No More Learning

18. Continuing our former sketch, we now state that the earth which we
inhabit contains numerous gulfs, formed by the exterior sea or ocean
which surrounds it. Of these there are four principal. The northern,
called the Caspian, by others designated the Hyrcanian Sea, the Persian
and Arabian Gulfs, formed by the [Southern] Sea, the one being nearly
opposite to the Caspian, the other to the Euxine; the fourth, which in
size is much more considerable than the others, is called the Internal
and Our Sea. [757] It commences in the west at the Strait of the Pillars
of Hercules, and continues in an easterly direction, but with varying
breadth. Farther in, it becomes divided, and terminates in two gulfs;
that on the left being called the Euxine Sea, while the other consists
of the seas of Egypt, Pamphylia, and Issus. All these gulfs formed by
the exterior sea, have a narrow entrance; those of the Arabian Gulf,
however, and the Pillars of Hercules are smaller than the rest. [758] The
land which surrounds these, as before remarked, consists of three
divisions. Of these, the configuration of Europe is the most irregular.
Libya, on the contrary, is the most regular; while Asia holds a middle
place between the two. In all of these continents, the regularity or
irregularity of form relates merely to the interior coasts; the
exterior, with the exception of the gulfs before mentioned, is
unindented, and, as I have stated, resembles a chlamys in its form; any
slight differences being of course overlooked, as in large matters what
is insignificant passes for nothing. Since in geographical descriptions
we not only aim at portraying the configuration and extent of various
places, but also their common boundaries, we will remark here, as we
have done before, that the coasts of the Internal Sea[759] present a
greater variety in their appearance than those of the Exterior [Ocean];
the former is also much better known, its climate is more temperate, and
more civilized cities and nations are here than there. We are also
anxious to be informed where the form of government, the arts, and
whatever else ministers to intelligence, produce the greatest results.
Interest will always lead us to where the relations of commerce and
society are most easily established, and these are advantages to be
found where government is administered, or rather where it is well
administered. In each of these particulars, as before remarked, Our
Sea[760] possesses great advantages, and here therefore we will begin
our description.

19. This gulf,[761] as before stated, commences at the Strait of the
Pillars; this at its narrowest part is said to be 70 stadia. Having
sailed down a distance of 120 stadia, the shores widen considerably,
especially to the left, and you behold a vast sea, bounded on the right
by the shore of Libya as far as Carthage, and on the opposite side by
those of Iberia and Keltica as far as Narbonne and Marseilles, thence by
the Ligurian,[762] and finally by the Italian coast to the Strait of
Sicily. The eastern side of this sea is formed by Sicily and the straits
on either side of it. That next Italy being 7 stadia [in breadth], and
that next Carthage 1500 stadia. The line drawn from the Pillars to the
lesser strait of 7 stadia, forms part of the line to Rhodes and the
Taurus, and intersects the sea under discussion about its middle; this
line is said to be 12,000 stadia, which is accordingly the length of the
sea. Its greatest breadth is about 5000 stadia, and extends from the
Galatic Gulf, between Marseilles and Narbonne, to the opposite coast of
Libya.

The portion of the sea which washes Libya is called the Libyan Sea;
that surrounding the land opposite is designated by the respective names
of the Iberian, the Ligurian,[763] and the Sardinian Seas, while the
remaining portion as far as Sicily is named the Tyrrhenian Sea. [764] All
along the coast between the Tyrrhenian and Ligurian Seas, there are
numerous islands, the largest of which are Sardinia and Cyrnus,[765]
always excepting Sicily, which is larger and more fertile than any of
our islands. The remainder are much smaller. Of this number are, in the
high sea, Pandataria[766] and Pontia,[767] and close to the shore
Æthalia,[768] Planasia,[769] Pithecussa,[770] Prochyta,[771]
Capriæ,[772] Leucosia,[773] and many others. On the other[774] side of
the Ligurian shore, and along the rest of the coast as far as the
Pillars, there are but few islands; the Gymnasiæ[775] and Ebusus[776]
are of this number. There are likewise but few islands along the coasts
of Libya and Sicily. We may mention however Cossura,[777] Ægimurus,[778]
and the Lipari Islands, likewise called the Islands of Æolus.

20. After Sicily and the straits on either side of it,[779] there are
other seas, for instance, that opposite the Syrtes and the
Cyrenaic,[780] the Syrtes themselves, and the sea formerly called the
Ausonian, but which, as it flows into and forms part of the Sea of
Sicily, is now included under the latter name. The sea opposite to the
Syrtes and the Cyrenaic is called the Libyan Sea; it extends as far as
the Sea of Egypt.

The Lesser Syrtes[781] is about 1600 stadia in circumference. On either
side of its mouth lie the islands of Meninx[782] and Kerkina. [783] The
Greater Syrtes[784] is (according to Eratosthenes) 5000 stadia in
circuit, and in depth 1800, from the Hesperides[785] to Automala,[786]
and the frontier which separates the Cyrenaic from the rest of Libya.
According to others, its circumference is only 4000 stadia, its depth
1500 stadia, and the breadth at its mouth the same.

The Sea of Sicily washes Italy, from the Strait of Rhegium[787] to
Locris,[788] and also the eastern coast of Sicily from Messene[789] to
Syracuse[790] and Pachynus. [791] On the eastern side it reaches to the
promontories of Crete, surrounds the greater part of Peloponnesus, and
fills the Gulf of Corinth. [792] On the north it advances to the Iapygian
Promontory,[793] the mouth of the Ionian Gulf,[794] the southern parts
of Epirus,[795] as far as the Ambracic Gulf,[796] and the continuation
of the coast which forms the Corinthian Gulf, near the Peloponnesus.

The Ionian Gulf forms part of what we now call the Adriatic. [797]
Illyria forms its right side, and Italy as far as the recess where
Aquileia is situated, the left.

