological and metaphysical writings : De Principio Individui, 1663 ; De Arte Combinatoria, 1666 ; Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis, 1684 ; De Scientia Universali seu Calculo Philosophico, 1684 (cf. A. Trendelenburg, Hist. Beitrage zur Philos. , III. 1 ff. ); De Prima: Philosophies Emendatione, 1694; Systeme Nouveau de la Nature, 1695, with the three Eclaircissements connected with it, 1696 ; also the Monadologie, 1714, the Principes de la Nature et de la Grace, 1714, and a great part of his extended correspondence. Among the editions of his philosophical writings the excellent edition by J. E. Erdmann (^Berlin, 1840) has now been surpassed by that of C. J. Gerhardt (7 vols. , Ber lin, 1875-91). — On the system as a whole cf. L. Feuerbach, Darstellung, Ent- vricklnng und Kritik der Leibnizischen Philos. (Ansbach, 1837), A. Nourisson, La Philos. de L. (Paris, 1860); E. Wendt, Die Entwicklung der LSschen Mo- nadenlehre bis 1695 (Berlin, 1886). [E. Dillmann, Sine neue Darst. der L. 'schen Monadenlehre, Leips. 1891. See also the lit. on p. 444. ]
On the historical and systematic relation of the systems to one another : H. C. W. Sigwart, Ueber den Zusammenhang des Spinozismus mit der cartes. Philos. (Tub. 1816) and Die Leibniz'sche Lehre von der prastabilirten Harmonie in ihrem Zusammenhang mit fruheren Philosophemen (ib. 1822) ; C. Schaar- schmidt, Descartes und Spinoza (Bonn, 1860) ; A. Foucher de Careil, Leibniz, Descartes et Spinoza (Paris, 1863) ; E. Pfleiderer, L. und Geulincx (Tub. 1884); E. Zeller, Sitz. -Ber. d. Berliner Akad, 1884, pp. 673 ff. ; F. Tonnies, Leibniz und Hobbes in Philos. Monatsh; 1887, pp. 357 ft*. ; L. Stein, Leibniz und Spinoza (Berlin, 1890). [E. Caird, Art Cartesianism, in Enc. Brit. , reprinted in Vol. 2 of his Essays, Lond. and N. Y. 1892 ; Saisset's Modern Pantheism. ]
To the founders of the philosophy of law (cf. C. v. Kaltenborn, Die Vorlaufer des Hugo Grotius, Leips. 1848 ; and B. v. Mohl, Gesch. und Litteratur der Staatswissenschaften, Erlangen, 1866-68) belong Nicolo Macchiavelli (1469- 1627 ; H Principe, Discorsi sulla prima decade di Tito Livio ; [Works, tr. by C. E. Detmold, Boston, 1883. ] Thomas More (1480-1636 ; De Optimo Bei publico- Statu sive de Nova Insula Utopia, 1516) ; Jean Bodin (1530-1697) ; Six Livres de la Bipublique, 1577; an extract from the Heptaplomeres has been given by Guhrauer, Berlin, 1841) ; Albericus Oentilis (1551-1611 ; De Jure Belli, 1688) ; Johannes Althus (1557-1638 ; Politico, Groningen, 1610, cf. O. Gierke, Unters. z. deutsch. Staats- u. Bechtsgesch. , Breslau, 1880); Hugo de Groot (1583-1645 ; De Jure Belli et Pacis, 1646; cf. H. Luden, H. G. , Berlin, 1806).
Of the Protestants who treat of the philosophy of law may be named, be sides Melancthon, J. Oldendorf (Elementaris Introductio, 1539), Nic. Hemming
(De Lege Natural, 1562), Ben Winkler (Principia Juris, 1615) ; of the Catho lics besides Suarez, Rob. Bellarmin (1642-1621 ; De Potentate Pontijicis in
Temporalibus) and Mariana (1537-1624 ; De Bege et Begis Institutione).
Natural religion and natural morals in the seventeenth century found in England their main supporters in Herbert of Cnerbury (1581-1648 ; Tractatus de Veritate, 1624 ; De Beligione Gentilium Errorumque apud eos Causis, 1663 ; on him Ch. de Remusat, Paris, 1873), and Richard Cumberland (De Legibu* Natural Disquisitio Philosophica, Lond. 1672). Among the Platonists or Neo-
Platonists of England at the same time are prominent Ralph Cudworth (1617— 1688 ; The Intellectual System of the Universe, Lond. 1678, Latin, Jena, 1783) and Henry More (1614-1687 ; Encheiridion Metaphysicum. His correspondence with Descartes is printed in the latter's works, Vol. X. , Cousin's ed. ). [Pfcrt. of Cudworth, by C. E. Lowrey, with bibliog. , N. Y. 1884; Tulloch's Rational Theol. and Christian Phil, in Eng. in ^^th Cent. ] Theophilus Gale and his son, Thomas Gale, may be added to the authors above.
Chap. 2, $ 30. ] Problem of Method : Bacon. 383
§ 30. The Problem of Method.
All beginnings of modern philosophy have in common an impul sive opposition against "Scholasticism," and at the same time a naive lack of understanding for the common attitude of dependence upon some one of its traditions, which they nevertheless all occupy. This fundamental oppositional character brings with it the conse quence, that in all cases where it is not merely wants of the feelings, or fanciful views that are set over against the old doctrines, reflec tion on new methods of knowledge stands in the foreground. Out of the insight into the unfruitfulness of the " syllogism," which could merely set forth in proof or refutation that which was already known, or apply the same to a particular case, arises the demand for an ars inveniendi, a method of investigation, a sure way to the discovery of the new.
1. If now nothing was to be accomplished with the help of rhetoric, the nearest expedient was to attack the matter by the reverse method, proceeding from the particular, from the facts. This had been commended by Vives and Sanchez, and practised by Telesio and Campanella. But they had neither gained full confi dence in experience nor known afterwards how to make any right beginning with their facts. In both lines Bacon believed that he could point out new paths for science, and in this spirit he set up his " New Organon " as over against the Aristotelian.
Every -day perception — he confesses, admitting the well-known sceptical arguments — offers, indeed, no sure basis for a true knowl edge of Nature ; in order to become an experience that can be used by science it must first be purified from all the erroneous additions which have grown together with it in our involuntary way of regard ing things. These perversions or falsifications of pure experience Bacon calls idols, and presents his doctrine of these fallacious images in analog}' with the doctrine of the fallacious conclusions in the old dialectic. 1 There are first the "idols of the tribe" (idola tribus), the illusions that are given in connection with human nature in general, following which we are always suspecting an order and an end in things, making ourselves the measure of the outer world, blindly retaining a mode of thought which has once been excited by impressions, and the like; then the "idols of the cave" (idola specus), by reason of which every individual by his natural disposi tion, and his situation in life, finds himself shut into his cave;*
• Nov.
