No More Learning

) "Do some charitable work, though not in established patterns, for example help some of my friends. Con- tribute to the 1\1arch of Dimes, to end cancer, etc. "
Ms6: "Security and a chance to do something for others. Seems to me now I have been helping others all my life. "
M59: "To treat others as a person would wish to be treated himself and to help those less fortunate than oneself, and to be a part of the community or society that one is in, to take an active part in it, and being kind and generous and to more or less have a high regard for your fellow man. . . . The only happiness that we really know of is . . . here on earth, so why not try to enjoy the people and things on this earth, rather than a life somewhere else. . . . ( What attracts you in a friend? ) A person on the same intellectual level and one who has common ideas. You enjoy going out with him. You enjoy conversation and you like to do things for a friend. "
F7o: "If I had a lot of money I didn't know what to do with, I might run a small private hospital. For instance, for rheumatic fever patients. There are so many chil- dren with certain diseases that can't get the proper medical care, because their parents can't afford to have them hospitalized sufficiently long-like rheumatic fever patients. I wish to do a few altruistic things like my own private charity or some- thing. I don't think I'd buy expensive objects of art; well, maybe I would. I might buy quite a few material things, go to a lot of concerts and plays. One seems to be able to spend a lot of money on those. "
F7s: (What do you like about public health nursing? ) "You get to know people. You have to. You go into their homes and see them when they are well, help them prevent sickness instead of just seeing them in bed sick. I think it is a more useful occupation than bedside nursing, but that is important too. "
The foregoing records also illustrate the ability, characteristic of low scorers to form genuine object cathexis (Category 32c), an ability probably due to the fact that they formed better identifications in early childhood. Thirteen low-scoring and only I of the high-scoring men show evidence in their interviews of this ability to form genuine, nonopportunistic object relationships. It is also found in the records of 8 low-scoring and 3 high- scoring women. Here, as in the case of most other ratings, it is very difficult to evaluate sex differences since-as was mentioned before-the ratings of the sample of women show considerably higher numbers of "Neutrals. "
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
8. SOCIAL STATUS VS. INTRINSIC WORTH IN FRIENDSHIP
In line with all this, the traits which high-scoring subjects tend to desire most in their friends are that their social or economic status be prominent or at least "acceptable. " Low scorers, on the other hand, tend to accept a friend more often on the basis of intrinsic worth or the companionship and com- mon interests he offers. Theirs is an intellectual-aesthetic approach, and they appreciate in their friends "easy-going" traits, social awareness and insight, and generally "low" values (i. e. , values in esteem with low scorers as defined in this volume). The difference is significant at the I per cent level for both men and women.
Examples of emphasis on status in high scorers follow.
M p: (How do you choose your friends? ) "Well, I have a standard based along my own expectations in life. Somebody's got to have a goal in life, got to have man- ners, don't have to be a big shot, but I like 'em to have some position. I don't like these fly-by-nights. . . . A lot of my friends are social people. "
Ms8: (What would more money make possible? ) "Would raise our standard of living; probably buy better, or higher-priced automobile; move into better resi- dential section; associations . . . to those in a bracket higher . . . with people on a higher level. "
M4: "Picked a chum-usually one close chum. " In high school he got into the ruling clique because he worked on the other boys' cars and radios. Apparently going into this "ruling clique" has made a great impression on him. Before, he felt uneasy around many people, uncertain of his appearance. The girls he asked out hadn't accepted him; he felt much more secure after he got into this clique-he felt that he amounted to something; it helped him get over his inferiority complex.
