No More Learning

more or less to the properties of a circle, and probably form an ellipse. The paths of comets exhibit still greater variations, for, so far as our observation extends, they do not return upon their own course in a circle or ellipse. But we proceed to the conjecture that comets describe a parabola, a figure which is closely allied to the ellipse. In fact, a para bola is merely an ellipse, with its longer axis produced to an indefinite extent. Thus these principles conduct us to a unity in the genera of the forms of these orbits, and, proceeding further, to a unity as regards the cause of the motions of the
approximate
neavenly bodies --that gravitation. But we go on extending our conquests over nature, and endeavour to explain all seem ing deviations from these rules, and even make additions to our system which no experience can ever substantiate --for example, the theory, in affinity with that of ellipses, of hyper bolic paths of comets, pursuing which, these bodies leave our solar system, and, passing from sun to sun, unite the most distant parts of the infinite universe, which held together by the same moving power.
The most remarkable circumstance connected with these principles that they seem to be transcendental, and, although only containing ideas for the guidance of the empirical exer cise of reason, and although this empirical employment stands
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? OF THX IDEAS O1 PTTBE BEABOH. . 107
to tune iJeas in an asymptotic relation alone (to use a mathe matical term), that is, continually approximate, without ever being able to attain to them, they possess, notwithstanding, as a priori synthetical propositions, objective though undeter mined validity, and are available aa rules for possible expe rience. In the elaboration of our experience, they may also be employed with great advantage, as heuristic * principles. A transcendental deduction of them cannot be made ; such n deduction being always impossible in the case of ideas, as lias been already shown.
We distinguished, in the Transcendental Analytic, the dyna mical principles of the understanding, which are regulative principles of intuition, from the mathematical, which are con stitutive principles of intuition. These dynamical laws are, however, constitutive in relation to experience, inasmuch as t hey render the conceptions without which experience could net exist, possible a priori. But the principles of pure reason cannot be constitutive even in regard to empirical conceptions, because no sensuous schema corresponding to them can be discovered, and they cannot therefore have an object in con-
? creto. Now, if I grant that they cannot be employed in the sphere of experience, as constitutive principles, how shall I se cure for them employment and objective validity as regulative principles, and in what way can they be so employed ?
The understanding is the object of reason, as sensibility is the object of the understanding. The production of syste matic unity in all the empirical operations of the understand ing is the proper occupation of reason ; just as it is the business of the understanding to connect the various content of phenomena by means of conceptions, and subject them to empirical laws. But the operations of the understanding are, without the schemata of sensibility, undetermined ; and, in the same manner, the unity of reason is perfectly undetermined as regards the conditions under which, and the extent to which,
the understanding ought to carry the systematic connection of its conceptions. But, although it is impossible to discover in intuition a schema for the complete systematic unity of all the conceptions of the understanding, there must be some unalogon of this schema. This analogon is the idea of the maximum of the division and the connection of our cognition
* From the Greek ivpianu.
? ? ? 408
TRAJTSCESDETTTAL DIALECTIC.
m one principle. For we mny have a determinate noiinn of a maximum and an absolutely perfect, all the restrictive condi tions which are connected with an indeterminate and various content, having been abstracted. Thus the idea of reason is analogous with a sensuous schema, with this difference, that the application of the categories to the schema of reason does not present a cognition of any object (as is the case with the application of the categories to sensuous schemata), but merely provides us with a rule or principle for the systematic unity of the exercise of the understanding. Now, as evtry principle which imposes upon the exercise of the understanding a priori compliance with the rule of systematic unity, also relates, although only in nn indirect manner, to an object of experience,
the principles of pure reason will also possess objective reality
and validity in relation to experience. But they will not aim
at determining our knowledge in regard to any empirical
object ; they will merely indicate the procedure, following which, the empirical and determinate exercise of the under
standing may be in complete harmony and connection with itself -- a result which is produced by its being brought into harmony with the principle of systematic unity, so far as that is possible, and deduced from it.