The Adriatic stretches north and west; it is long and narrow, being in
length about 6000 stadia, and its greatest breadth 1200. There are many
islands situated here opposite the coasts of Illyria, such as the
Absyrtides,[798] Cyrictica,[799] and the Libyrnides,[800] also
Issa,[801] Tragurium,[802] the Black Corcyra,[803] and Pharos. [804]
Opposite to Italy are the Islands of Diomede. [805] The Sea of Sicily is
said to be 4500 stadia from Pachynus to Crete, and the same distance to
Tænarus in Laconia. [806] From the extremities of Iapygia to the bottom
of the Gulf of Corinth the distance is less than 3000 stadia, while from
Iapygia to Libya it is more than 4000. In this sea are the Islands of
Corcyra[807] and Sybota,[808] opposite the coasts of Epirus; and beyond
these, opposite the Gulf of Corinth, Cephallenia,[809] Ithaca,
Zacynth,[810] and the Echinades. [811]

21. Next to the Sea of Sicily, are the Cretan, Saronic,[812] and Myrtoan
Seas, comprised between Crete, Argia,[813] and Attica. [814] Their
greatest breadth, measured from Attica, is 1200 stadia, and their length
not quite double the distance. Within are included the Islands of
Cythera,[815] Calauria,[816] Ægina,[817] Salamis,[818] and certain of
the Cyclades. [819] Adjacent to these are the Ægæan Sea,[820] the Gulf of
Melas,[821] the Hellespont,[822] the Icarian and Carpathian Seas,[823]
as far as Rhodes, Crete, Cnidus, and the commencement of Asia. [In these
seas] are the Cyclades, the Sporades, and the islands opposite Caria,
Ionia, and Æolia, as far as the Troad, namely, Cos,[824] Samos,[825]
Chios,[826] Lesbos,[827] and Tenedos;[828] likewise on the Grecian side
as far as Macedonia and the borders of Thrace, Eubœa,[829] Scyros,[830]
Peparethus,[831] Lemnos,[832] Thasos,[833] Imbros,[834]
Samothracia,[835] and numerous others, of which it is our intention to
speak in detail. The length of this sea is about 4000 stadia, or rather
more,[836] its breadth about 2000. [837] It is surrounded by the coast
of Asia above mentioned, and by those of Greece from Sunium[838]
northwards to the Thermaic Gulf[839] and the Gulfs of Macedonia,[840]
and as far as the Thracian Chersonesus. [841]

22. Here too is the strait, seven stadia in length, which is between
Sestos[842] and Abydos,[843] and through which the Ægæan and Hellespont
communicate with another sea to the north, named the Propontis,[844] and
this again with another called the Euxine. This latter is, so to speak,
a double sea, for towards its middle are two projecting promontories,
one to the north, on the side of Europe, and the other opposite from the
coast of Asia, which leave only a narrow passage between them, and thus
form two great seas. The European promontory is named Criu-metopon;[845]
that of Asia, Carambis. [846] They are distant from each other about 2500
stadia. [847] The length of the western portion of this sea[848] from
Byzantium to the outlets of the Dnieper is 3800 stadia, its breadth
2000. Here is situated the Island of Leuca. [849] The eastern portion is
oblong and terminates in the narrow recess in which Dioscurias is
situated. In length it is 5000 stadia, or rather more, and in breadth
about 3000. The entire circumference of the Euxine is about 25,000
stadia. Some have compared the shape of its circumference to a Scythian
bow when bent, the string representing the southern portions of the
Euxine, (viz. the coast, from its mouth to the recess in which
Dioscurias is situated; for, with the exception of Carambis, the
sinuosities of the shore are but trifling, so that it may be justly
compared to a straight line,) and the remainder [of the circumference
representing] the wood of the bow with its double curve, the uppermost
very much rounded, the lower more in a straight line. So this sea forms
two gulfs, the western much more rounded than the other.

23. To the north of the eastern Gulf of the Pontus, is the Lake Mæotis,
whose perimeter is 9000 stadia or rather more. It communicates with the
Euxine by means of the Cimmerian Bosphorus,[850] and the Euxine with the
Propontis[851] by the Thracian Bosphorus, for such is the name given to
the Strait of Byzantium, which is four stadia in breadth. The length of
the Propontis from the Troad to Byzantium is stated to be 1500 stadia.
Its breadth is about the same. It is in this sea that the Island of the
Cyziceni[852] is situated, with the other islands around it.

24. Such and so great is the extent of the Ægæan Sea towards the
north. [853] Again, starting from Rhodes, the [Mediterranean] forms the
seas of Egypt, Pamphylia, and Issus, extending in an easterly direction
from Cilicia to Issus, a distance of 5000 stadia, along the coasts of
Lycia, Pamphylia, and the whole of Cilicia. From thence Syria, Phœnicia,
and Egypt surround the sea to the south and west as far as Alexandria.
The Island of Cyprus is situated in the Gulfs of Issus and Pamphylia,
close to the Sea of Egypt. The passage between Rhodes and Alexandria
from north [to south] is about 4000 stadia;[854] sailing round the
coasts it is double this distance. Eratosthenes informs us that,
although the above is the distance according to some mariners, others
avow distinctly that it amounts to 5000 stadia; while he himself, from
observations of the shadows indicated by the gnomon, calculates it at
3750.

That part of the Mediterranean Sea which washes the coasts of Cilicia
and Pamphylia together with the right side of the Euxine, the Propontis,
and the sea-coast beyond this as far as Pamphylia, form a kind of
extensive Chersonesus, the isthmus of which is also large, and reaches
from the sea near Tarsus[855] to the city of Amisus,[856] and thence to
the Themiscyran[857] plain of the Amazons. In fact the whole region
within this line as far as Caria and Ionia, and the nations dwelling on
this side the Halys,[858] is entirely surrounded by the Ægæan and the
aforementioned parts of the Mediterranean and Euxine Seas. [859] This is
what we call Asia properly,[860] although the whole continent bears the
same name.

25. To speak shortly, the southernmost point of Our Sea is the recess of
the Greater Syrtes;[861] next to this Alexandria in Egypt, and the
mouths of the Nile; while the most northerly is the mouth of the
Dnieper, or if the Mæotis be considered to belong to the Euxine, (and it
certainly does appear to form a part of it,) the mouth of the Don. The
Strait at the Pillars is the most westerly point, and the most easterly
is the said recess, in which Dioscurias[862] is situated; and not, as
Eratosthenes falsely states, the Gulf of Issus,[863] which is under the
same meridian as Amisus[864] and Themiscyra, and, if you will have it
so, Sidene as far as Pharnacia. [865] Proceeding thence in an easterly
direction to Dioscurias, the distance by sea is above 3000 stadia, as
will be seen more plainly in my detailed account of those countries.
Such then is the Mediterranean.