F;1: "When I was a child, I was brighter than I am now. Moving up here may have retarded me. I was very unhappy when we first moved up here. I cried and cried. It was about a year and a half before I got in with the right crowd and joined a high school sorority. "
F6o tells the interviewer that she has "been a 'governess' in the home of _ _ _ _ and in 's family-first in the home of the older son, and then the younger. Talked to on the phone when she was at the time of the birth of the third child. Also worked for (Southern California). " And her sis- ter worked for , who later was _ _ _ _
F78 reports that she has "no really close girl friends. " She looks for someone "I wouldn't have to make excuses for-someone well brought up, nice appearance, who dresses neatly. "
The foregoing records manifest once more the desire of many high- scoring subjects to associate with the "right kind of people" and their tend- ency to judge people on the basis of such external criteria as "position" and "nice appearance. "
Low-scoring subjects, on the other hand, not only tend to emphasize the intrinsic worth in their friends but tend explicitly to deny the importance of status. There may be, in some of these cases, an underlying concern with
? SEX, PEOPLE, AND SELF SEEN THROUGH INTERVIEWS 419
status, but the fact that they disclaim it shows that they have at least some inclination to resist conventionalism. There are, furthermore, other goals which take the place of conventional ones. There is more acceptance of passivity and relaxation, more emphasis on enjoyment and "fun. " At the same time, there is active pursuing of intellectual goals. Examples follow.
M49: "There was one Chinese fellow, and we used to go swimming and play ping- pong . . . and he was married just after I got there and . . . his home was in an alley with no street address; just plain, simple people; and they could be serious, but if you wanted to have a lot of fun . . . and they seemed to be more understanding . . . more appreciative of little things and more sympathetic. "
M42: "I like a person who doesn't think money is the most important thing . . . but wants to better himself and have a better education; who likes to get along with people . . . my friends are all kinds of people. . . . I have a friend who is a Catholic . . . who knows the criticisms of the Catholic Church better than I do . . . but who can argue intelligently for the Catholic Church. . . . "
M53: "People you cultivate are usually people you want to be with. (What do you like to do together? ) Well, depends on the friend. My own friends seem to have a variety of interests. I guess . . . talk. Takes up more time than anything else . . . and sometimes drinking parties with a group of friends who are fun to see once in a while. "
F62: "We four girls have many discussions about ideas. We had a professor who taught us to think about education and social conditions. We talk about all those things, and we hope to be socially-minded individuals. W e try to think. My closest girl friend and I don't go out with boys, but the other two girls do, and we enjoy their experiences, about which they tell us. I was made to be a follower and not a leader. My girl friends are more dominant. "
F6s: "My best girl friend I still have from high school days. . . . W e have the same interests. . . . Now my close friend is a Chinese girl. " The interviewer senses a protective attitude on the part of the subject toward this friend. "In general I like intellectual girls who are nice and who have the same ideas. "
Just as the high scorers frequently desire to have friends with "accepted" or even "admired" social status, they also tend to emphasize conventional values in their choice of friends. Their requirements for friends are that they be moral-conventional, "clean-cut," honest, have good manners, poise, and control (Category 33b). The predominance of such requirements in the records of high-scoring as contrasted with low-scoring subjects was found to be in the proportion of I I to 4 in men and of I I to 3in women. Illustra- tions from the records of high-scoring subjects follow.
M41: (What attracts you in a friend? ) "Well, their manner and behavior. "
M 11: (What do you like best in your boy friends? ) "I like them clean-cut. . . . They're all swell fellows and they come from marvelous families. "
F71: "Never stuck close to one-like girls who like a lot of clean fun-high ideals and morals, no drinking. "
The emphasis, in the foregoing references, on "clean fun," "swell fellows," ?
? 420 THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
and the like, carries the connotation of an almost moral pride in the fact of having a good time. This type of exhibited or "official" optimism has been described previously in this book; it is entirely compatible, and often con- comitant, with an underlying sense of despair and futility.
9. SUMMARY
The prejudiced thus seem to tend toward an externalized relation to other
people, appreciating those who are higher up in the social hierarchy and who conform to conventional standards, and unrealistically condemning devia- tions from these standards. It seems likely that this moral condemnation serves the purpose of externalization of, and defense against, temptations toward immoral and unconventional behavior.
Hostile feelings are likewise externalized and projected by conceiving of others as threatening and dangerous. The persecutory ideas about threats in the environment apparently reinforce the wish to be strong; such power is to be obtained by falling in line with what is seen as the general pattern of social relationships, that is, by associating with those who have power. Fear of failure and of being overwhelmed by outside forces leads to an exag- gerated preoccupation with such dichotomies as power vs. weakness, top vs. bottom.