I term all subjective principles, which are not derived from observation of the constitution of an object, but from the interest which Reason has in producing a certain completeness in her cognition of that object, maxims of reason. Thus there are maxims of speculative reason, which are based solely upon its speculative interest, although they appear to he objective principles.
When principles which are really regulative are regarded as constitutive, and employed as objective principles, contradic tions must arise ; but if they are considered as mere maxims, there is no room for contradictions of any kind, as they then merely indicate the different interests of reason, which occa sion differences in the mode of thought. In effect, Reason has only one single interest, and the seeming contradiction existing between her maxims merely indicates a difference in, and a reciprocal limitation of, the methods by which this interest is
satisfied. -- This rcasoner has at heart the interest of diversity in accordance with the principle of specification; a lotlier, th>>
? ? ? ? OF TUE IDEAS OF PUKB HEASON. 409
interest of unity -- in accordance with the principle of aggre gation. Each believes that his judgment rests upon a thorough insight into the subject he is examining, and yet it has been influenced solely by a greater or less degree of adherence to some one of the two principles, neither of which are objective, but originate solely from the interest of reason, and on this account to be termed maxims rather than principles. When
I observe intelligent men disputing about the distinctive cha racteristics of men, animals, or plants, and even of minerals, those on the one side assuming the existence of certain national characteristics, certain well-defined and hereditary distinctions of family, rnce, and so on, while the other side maintain that nature has endowed all races of men with the same faculties and dispositions, and that all differences are but the result of external and accidental circumstances, -- I have only to consider for a moment the real nature of the
of discussion, to arrive at the conclusion that it is a subject far too deep for us to judge of, and that there is little probability of either party being able to speak from a perfect insight into and understanding of the nature of the subject itxclf. Both have, in reality, been struggling for the two-fold
interest of reason ; the one maintaining the one interest, the other the other. But this difference between the maxims of diversity and unity may easily be reconciled and adjusted ; nl though, so long as they are regarded as objective principles, they must occasion not only contradictions and polemic, but place hindrances in the way of the advancement of truth, until some means is discovered of reconciling these conflicting interests, and bringing reason into union and harmony with
itself.
The same is the case with the so-called law discovered by
Leibnitz,* and supported with remarkable ability by Bonnetf -- the law of the continuous gradation of created beings, which is nothing more than an inference from the principle of nihility ; for observation and study of the order of nature could never present it to the mind as an objective truth. The steps of this ladder, as they appear in experience, are too fur <<part from each other, and the so-called petty differences between different kinds of animals are in nature commonly so
? Leibnitz, Nouveaux Essaii, Liv. hi. ch. 6.
1 Bonnet. Betr<<chtnn(ten iiher die Nstur, pp. 20 -- 85.
? subject
? ? ? 410 TUANSCENDMTTAl DIALECTIC.
wide separations, that no confidence can be placed in such
riews (particularly when we reflect on the great variety ol tilings, and the ease with which we can discover retera hlauces), and no faith in the laws which are said to express the aims and purposes of nature. On the other hand, the method of investigating the order of nature in the light of this principle, and the maxim which requires us to regard this order -- it being still undetermined how far it extends -- as really existing in nature, is beyond doubt a legitimate and excellent principle of reason --a principle which extends further than any experience or observation of ours, and which, without giring us any positive knowledge of anything in the region of experience, guides us to the goal of systematic unity.
Of the Ultimate End of the Natural Dialectic of Human Reaton.
? The ideas of pure reason cannot be, of themselves and in their own nature, dialectical ; it is from their misemployment alone that fallacies and illusions arise. For they originate in the nature of reason itself, and it is impossible that this supreme tribunal for all the rights and claims of speculation should be itself undeserving of confidence and
promotive of error. It is to be expected, therefore, that these ideas have
a genuine and legitimate aim. It is true, the mob of so phists raise against reason the cry of inconsistency and con tradiction, and affect to despise the government of that faculty, because they cannot understand its constitution, while it is to its beneficial influences alone that they owe the position and the intelligence which enable them to criticise and to blame its procedure.