26. We must now describe the countries which surround it; and here we
will begin from the same point, whence we commenced our description of
the sea itself.

Entering the Strait at the Pillars, Libya, as far as the river Nile, is
on the right hand, and to the left, on the other side of the Strait, is
Europe, as far as the Don. Asia bounds both these continents. We will
commence with Europe, both because its figure is more varied, and also
because it is the quarter most favourable to the mental and social
ennoblement of man, and produces a greater portion of comforts than the
other continents.

Now the whole of Europe is habitable with the exception of a small part,
which cannot be dwelt in, on account of the severity of the cold, and
which borders on the Hamaxœci,[866] who dwell by the Don, Mæotis, and
Dnieper. The wintry and mountainous parts of the habitable earth would
seem to afford by nature but a miserable means of existence;
nevertheless, by good management, places scarcely inhabited by any but
robbers, may be got into condition. Thus the Greeks, though dwelling
amidst rocks and mountains, live in comfort, owing to their economy in
government and the arts, and all the other appliances of life. Thus too
the Romans, after subduing numerous nations who were leading a savage
life, either induced by the rockiness of their countries, or want of
ports, or severity of the cold, or for other reasons scarcely habitable,
have taught the arts of commerce to many who were formerly in total
ignorance, and spread civilization amongst the most savage. Where the
climate is equable and mild, nature herself does much towards the
production of these advantages. As in such favoured regions every thing
inclines to peace, so those which are sterile generate bravery and a
disposition to war. These two races receive mutual advantages from each
other, the one aiding by their arms, the other by their husbandry, arts,
and institutions. Harm must result to both when failing to act in
concert, but the advantage will lie on the side of those accustomed to
arms, except in instances where they are overpowered by multitudes. This
continent is very much favoured in this respect, being interspersed
with plains and mountains, so that every where the foundations of
husbandry, civilization, and hardihood lie side by side. The number of
those who cultivate the arts of peace, is, however, the most numerous,
which preponderance over the whole is mainly due to the influence of the
government, first of the Greeks, and afterwards of the Macedonians and
Romans.

Europe has thus within itself resources both for war [and peace]. It is
amply supplied with warriors, and also with men fitted for the labours
of agriculture, and the life of the towns. It is likewise distinguished
for producing in perfection those fruits of the earth necessary to life,
and all the useful metals. Perfumes and precious stones must be imported
from abroad, but as far as the comfort of life is concerned, the want or
the possession of these can make no difference. The country likewise
abounds in cattle, while of wild beasts the number is but small. Such is
the general nature of this continent.

27. We will now describe separately the various countries into which it
is divided. The first of these on the west is Iberia, which resembles
the hide of an ox [spread out]; the eastern portions, which correspond
to the neck, adjoining the neighbouring country of Gaul. The two
countries are divided on this side by the chain of mountains called the
Pyrenees; on all its other sides it is surrounded by sea; on the south,
as far as the Pillars, by Our Sea; and thence to the northern extremity
of the Pyrenees by the Atlantic. The greatest length of this country is
about 6000 stadia, its breadth 5000. [867]

28. East of this is Keltica, which extends as far as the Rhine. Its
northern side is washed by the entire of the British Channel, for this
island lies opposite and parallel to it throughout, extending as much as
5000 stadia in length. Its eastern side is bounded by the river Rhine,
whose stream runs parallel with the Pyrenees; and its southern side
commencing from the Rhine, [is bounded] partly by the Alps, and partly
by Our Sea; where what is called the Galatic Gulf[868] runs in, and on
this are situated the far-famed cities of Marseilles and Narbonne. Right
opposite to the Gulf on the other side of the land, lies another Gulf,
called by the same name, Galatic,[869] looking towards the north and
Britain. It is here that the breadth of Keltica is the narrowest, being
contracted into an isthmus less than 3000 stadia, but more than 2000.
Within this region there is a mountain ridge, named Mount Cemmenus,[870]
which runs nearly at right angles to the Pyrenees, and terminates in the
central plains of Keltica. [871] The Alps, which are a very lofty range
of mountains, form a curved line, the convex side of which is turned
towards the plains of Keltica, mentioned before, and Mount Cemmenus, and
the concave towards Liguria[872] and Italy.

The Alps are inhabited by numerous nations, but all Keltic with the
exception of the Ligurians, and these, though of a different race,
closely resemble them in their manner of life. They inhabit that portion
of the Alps which is next the Apennines, and also a part of the
Apennines themselves. This latter mountain ridge traverses the whole
length of Italy from north to south, and terminates at the Strait of
Sicily.

29. The first parts of Italy are the plains situated under the Alps, as
far as the recess of the Adriatic and the neighbouring places. [873] The
parts beyond form a narrow and long slip, resembling a peninsula,
traversed, as I have said, throughout its length by the Apennines; its
length is 7000 stadia, but its breadth is very unequal. The seas which
form the peninsula of Italy are, the Tyrrhenian, which commences from
the Ligurian, the Ausonian, and the Adriatic. [874]

30. After Italy and Keltica, the remainder of Europe extends towards the
east, and is divided into two by the Danube. This river flows from west
to east, and discharges itself into the Euxine Sea, leaving on its left
the entire of Germany commencing from the Rhine, as well as the whole of
the Getæ, the Tyrigetæ, the Bastarnæ, and the Sauromatæ, as far as the
river Don, and the Lake Mæotis,[875] on its right being the whole of
Thrace and Illyria,[876] and in fine the rest of Greece.

Fronting Europe lie the islands which we have mentioned. Without the
Pillars, Gadeira,[877] the Cassiterides,[878] and the Britannic Isles.
Within the Pillars are the Gymnesian Islands,[879] the other little
islands of the Phœnicians,[880] the Marseillais, and the Ligurians;
those fronting Italy as far as the islands of Æolus and Sicily, and the
whole of those[881] along Epirus and Greece, as far as Macedonia and the
Thracian Chersonesus.