The choice of friends is almost exclusively determined by the wish to get support in the compulsive striving for success. Often little attempt is made to disguise the resulting crude form of opportunism. As in the attitude toward parents, the focus seems to be on "getting things," on utilizing people for obtaining the necessary supplies and the help to overcome obstacles. The inclination to conceive of the world as a "jungle" seems to reveal a panic lest supply may run short and one may be helpless in view of dangers which are all too readily anticipated. It is easy to understand that in persons possessed by such fearfulness, the approach to people will tend to be manipulative and exploitive.
Similarly externalized is the relationship to work, as manifested in indif- ference toward its content and in the emphasis on work as a mere means to success and power. To succeed in the struggle of competition by roughness and by "outsmarting" the competitor seems often an important component of the ego-ideal of the prejudiced men (see the next section).
Since unprejudiced individuals are less apt to be anxiety-ridden than are the prejudiced, they are free to search in their friendships for affectionate companionship, enjoyment, and common interests such as intellectuality, social values, appreciation of art. As they did with their parents, they tend to form comparatively internalized and affectionate relations with people in general, focusing more on the specific characteristics of the other person. The greater capacity for such libidinization is closely related to a permissive
? SEX, PEOPLE, AND SELF SEEN THROUGH INTERVIEWS 42I
and trusting attitude toward others. There is a tendency to conceive of the environment as congenial rather than as dangerous. Dependence on people thus tends to become focal and love-seeking rather than diffuse and ego- alien.
Often this search seems to be unrealistic and insatiable. This can be seen in the expression of longings for total acceptance and forgiveness for all one's faults as found in some of the low scorers. Such a high level of aspiration seems often the source of dissatisfactions with, and ambivalence toward, the object of love or of friendship.
Work seems likewise more libidinized in the low scorer than it is in the high scorer. There is often a persistent striving for intellectual achievement or for realization of productive social values. There is often concern with, and depression about, the possibility of failure along those lines rather than with respect to personal success. This is far from saying that the typical low scorer is indifferent toward success. But in him these tendencies are more often in conflict with, and partly inhibited by, a longing to be loved- a longing frequently crippled in the high scorer during early childhood.
At the same time there is more capacity for relaxation, passive enjoyment, and pleasure in general, as apparently due to the less rigid character of the defenses. Such values take the place of the external, conventional standards of the high scorers. ?
The tendency to focus on internal and intrinsic values of the individual must be seen as being directly connected with lack of prejudice. Rather than taking a stereotyped view of people and judging them on the basis of their place in the social hierarchy, low scorers are, in the manner described, more open to immediate experience and to an evaluation of people on the basis of individual and intrinsic merits.
C. A TTITUDE TOW ARD PRESENT SELF
1.
DEFINITION OF RA TING CA TEGORIES AND QUANTITATIVE RESULTS
The attitudes prejudiced and unprejuaiced subjects assume toward them- selves seem to be consistent with their attitudes toward family, sex, and people, as discussed in the foregoing pages. Thus the prejudiced tend toward self-glorification, conventionality of ego-ideal, and lack of insight; and at the same time they exhibit self-contempt which is not faced as such and which they try to deny. First, attitudes toward the "present self" will be discussed, followed by the conceptions of our subjects concerning their childhood personalities. The categories dealing with the first of these topics were defined as follows:
?
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
INTERVIEW SCORING MANUAL: A TTITUDE TOW ARD PRESENT SELF
(to Table 3(XI))
34a.
34b.
a.
b.
a. b.
Self-glorification. Positive traits mentioned, negative traits rationalized; has overcome weakness, hand- icaps, victimization, perse- cution; self-estimate and ego-ideal tend to be the same
Ego-alien self-contempt
which is moralistic-au- thoritarian and semi-exter- nalized. (Do not score un- less there are some specific signs of self-rejection be- yond compensatory self- glorification, etc. )
34a.
PREsUMABLY "HIGH" VARIANT
PREsUMABLY " L o w " VARIANT Critical self-appraisal. Self- estimate and ego-ideal sep- arate; occasional morbid self-accusations
35M. Self-estimate traits, Men:
Pseudo-masculinity. De- a. termination, energy, in- dustry, independence, de- cisivenes, will power. No admission of passivity Conventionally moralistic. b. Ideal of honesty, self- control; any violations re- garded as essentially unex- plained "break-through"
Ego-accepted of passtvtty, weakness, etc.
admission
sofmess,
35W. Self-estimate traits, Women:
Pseudo-femininity a.