We cannot employ an a priori conception with certainty, until we have made a transcendental deduction thereof. The ideas of pure reason do not admit of the same kind of deduc tion as the categories. But if they are to possess the least objective validity, and to represent anything but mere crea tions of thought (entia rationit ratiocinantis), a deduction of them must be possible. This deduction will complete the critical task imposed upon pure reason ; and it is to this part of our labours that we now proceed.
There is a great difference between a thing's being presented
? ? ? OF THE NA\0HAIi DIAXBCTIC OF HUMAN HEASOW. 411
to the mind as an object in an absolute sense, or merely as an ideal object. In the former case I employ my conceptions to
determine the object; in the latter case nothing is present to the mind but a mere schema, which does not relate directly to an object, not even in a hypothetical sense, but which is useful only for the purpose of representing other objects to the mind, in a mediate and indirect manner, by means of their relation to the idea in the intellect. Thus I sny, the concep tion of a supreme intelligence is a mere idea ; that is to say, its objective reality does not consist in the fact that it has an immediate relation to an object (for in this sense we have no means of establishing its objective validity), it is merely a schema constructed according to the necessary conditions of the unity of reason -- the schema of a thing in general, which is useful towards the production of the highest degree of sys tematic unity in the empirical exercise of reason, in which we deduce this or that object of experience from the imaginary object of this idea, as the ground or cause of the said object of experience. In this way, the idea is properly a heuristic, and not an ostensive conception ; it does not give us any information respecting the constitution of an object, it merely indicates how, under the guidance of the idea, we ought to investigate the constitution and the relations of objects in the world of experience. Now, if it can be shown that the three kinds of transcendental ideas (psychological, cosmological, and theological), although not relating directly to any object nor determining do nevertheless, on the supposition of the exist ence of an ideal object, produce systematic unity in the laws of the empirical employment of the reason, and extend our empirical cognition, without ever being inconsistent or iu opposition with -- must be necessary maxim of reason to regulate its procedure according to these ideas. And this forms the transcendental deduction of all speculative ideas, not as constitutive principles of the extension of our cognition beyond the limits of our experience, but as regulative princi ples of the systematic unity of empirical cognition, which
the aid of these ideas arranged and emended within its own proper limits, to an extent unattainable by the operation
the principles of the understanding alone.
shall make this plainer. Guided the principles involved these ideas, we must, the first place, so connect all the
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? 412 TRAKSCfiNDEJTTAL DIALXCTIC.
phenomena, actions and feelings of the mind, as if it were a simple substance, which, endowed with personal identity, possesses a permanent existence (in this life at least), while its states, among which those of the body are to be included as external conditions, are in continual change. Secondly, in cosmology, we must investigate the conditions of all natural
phenomena, internal as well as external, as if they belonged to a chain infinite and without any prime or supreme member, while we do not, on this account, deny the existence of intelli gible grounds of these phenomena, although we never employ them to explain phsenomena, for the simple reason that they are not objects of our cognition. Thirdly, in the sphere of theology, we must regard the whole system of possible experi ence as forming an absolute, but dependent and sensuously- conditioned unity, and at the same time as based upon a sole, supreme, and all-sufficient ground existing apart from the world itself -- a ground which is a self-subsistent, primeval and creative reason, in relation to which we so employ our reason in the field of experience, as if all objects drew their origin from that archetype of all reason. In other words, we ought not to deduce the internal phsenomena of the mind from a simple thinking substance, but deduce them from each other under the guidance of the regulative idea of a
simple being ; we ought not to deduce the phsenomena, order, and unity of the universe from a supreme intelligence, but merely draw from this idea of a supremely wise cause the rules which must guide reason in its connection of causes and effects.