31. From the Don and the Mæotis[882] commences [Asia] on this side the
Taurus; beyond these is [Asia] beyond the Taurus. For since this
continent is divided into two by the chain of the Taurus, which extends
from the extremities of Pamphylia to the shores of the Eastern Sea,[883]
inhabited by the Indians and neighbouring Scythians, the Greeks
naturally called that part of the continent situated north of these
mountains [Asia] on this side the Taurus, and that on the south [Asia]
beyond the Taurus. Consequently the parts adjacent to the Mæotis and Don
are on this side the Taurus. The first of these is the territory between
the Caspian Sea and the Euxine, bounded on one side[884] by the Don, the
Exterior Ocean,[885] and the Sea of Hyrcania; on the other[886] by the
Isthmus where it is narrowest from the recess of the Euxine to the
Caspian.

Secondly, but still on this side the Taurus, are the countries above the
Sea of Hyrcania as far as the Indians and Scythians, who dwell along
the said sea[887] and Mount Imaus. These countries are possessed on the
one side by the Mæotæ,[888] and the people dwelling between the Sea of
Hyrcania and the Euxine as far as the Caucasus, the Iberians[889] and
Albanians,[890] viz. the Sauromatians, Scythians,[891] Achæans, Zygi,
and Heniochi: on the other side beyond the Sea of Hyrcania,[892] by the
Scythians,[893] Hyrcanians, Parthians, Bactrians, Sogdians, and the
other nations of India farther towards the north. To the south, partly
by the Sea of Hyrcania, and partly by the whole isthmus which separates
this sea from the Euxine, is situated the greater part of Armenia,
Colchis,[894] the whole of Cappadocia[895] as far as the Euxine, and the
Tibaranic nations. [896] Further [west] is the country designated on this
side the Halys,[897] containing on the side of the Euxine and Propontis
the Paphlagonians, Bithynians, Mysians, and Phrygia on the Hellespont,
which comprehends the Troad; and on the side of the Ægæan and adjacent
seas Æolia, Ionia, Caria, and Lycia. Inland is the Phrygia which
contains that portion of Gallo-Græcia styled Galatia, Phrygia
Epictetus,[898] the Lycaonians, and the Lydians.

32. Next these on this side the Taurus are the mountaineers of
Paropamisus, and various tribes of Parthians, Medes, Armenians,
Cilicians, with “the Lycaonians,”[899] and Pisidians. [900] After these
mountaineers come the people dwelling beyond the Taurus. First amongst
these is India, a nation greater and more flourishing than any other;
they extend as far as the Eastern Sea[901] and the southern part of the
Atlantic. In the most southerly part of this sea opposite to India is
situated the island of Taprobana,[902] which is not less than Britain.
Beyond India to the west, and leaving the mountains [of the Taurus] on
the right, is a vast region, miserably inhabited, on account of the
sterility of its soil, by men of different races, who are absolutely in
a savage state. They are named Arians, and extend from the mountains to
Gedrosia and Carmania. [903] Beyond these towards the sea are the
Persians,[904] the Susians,[905] and the Babylonians,[906] situated
along the Persian Gulf, besides several smaller neighbouring states. On
the side of the mountains and amidst the mountains are the Parthians,
the Medes, the Armenians, and the nations adjoining these, together with
Mesopotamia. [907] Beyond Mesopotamia are the countries on this side the
Euphrates; viz. the whole of Arabia Felix, bounded by the entire Arabian
and Persian Gulfs, together with the country of the Scenitæ and
Phylarchi, who are situated along the Euphrates and in Syria. Beyond the
Arabian Gulf and as far as the Nile dwell the Ethiopians[908] and
Arabians,[909] and next these the Egyptians, Syrians, and
Cilicians,[910] both those styled Trachiotæ and others besides, and last
of all the Pamphylians. [911]

33. After Asia comes Libya, which adjoins Egypt and Ethiopia. The coast
next us, from Alexandria almost to the Pillars, is in a straight line,
with the exception of the Syrtes, the sinuosities of some moderately
sized bays, and the projection of the promontories by which they are
formed. The side next the ocean from Ethiopia up to a certain point is
almost parallel to the former; but after this the southern portions
become narrowed into a sharp peak, extending a little beyond the Pillars
of Hercules, and giving to the country something the figure of a
trapezium. Its appearance, both by the accounts of other writers, and
also the description given to ourselves by Cnæus Piso, who was governor
of this province, is that of a panther’s skin, being dotted over with
habitations surrounded by parched and desert land: these habitations the
Egyptians call Auases. [912] This continent offers besides several other
peculiarities, which may be said to divide it into three distinct
portions. Most of the coast next us is very fertile, more especially
about the Cyrenaic and the parts about Carthage, as far as Maurusia and
the Pillars of Hercules. [913] Next the ocean it is likewise tolerably
fitted for the habitation of man; but not so the centre of the country,
which produces silphium;[914] this for the most part is barren, rugged,
and sandy; and the same is the case with regard to the whole of Asia
lying under the same right line which traverses Ethiopia, the
Troglodytic,[915] Arabia, and the part of Gedrosia occupied by the
Ichthyophagi. [916] The people inhabiting Libya are for the most part
unknown to us, as it has rarely been entered, either by armies or
adventurers. But few of its inhabitants from the farther parts come
amongst us, and their accounts are both incomplete and not to be relied
on. The sum of what they say is as follows. Those which are most
southern are called Ethiopians. [917] North of these the principal
nations are the Garamantes, the Pharusians, and the Nigritæ. [918] Still
farther north are the Gætuli. Close to the sea, and adjoining it next
Egypt, and as far as the Cyrenaic, dwell the Marmaridæ. [919] Above[920]
the Cyrenaic and the Syrtes[921] are the Psylli and Nasamones,[922] and
certain of the Gætuli; and after them the Asbystæ[923] and Byzacii,[924]
as far as Carthage. Carthage is vast. Adjoining it are the Numidæ;[925]
of these people the tribes best known to us are called the Masylies and
the Masæsylii. The most westerly are the Maurusians. [926] The whole
land, from Carthage to the Pillars of Hercules, is fertile. Nevertheless
it abounds in wild beasts no less than the interior; and it does not
seem improbable that the cause why the name of Nomades,[927] or
Wanderers, was bestowed on certain of these people originated in their
not being able anciently to devote themselves to husbandry on account of
the wild beasts. At the present day, when they are well skilled in
hunting, and are besides assisted by the Romans in their rage for the
spectacle of fights with beasts, they are both masters of the beasts and
of husbandry. This finishes what we have to say on the continents.