Conventionallymoralistic. b. Propriety, poise, self-con-
trol, unselfishness
Self as "average" and therefore all right. At- tempted denial or "forget- ting" of deviations, past and present
Ego-accepted admission of nonfemininity Admitted fallibility of control, not merely unex- plained "break-through. " Admission of selfishness, etc.
Self as "different," indi- vidualized, or unconven- tional
"W orld identification,"
equalitarian- brotherhood ideal
Admitted fallibility of control, not merely unex- plained "break-through"
? SEX, PEOPLE, AND SELF SEEN THROUGH INTERVIEWS 423 37M-W. Ego-ideal: Same as self- 37M-W. Ego-ideal: Liberal values.
39?
Property as means to end
estimate traits
Denial of psychological 38. causes: Explanations of
self in terms of heredity, physical factors, acciden-
tal factors, etc. ; or denial in effect of any casualty (e. g. , of symptoms)
Property as extension of 39? self
Achievement, understand- ing, nurturance, affilia- tion; work for humani- tarian values, to improve social relations, to im- prove self, etc.
Quantitative results concerning these categories are shown in Table 3(XI). 2. SELF-GLORIFICA TION VS. OBJECTIVE APPRAISAL
The trend toward self-glorification in the prejudiced becomes evident in their tendency to ascribe to themselves predominantly positive traits and to rationalize whatever negative traits they are unable to deny. They are given to emphasizing that they have successfully overcome weakness, obstacles, and victimization. The opposite alternative, namely objective self-appraisal, is more common in low scorers. The difference between high- and low- scoring subjects, both men and women, is statistically significant at the I per cent level (Category 34a). R~sults already presented have indicated that prejudiced subjects tend to repress what may be unpleasant to face, and thus to narrow the scope of consciousness. One cause of these repressions may lie in the type of discipline to which these subjects were exposed, a discipline which required immediate submission. Apparently in a fearful attempt to please the parents, a "good" fa~ade was presented and anything which did not fit in with this fa~ade, such as, especially, resentment against the parents, was repressed and denied. This process very probably leads to self-deception, which may be of such crudeness that it seems obvious to anyone but the subject himself.
The following example illustrates the. self-deception of a prejudiced man with respect to his will power and independence. He takes pride in certain decisions and actions of self-control which are obviously engineered by the father (see also Chapter II).
Mz3: "I grew up quickly. My father has allowed me to do as I pleased, although he forced some decisions upon me. About smoking, he said I must do it in front of him, if I must. He also provided wines and liquors in the ice chest. I soon tired of smoking and never took much to drinking. I have a stubborn nature, and if he had
Sociopsy chological nations o f self
expla-
? TABLE 3 (XI)
INTERVIEW RATINGS ON ATIITUDE TOWARD PRESENT SELF
FOR 80 SUBJECTS SOORING E:XTREMELY "HIGH" OR "LOW" ON THE ETHNIC PREJUDICE QUESTIONNAIRE SCALE
35? Self-estimates of traits: aM. Pseudo-masculinity(R) vs, ?
admission of passivity(L)
aw. Pseudo-femininity(H) vs, ad-
mission of nonfemininity(L)
b. Conventional moralism( H) vs. admitted fallibility of
of control(L)
36a. Self as "average"(H) vs. self as "different"(L)
MenQ1 2! i273 1 Women 1 2 1 1 ! i 3
Men . ll. 1 213263 1 Women! ! ! 2 3~ ~ 5 1
Men145 214287 1 Women . ! 5 01:. ! . . ! 5
36b. "World identification," equali- tarian-brotherhood ideal(L) Women
37? Ego-ideal:
aM. Pseudo-masculinity(H) vs. Men
achievement(L)
aW. Pseudo-femininity (H) vs.