New there is nothing to hinder us from admitting these ideas to possess an objective and hyperbolic existence, except the
? ideas, which lead reason into an antinomy : the psychological and theological ideas are not antinomial. They contain no contradiction ; and how then can any one dispute their objective reality, since he who denies it knows as little about their possibility, as we who affirm ? And yet, when we wish to admit the existence of a thing, it is not sufficient to convince ourselves that there is no positive obstacle in the
fir it cannot be allowable to regard mere creations of thought, which transcend, though they do not contradict, all our conceptions, as real and determinate objects, solely upon the authority of n speculative reason striving to compass its o<<r
cosmological
way ;
? ? ? OF THE NATURAL DIALECTIC OF HUMAH REA80H. 413
dims. They cannot, therefore, he admitted to be real iu them selves ; they can only possess a comparative reality -- that of a schema of the regulative principle of the systematic unity of all cognition. They are to be regarded not as actual things, but as in some measure analogous to them. We abstract from the object of the idea all the conditions which limit the exer cise of our understanding, but which, on the other hand, are the sole conditions of our possessing a determinate conception of any given thing. And thus we cogitate a something, of the real nature of which we have not the least conception, but which we represent to ourselves as standing in a relation to the whole system of phenomena, analogous to that in which phenomena stand to each other.
By admitting these ideal beings, we do not really extend our cognitions beyond the objects of possible experience ; we extend merely the empirical unity of our experience, by the aid of systematic unity, the schema of which is furnished by the idea, which is therefore valid --not as a constitutive, butns a regulative principle. For although we posit a tiling cor responding to the idea -- a something, an actual existence, we do not on that account aim at the extension of our cognition by means of transcendent conceptions. This existence is purely ideal, and not objective ; it is the mere expression of the systematic unity which is to be the guide of reason in the field of experience. There are no attempts made at deciding what the ground of this unity may be, or what the real nature of this imaginary being.
Thus the transcendental and only determinate conception of God, which is presented to us by speculative reason, is in the strictest sense deittic. In other words, reason does not assure us of the objective validity of the conception ; it merely gives us the idea of something, on which the supreme and necessary unity of all experience is based. This something we cannot, following the analogy of a real substance, cogitate otherwise than as the cause of all things operating in accordance with rational laws, if we regard it as an individual object ; although we should rest contented with the idea alone as a regulative principle of reason, and make no attempt at completing the sum of the conditions imposed by thought. This attempt indeed, inconsistent with the grand aim of complete syste
? ? ? is,
? 414 TRANSCENDENTAL DIALECTIC.
matie unity in the sphere of cognition--a unity to which no bounds are set by reason.
Hence it happens that, admitting a divine being, I can have no -conception of the inte-nal possibility of its perfection, or of the necessity of its existence. The only advantage of this ad mission is, that it enables me to answer all other questions re lating to the contingent, and to give reason the most complete satisfaction as regards the unity which it aims at attaining in the world of experience. But I cannot satisfy reason with regard to this hypothesis itself ; and this proves that it is not its intelligence and insight into the subject, but its speculative interest alone which induces it to proceed from a point lying
far beyond the sphere of our cognition, for the purpose of being able to consider all objects as parts of a systematic whole.