34. It now remains for us to speak of the climata. [928] Of these too we
shall give but a general description, commencing with those lines which
we have denominated elementary, namely, those which determine the
greatest length and breadth of the [habitable earth], but especially its
breadth.

To enter fully into this subject is the duty of astronomers. This has
been done by Hipparchus, who has noted down (as he says) the differences
of the heavenly appearances for every degree of that quarter of the
globe in which our habitable earth is situated, namely, from the equator
to the north pole.

What is beyond our habitable earth it is not however the business of the
geographer to consider. Nor yet even in regard to the various parts of
the habitable earth must too minute and numerous differences be noticed,
since to the man of the world they are perplexing; it will suffice to
give the most striking and simple of the statements of Hipparchus.
Assuming, as he does himself after the assertion of Eratosthenes, that
the circumference of the earth is 252,000 stadia, the differences of the
[celestial] phenomena will not be great for each [degree] within the
limits between which the habitable earth is contained. Supposing we cut
the grand circle of the earth into 360 divisions, each of these
divisions will consist of 700 stadia. This is the calculation adopted by
[Hipparchus] to fix the distances, which [as we said] should be taken
under the before-mentioned meridian of Meroe. He commences at the
regions situated under the equator, and stopping from time to time at
every 700 stadia along the whole length of the meridian above mentioned,
proceeds to describe the celestial phenomena as they appear from each.
But the equator is not the place for us to start from. For even if there
be there a habitable region, as some suppose, it forms a habitable earth
to itself, a narrow slip enclosed by the regions uninhabitable on
account of the heat; and can be no part of our habitable earth. Now the
geographer should attend to none but our own habitable earth, which is
confined by certain boundaries; on the south by the parallel which
passes over the Cinnamon Country;[929] on the north by that which passes
over Ierna. [930] But keeping in mind the scheme of our geography, we
have no occasion to mark all the places comprehended within this
distance, nor yet all the celestial phenomena. We must however
commence, as Hipparchus does, with the southern regions.

35. He tells us that the people who dwell under the parallel of the
Cinnamon Country, which he places at 3000 stadia south of Meroe,[931]
and 8800 [north] of the equator, live nearly at equal distances between
the equator and the summer tropic which passes by Syene; for Syene is
5000 stadia [north] of Meroe.
They are the first[932] for whom the whole
[constellation] of the Lesser Bear is comprised within the Artic Circle,
and to whom it is always visible. For the bright and most southern star,
at the tip of the tail, is here contained within the Arctic Circle, and
appears to touch the horizon.

The Arabian Gulf lies eastward parallel to the said meridian. Its
egress[933] into the Exterior Ocean is [in the same latitude as] the
Cinnamon Country, the place where anciently they used to hunt the
elephants. The parallel of the Cinnamon Country on the one side[934]
passes a little south of Taprobana, or perhaps over its southern
extremity; and on the other side[935] over the most southern parts of
Libya. [936]

36. At Meroe and Ptolemais[937] in the Troglodytic the longest day
consists of thirteen equinoctial hours. These cities are at nearly equal
distances between the equator and Alexandria, the preponderance on the
side of the equator being only 1800 stadia. The parallel of Meroe passes
on one side[938] over unknown countries, and on the other[939] over the
extremities of India. [940] At Syene, and at Berenice, which is situated
on the Arabian Gulf and in the Troglodytic, at the summer solstice the
sun is vertical, and the longest day consists of thirteen equinoctial
hours and a half, and the whole of the Greater Bear appears within the
Arctic Circle, with the exception of his thighs, the tip of his tail,
and one of the stars composing his body. The parallel of Syene traverses
on one side[941] the portion of Gedrosia occupied by the Ichthyophagi,
and India; and on the other side[942] the countries situated south of
Cyrene by rather less than 5000 stadia.

37. In all the countries situated between the tropic and the equatorial
circle, the shadows fall [alternately] on either side, north and south.
In those which are north of Syene and beyond the summer tropic the
shadows at mid-day fall to the north. The former are called amphiscii,
the latter heteroscii. There is also another method of determining what
places are under the tropic, which we spoke of in our observations on
the zones. The soil is sandy, arid, and produces nothing but silphium,
while more to the south the land is well irrigated and fertile.

38. In the countries situated about 400 stadia south of the parallel of
Alexandria and Cyrene, where the longest day consists of fourteen
equinoctial hours, Arcturus passes the zenith, slightly declining
towards the south. At Alexandria at the time of the equinox the
proportion which the gnomon bears to the shadow is as five to
seven. [943] Thus they are south of Carthage 1300 stadia, that is,
admitting that in Carthage at the time of the equinox the proportion
which the gnomon bears to the shadow is as eleven to seven. This
parallel on the one side[944] passes by Cyrene and the regions 900
stadia south of Carthage as far as the midst of Maurusia;[945] and on
the other side[946] through Egypt,[947] Cœlosyria, Upper Syria,
Babylonia, Susiana,[948] Persia,[949] Carmania,[950] Upper
Gedrosia,[951] and India.

39. At Ptolemais in Phœnicia,[952] and at Sidon[953] and Tyre,[954] the
longest day consists of fourteen hours and a quarter. These cities are
north of Alexandria by about 1600 stadia, and north of Carthage about
700. In the Peloponnesus, and about the middle of Rhodes, at
Xanthus[955] in Lycia, or a little to the south of this place, and at
400 stadia south of Syracuse,[956] the longest day consists of fourteen
and a half equinoctial hours. These places are distant from Alexandria
3640 stadia. . . . This parallel, according to Eratosthenes, passes
through Caria, Lycaonia, Cataonia, Media, the Caspian Gates, and India
next the Caucasus. [957]

40. In the parts of the Troad next Alexandria[958] in Amphipolis,[959]
Apollonia in Epirus,[960] the countries just south of Rome and north of
Neapolis, the longest day consists of fifteen hours. This parallel is
distant from that of Alexandria in Egypt 7000 stadia to the north, above
28,800 stadia north of the equator, and 3400 stadia from the parallel of
Rhodes; it is south of Byzantium, Nicæa,[961] and Marseilles 1500
stadia. The parallel of Lysimachia[962] is a little to the north, and
according to Eratosthenes passes through Mysia,[963] Paphlagonia,
Sinope,[964] Hyrcania,[965] and Bactra. [966]

41. About Byzantium the longest day consists of fifteen and a quarter
equinoctial hours; the proportion borne by the gnomon to the shadow at
the summer solstice, is as 120 to 42, minus one-fifth. These places are
distant[967] from the middle of Rhodes about 4900 stadia, and 30,300
from the equator. Sailing into the Euxine and advancing 1400 stadia to
the north, the longest day is found to consist of fifteen and a half
equinoctial hours. These places are equi-distant between the pole and
equatorial circle; the arctic circle is at their zenith, the star in the
neck of Cassiopeia is within this circle, the star forming the right
elbow of Perseus being a little more to the north.