0
~ 1 4 ! 1 ~ 5 1
achievement(L)
b. Conventional morality(H) vs. Men
humanitarianism(L)
38? Denial of genuine causality (H)vs. socio- Men
Number o f "High"(H) and "Low"ILl rat1n~s received b~
Interview ratin~ cate~ories (abbreviated from Manual)
34a. Self-glorification(H) vs, ob- jective self-appraisal(L)
34bo Ego-alien self-contempt(H) Men
Women :m: 2102
. . ? . ll. ! . .
Sums of instances
Level of statistical
a:> men and 25 women high scorers"
20 men and 15 women
11 low scorers"
"positive" "negative" significance reached
(percentage)
HLHL
Men 12 3 3 15 27 6 1 Womenll4 112 2s 5 1
10 1
10 1
Men 2 04
552
:! :r Women~51! ! . ! ! ! 6 2
14 3 Women 16 5
4 15 29 2 IT 27"
71 71
ll4 114 25 5 1 psychological explanations of self(L) Women ~ 2 0 IT 2s 2 1
39. Property as: extension of Men
self(H) vs. means to end(L) Women 11 7 0 ! ] ~ 7 1
14 2 3 15
29 5 1
? SEX, PEOPLE, AND SELF SEEN THROUGH INTERVIEWS 425
tried to stop me, I probably would have taken it up. . . . I have always tried to live according to His Ten Commandments. . . . (What disagreements have you had with your father? ) There haven't been any to any great extent. I had a mind of my own at a very early age. He has too. We've had arguments but I can't remember any lickings by him. . . . ''
A general satisfaction with one's self is expressed by the following high scorer:
Ms8: "Well, I'm the head operator-shift foreman-rotating schedules . . . (sub- ject emphasizes 'head' position)-small department . . . five in department . . . five in shift . . . I get personal satisfaction that I have five people working for me, who come to me for advice in handling the production that we make, and that the ultimate decision is mine, and in fact that in that ultimate decision, I should be right-and am usually, and the knowledge that I am correct gives me personal satisfaction. "
As previously mentioned, high-scoring subjects; especially men, tend to succumb to the temptation of displaying independence, ability for decisions, and leadership qualities, probably as a defense against a possible "break- through" of their underlying passivity and anxiety. In general, prejudiced subjects, in pointing out how well they overcame handicaps, sickness, and calamities, are prone to emphasize the use of will power. The tendency to cling to the belief that "will power and cheerfulness" can solve all problems seems of special importance.
Examples from the records of high-scoring women follow:
F7z: "Child-nervous because of mastoid operations . . . terrible time getting started in school . . . afraid of kids . . . this in first half of kindergarten . . . by second half I was a leader. Think one of my best assets is my poise-learned from moving around so much. Remember hospital clearly at 3 years old. "
F38, in telling how she conquered infantile paralysis by will power, continues: "I've always had a happy disposition, and I've always been honest with my family. I appreciate what they did for me. I've always tried to find a way so that I wouldn't be a burden to them. I've never wanted to be a cripple. I was always dependable in a pinch. I've always been cheerful and I'm sure I've never made anyone feel bad be- cause of my handicap. Maybe one of the reasons I have been cheerful is because of my handicap. I wore a cast on my leg until I was 4 years old. . . . He (husband) com- pares me with his first wife. She was unfaithful to him. I'm not like that. She was a drinker. I've never done that. I've never done things behind people's backs. I've always done things in the open. . . . (Habits? ) I didn't have any bad habits as a child, no nightmares. I rarely dream even now, night or day. (Q) My mother was the chief disciplinarian. I always got along well with my brothers and sisters. I was always honest with them and let them know where I stood. I believe that all the relations between my brothers and sisters and myself were better than average. I think I'm the favorite of the whole family. I know I'm the favorite niece of all my aunts and uncles. . . . "
Similar is this passage in the record of a high-scoring man who had been told, after having gone through infantile paralysis, that he would never walk again:
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
M4: "But you see, I can get around, because I made up my mind to. If I made up my mind, I can be in the upper crust too. "
Low-scoring subjects, on the other hand, do not as a rule attempt to hide their feelings of insecurity, their shyness, and their dependence. For example:
M49 says about himself: "Well, I think social contact bothers me most. I could always talk with one person, but where there are several persons, I'll just stand there and not say 'boo. ' I think that might have been due to our not having enough social contacts.