42. In regions 3800 stadia north of Byzantium the longest day consists
of sixteen equinoctial hours; the constellation Cassiopeia being brought
within the arctic circle. These regions are situated around [the mouth
of] the Dnieper and the southern parts of the Mæotis, at a distance from
the equator of 34,100 stadia; and the northern part of the horizon
during almost all the summer nights is illuminated by the light of the
sun; a certain degree of light continuing from sunset to sunrise. For
the summer tropic is distant from the horizon only the half and the
twelfth part of a sign[968] [of the zodiac], and this therefore is the
greatest distance of the sun below the horizon at midnight. With us when
the sun is at this distance from the horizon before sunrise and after
sunset, the atmosphere is enlightened to the east and west respectively.
In the winter the sun when at the highest is nine cubits above the
horizon. [969] These places, according to Eratosthenes, are distant from
Meroe rather more than 23,000 stadia,[970] for he says that [from the
parallel of Meroe] to the Hellespont[971] there are 18,000 stadia, and
thence to the Dnieper 5000 more. In regions distant 6300 stadia from
Byzantium, and north of the Mæotis, the sun during the winter time is,
when highest, six cubits [above the horizon]. The longest day consists
of seventeen hours.

43. The countries beyond this which border upon the regions
uninhabitable on account of their cold, have no interest to the
geographer. He who desires to learn about them, and the celestial
phenomena which Hipparchus has described, but which we pass over as
being too much in detail for our present undertaking, must seek for them
in that author. The statements of Posidonius concerning the periscii,
the amphiscii, and the heteroscii are likewise too detailed. Still we
must touch on these points sufficiently to explain his view, and to
point out how far such matters are serviceable in geography, and how far
not. The terms made use of refer to the shadows cast from the sun. The
sun appears to the senses to describe a circle parallel to that of the
earth. [972] Of those people for whom each revolution of the earth
produces a day and a night, the sun being carried first over, then
under, the earth, some are denominated amphiscii, others heteroscii. The
amphiscii are the inhabitants of countries in which when a gnomon is
placed perpendicularly on a plane surface, the shadow which it casts at
mid-day, falls first to one side then to the other, as the sun illumines
first this side, then that. This however only occurs in places situated
between the tropics. The heteroscii are those amongst whom the shadow
always falls to the north, as with us; or to the south, as amongst
those who inhabit the other temperate zone. This occurs in all those
regions where the arctic circle is less than the tropic. Where however
it becomes the same as or greater than the tropic, this shows the
commencement of the periscii, who extend thence to the pole. In regions
where the sun remains above the horizon during an entire revolution of
the earth, the shadow must evidently have turned in a complete circle
round the gnomon. On this account he named them periscii. However they
have nought to do with geography, inasmuch as the regions are not
habitable on account of the cold, as we stated in our review of Pytheas.
Nor is there any use in determining the size of this uninhabitable
region, [it is enough to have established] that those countries, having
the tropic for their arctic circle, are situated beneath the circle
which is described by the pole of the zodiac[973] in the [diurnal]
revolution of the earth, and that the distance between the equator and
the tropic equals four-sixtieths of the great circle [of the earth].




_Note. _ The pages of Casaubon’s edition of 1620 are given to
facilitate reference to various editions and translations of Strabo.

BOOK III.

SPAIN.




CHAPTER I.


1. Having thus given a general view of Geography, it will now be proper
to describe each separate country in detail, as we engaged to do. We
fancy that the method which we have adopted in the division of our
subject, up to this point, has been correct; and we now recommence with
Europe and the various countries into which it is divided, on the same
principles as formerly, and induced by the same reasons.

2. The first division of this continent towards the west is Iberia, as
we before stated. The greater part of this country is but little fitted
for habitation; consisting chiefly of mountains, woods, and plains
covered with a light meagre soil, the irrigation of which is likewise
uncertain. The part next the north, which borders on the ocean, is
extremely cold, and besides its rugged character, has no communication
or intercourse with other [countries], and thus to dwell there is
attended with peculiar hardship. Such is the character of this portion;
on the other hand, almost the whole of the south is fertile, especially
what is beyond the Pillars [of Hercules]. This however will be shown
more in detail, but we must first describe the figure and extent [of the
country].

3. In shape it resembles a hide stretched out in length from west to
east, the forepart[974] towards the east, its breadth being from north
to south. Its length is about 6000 stadia; the greatest breadth is 5000;
while there are parts considerably less [CAS. 137] than 3000,
particularly in the vicinity of the Pyrenees, which form the eastern
side. This chain of mountains stretches without interruption from north
to south,[975] and divides Keltica[976] from Iberia. The breadth both of
Keltica and Iberia is irregular, the narrowest part in both of them from
the Mediterranean to the [Atlantic] Ocean being near the Pyrenees,
particularly on either side of that chain; this gives rise to gulfs both
on the side of the Ocean, and also of the Mediterranean; the largest of
these are denominated the Keltic or Galatic Gulfs,[977] and they render
the [Keltic] Isthmus narrower than that of Iberia. [978] The Pyrenees
form the eastern side of Iberia, and the Mediterranean the southern from
the Pyrenees to the Pillars of Hercules, thence the exterior
[ocean][979] as far as the Sacred Promontory. [980] The third or western
side runs nearly parallel to the Pyrenees from the Sacred Promontory to
the promontory of the Artabri, called [Cape] Nerium. [981] The fourth
side extends hence to the northern extremity of the Pyrenees.

4. We will now commence our detailed account, beginning from the Sacred
Promontory. This is the most western point not only of Europe, but of
the whole habitable earth. For the habitable earth is bounded to the
west by two continents, namely, the extremities of Europe and
Libya,[982] which are inhabited respectively by the Iberians and the
Maurusians. [983] But the Iberian extremity, at the promontory[984] we
have mentioned, juts out beyond the other as much as 1500 stadia. [985]
The region adjacent to this cape they call in the Latin tongue
_Cuneum_,[986] which signifies _a wedge_. The promontory which projects
into the sea, Artemidorus (who states that he has himself been at the
place) compares to a ship; three little islands, [he says,] each having
a small harbour, contribute to give it this form; the former island
resembling the beak of the ship, and the two latter the beams on each
side of the ship’s bows. [He adds] that there is no temple of Hercules
shown there, as Ephorus falsely states, nor yet any altar [to him] nor
to any other divinity; but in many parts there are three or four stones
placed together, which are turned by all travellers who arrive there, in
accordance with a certain local custom, and are changed in position by
such as turn them incorrectly. [987] It is not lawful to offer sacrifice
there, nor yet to approach the place during the night, for it is said
that then the gods take up their abode at the place. Those who go
thither to view it stay at a neighbouring village over-night, and
proceed to the place on the morrow, carrying water with them, as there
is none to be procured there.

5. It is quite possible that these things are so, and we ought not to
disbelieve them. Not so however with regard to the other common and
vulgar reports; for Posidonius tells us the common people say that in
the countries next the ocean the sun appears larger as he sets, and
makes a noise resembling the sound of hot metal in cold water, as though
the sea were hissing as the sun was submerged in its depths. The
statement [of Artemidorus] is also false, that night follows immediately
on the setting of the sun: it does not follow immediately, although
certainly the interval is short, as in other great seas. For when he
sets behind mountains the agency of the false light continues the day
for a long period; over the sea the twilight is shorter, still darkness
does not immediately supervene. The same thing may be remarked in large
plains. The image of the sun is enlarged on the seas at its rising as
well as at its setting, because at these times a larger mass of
[CAS. 138] exhalations rises from the humid element; and the eye looking
through these exhalations, sees images refracted into larger forms, as
observed through tubes. The same thing happens when the setting sun or
moon is seen through a dry and thin cloud, when those bodies likewise
appear reddish. [988] Posidonius tells us that, having himself passed
thirty days at Gades,[989] during which time he carefully observed the
setting of the sun, he is convinced of the falsity of Artemidorus’s
account. This latter writer tells us, that at the time of its setting
the sun appears a hundred times larger than its ordinary size, and that
night immediately succeeds. If we attend to his account, we cannot
believe that he himself remarked this phenomenon at the Sacred
Promontory,[990] for he tells us that no one can approach during the
night; therefore they cannot approach at sunset, since night immediately
supervenes thereupon. Neither did he observe it from any other part of
the coast washed by the ocean, for Gades is upon the ocean, and both
Posidonius and many others testify that there such is not the case.

6. The sea-coast next the Sacred Promontory forms on one side the
commencement of the western coast of Spain as far as the outlet of the
river Tagus; and on the other forms the southern coast as far as the
outlet of another river, named the Guadiana. [991] Both of these rivers
descend from the eastern parts [of Spain]; but the former, which is much
larger than the other, pursues a straight course towards the west, while
the Guadiana bends its course towards the south. [992] They enclose an
extent of country peopled for the most part by Kelts and certain
Lusitanians,[993] whom the Romans caused to settle here from the
opposite side of the Tagus. Higher up, the country is inhabited by the
Carpetani,[994] the Oretani,[995] and a large number of Vettones. [996]
This district is moderately fertile, but that which is beyond it to the
east and south, does not give place in superiority to any part of the
habitable earth with which it may be compared, in the excellence of its
productions both of land and sea. This is the country through which the
river Guadalquiver[997] flows. This river takes its rise from the same
parts as the Guadiana[998] and the Tagus, and is between these two in
size. [999] Like the Guadiana, the commencement of its course flows
towards the west, but it afterwards turns to the south, and discharges
itself at the same side of the coast as that river.

From this river[997] the country has received the name of Bætica; it is
called Turdetania by the inhabitants, who are themselves denominated
Turdetani, and Turduli. Some think these two names refer to one nation,
while others believe that they designate two distinct people. Of this
latter opinion is Polybius, who imagines that the Turduli dwell more to
the north than the Turdetani. At the present day however there does not
appear to be any distinction between them. These people are esteemed to
be the most intelligent of all the Iberians; they have an alphabet, and
possess ancient writings, poems, and metrical laws six thousand years
old, as they say. The other Iberians are likewise furnished with an
alphabet, although not of the same form, nor do they speak the same
language. Their country,[1000] which is on this side the [CAS. 139]
Guadiana, extends eastward as far as Oretania,[1001] and southward along
the sea-coast from the outlets of the Guadiana to the Pillars [of
Hercules]. But it is necessary that I should enter into further
particulars concerning this and the neighbouring places, in order to
illustrate their excellence and fertility.

7. Between this coast, where the Guadalquiver and Guadiana discharge
themselves, and the extremities of Maurusia, the Atlantic Ocean forms
the strait at the Pillars [of Hercules] by which it is connected with
the Mediterranean. Here is situated Calpe,[1002] the mountain of the
Iberians who are denominated Bastetani, by others Bastuli. Its
circumference is not large, but it is so high and steep as to resemble
an island in the distance. Sailing from the Mediterranean into the
Atlantic, it is left on the right hand. At a distance of 40 stadia from
this [mountain] is the considerable and ancient city of Carteia,
formerly a marine arsenal of the Iberians. Some assert that it was
founded by Hercules; of this number is Timosthenes,[1003] who tells us
it was anciently called Heraclæa, and that vast walls and ship-sheds are
still shown.

8. Next to these is Mellaria,[1004] where they make salted provisions.
After this the city and river[1005] of Belo. Here the merchandise and
salted provisions for Tingis in Maurusia are principally shipped. There
was a city named Zelis[1006] near to Tingis, but the Romans transferred
it to the opposite coast [of Spain], and having placed there in addition
some of the inhabitants of Tingis, and sent over also some of their own
people, they then gave to the city the name of Julia Joza. [1007] Beyond
this is Gadeira,[1008] an island separated from Turdetania by a narrow
strait, and distant from Calpe about 750 stadia, or, as others say, 800.
This island has nothing to distinguish it above others, but owing to the
boldness of its people in their expeditions by sea, and their
friendship with the Romans, has attained to that pitch of good fortune,
that although situated at the farthest extremities of the earth, it
possesses a greater celebrity than any other island. But we will
describe it when we come to speak of the other islands.

9. Next after [Cadiz] is the port of Menestheus,[1009] and the estuary
near to Asta and Nebrissa. [1010] These estuaries are valleys filled by
the sea during its flood-tides, up which you may sail into the interior,
and to the cities built on them, in the same way as you sail up a river.
Immediately after are the two outlets of the Guadalquiver. [1011] The
island embraced by these mouths has a coast of a hundred stadia, or
rather more according to others. Hereabouts is the Oracle of
Menestheus,[1012] and the tower of Cæpio,[1013] built upon a rock and
washed on all sides by the sea. This is an admirable work, resembling
the Pharos, and constructed for the safety of vessels. For the mud
carried out by the river forms shallows, and sunken rocks are also
scattered before it, so that a beacon was greatly needed. Thence sailing
up the river is the city of Ebura,[1014] and the temple of
Phosphorus,[1015] which they call _Lux Dubia_. [1016] You then pass up
the other estuaries; and after these the river Guadiana, which has also
two mouths,[1017] up either of which you may sail. Lastly, beyond is the
Sacred Promontory,[1018] distant from Gadeira[1019] less than 2000
stadia. Some say that from the Sacred Promontory to the mouth of the
Guadiana there are 60 miles; thence to the mouth of the Guadalquiver
100; and from this latter place to Gadeira 70.




CHAPTER II.


[CASAUB. 141] 1. Turdetania lies above the coast on this side the
Guadiana,[1020] and is intersected by the river Guadalquiver. [1021] It
is bounded on the west and north by the river Guadiana; on the east by
certain of the Carpetani and the Oretani; on the south by those of the
Bastetani who inhabit the narrow slip of coast between Calpe and
Gadeira, and by the sea beyond as far as the Guadiana. The Bastetani
whom I have mentioned, together with the people on the other side the
Guadiana, and many of the places adjacent, belong to Turdetania. The
size of this country in its length and breadth does not exceed two
thousand stadia, still it contains a vast number of towns; two hundred,
it is said. Those best known are situated on the rivers, estuaries, and
sea; but the two which have acquired the greatest name and importance
are, Corduba, founded by Marcellus,[1022] and the city of the
Gaditanians. [1023] The latter for its naval importance, and its alliance
with the Romans; and the former on account of its fertility and extent,
a considerable portion of the Guadalquiver flowing by it; in addition to
this it has been from its commencement inhabited by picked men, whether
natives or Romans; and it was the first colony planted by the Romans in
these parts.

After this city and that of the Gaditanians, Hispalis[1024] is the most
noted. This also is a Roman colony. Commerce is still carried on here,
although at the present moment the city of Bætis[1025] though not so
finely built, is outshining it, on account of the honour it has received
from the soldiers of Cæsar taking up their quarters there.

2. After these are Italica,[1026] and Ilipa,[1027] situated on the
Guadalquiver; farther on are Astygis,[1028] Carmo,[1029] and Obulco; and
besides these Munda,[1030] Ategua, Urso,[1031] Tukkis,[1032]
Julia,[1033] and Ægua, where the sons of Pompey were defeated. None of
these places are far from Corduba. Munda is in some sort regarded as the
metropolis of the whole district. This place is distant from Carteia
1400[1034] stadia, and it was here that Cnæus fled after his defeat, and
sailing thence landed on a rocky height overlooking the sea, where he
was murdered. His brother Sextus, having escaped from Corduba, after
carrying on the war for a short time in Spain, caused a revolt in
Sicily. Flying thence into Asia he was seized at Miletus[1035] by the
generals[1036] of Antony, and executed. Amongst the Kelts the most
famous place is Conistorgis. [1037] Upon the estuaries is Asta,[1038] in
which the Gaditani mostly hold their assemblies; it is opposite the
sea-port of the island, at a distance of not more than 100 stadia.

3. A vast number of people dwell along the Guadalquiver; and you may
sail up it almost 1200 stadia from the sea to Corduba, and the places a
little higher up. The banks and little islets of this river are
cultivated with the greatest diligence. [CASAUB. 142. ] The eye is also
delighted with groves and gardens, which in this district are met with
in the highest perfection. As far as Ispalis, which is a distance of not
less than 500 stadia, the river is navigable for ships[1039] of
considerable size; but for the cities higher up, as far as Ilipas,
smaller vessels are employed, and thence to Corduba river-boats. These
are now constructed of planks joined together, but they were formerly
made out of a single trunk. Above this to Castlon the river is no longer
navigable. A chain of mountains, rich in metal, runs parallel to the
Guadalquiver,[1040] approaching the river sometimes more, sometimes
less, towards the north.

There is much silver found in the parts about Ilipas and Sisapo, both in
that which is called the old town and the new. There are copper and gold
about the Cotinæ. [1041] These mountains are on the left as you sail up
the river; on the right there is a vast and elevated plain, fertile,
full of large trees, and containing excellent pasturage. The
Guadiana[1042] is likewise navigable, but not for vessels equally large,
nor yet so far up. It is also bordered by mountains containing metal,
and extends as far as the Tagus. Districts which contain metals must, of
necessity, be rugged and poor,[1043] as indeed are those adjoining
Carpetania, and still more those next the Keltiberians. The same is the
case with Bæturia, the plains of which, bordering on the Guadiana, are
arid.

4. Turdetania, on the other hand, is marvellously fertile, and abounds
in every species of produce. The value of its productions is doubled by
means of exportation, the surplus products finding a ready sale amongst
the numerous ship-owners. This results from its rivers and estuaries,
which, as we have said, resemble rivers, and by which you may sail from
the sea to the inland towns, not only in small, but even in large-sized
skiffs. For the whole country above the coast, and situated between the
Sacred Promontory[1044] and the Pillars, consists of an extended plain.
Here in many places are hollows running inland from the sea, which
resemble moderately-sized ravines or the beds of rivers, and extend for
many stadia.