Here a distinction presents itself, in regard to the way in which we may cogitate a presupposition -- a distinction which is somewhat subtle, but of great importance in transcendental philosophy. I may have sufficient grounds to admit something, or the existence of something, in a relative point of view (stippositio relativa), without being justified in admitting it in an absolute sense (suppotitio absolute,). This distinction is
undoubtedly requisite, in the case of a regulative principle, the necessity of which we recognise, though we are ignorant }f the source and cause of that necessity, and which wc issume to be based upon some ultimate ground, for the pur
pose of being able to cogitate the universality of the principle in a more determinate way. For example, I cogitate the ex istence of a being corresponding to a pure transcendental idea. But I cannot admit that this being exists absolutely and in itself, because all of the conceptions, by vhich I can cogitate an object in a determinate manner, fall short of assuring me of its existence ; nay, the conditions of the objective validity of my conceptions are excluded by the idea -- by the very fact of its being an idea. The conceptions of reality, substance, causality, nay, even that of necessity in existence, have no significance out of the sphere of empirical cognition, and cannot, beyond that sphere, determine any object. They may, accordingly, be employed to explain the possibility of things in the world of sense, but they are utterly inadequate to explain the possibility of the universe itself considered at
? ? ? ? 0* TUB SATUBAL DIALECTIC 07 HUMAN nEASON. 415
* whole ; because in this case the ground of explanation must lie out of and beyond the world, and cannot, therefore, be an object of possible experience. Now, I may admit the existence
of an incomprehensible being of this nature --the object of a
I have no ground to admit its existence absolutely and in itself. For if an idea (that of a systematic and complete unity, of which
mere idea, relatively to the world of sense ; although
I shall presently speak more particularly) lies at the founda tion of the most extended empirical employment of reason, and if this idea cannot be adequately represented in concreto, although it is indispensably necessary for the approximation of empirical unity to the highest possible degree, --I am not only authorised, but compelled to realise this idea, that to posit real object corresponding thereto. But Icannot profess to know this object to me merely something, to which, as the ground of systematic unity in cognition, attribute such properties as are analogous to the conceptions employed
? the understanding in the sphere of experience. Following
the analogy of the notions of reality, substance, causality, and
necessity, cogitate being, which possesses all these attri butes in the highest degree; and, as this idea the offspring
of my reason alone, cogitate this being as self-subsistent reason, and as the cause of the universe operating means
of ideas of the greatest possible harmony and unity. Thus abstract all conditions that would limit my idea, solely for the purpose of rendering systematic unity possible the world of empirical diversity, and thus securing the widest possible exten sion for the exercise of reason in that sphere. This am enabled to do, regarding all connections and relations in the world of sense, as t/they were the dispositions of su preme reason, of which our reason but faint image. then proceed to cogitate this Supreme Being conceptions
which have, properly, no meaning or application, except in the world of sense. But as am authorised to employ the transcendental hypothesis of such being relative respect alone, that as the substratum of the greatest possiiile unity
experience, -- may attribute to being which regard as distinct from the world, such properties as belong solely to the sphere of sense and experience. For do not desire, and am not justified in desiring, to cognize this object of my idea, as
exists itself for possess no conceptions sufficient for
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this task, those of reality, substance, causality, nay, evet that of necessity in existence, losing all significance, and he- coming merely the signs of conceptions, without content and without applicability, when I attempt to carry them beyond the limits of the world of sense. I cogitate merely the re lation of a perfectly unknown being to the greatest possible systematic unity of experience, solely for the purpose of em ploying it as the schema of the regulative principle which directs reason in its empirical exercise.
It is evident, at the first view, that we cannot pre-suppose the reality of this transcendental object, by means of the con ceptions of reality, substance, causality, and so on ; because these conceptions cannot be applied to anything that is dis tinct from the world of sense. Thus the supposition of a Supreme Being or cause is purely relative ; it is cogitated only in behalf of the systematic unity of experience ; such a being
s but a something, of whose existence in itself we have not the east conception. Thus, too, it becomes sufficiently manifest, why we required the idea of a necessary being in relation to objects given by sense, although we can never have the least
conception of this being, or of its absolute necessity.
And now we can clearly perceive the result of our transcen
? dental dialectic, and the proper aim of the ideas of pure reason, --which become dialectical solely from misunderstand ing and inconsiderateness. Pure reason in fact, occupied with itself, and not with any object. Objects are not presented to to be embraced in the unity of an empirical
conception only the cognitions of the understanding that are pre
sented to for the purpose of receiving the unity of rational conception, that of being connected according to principle. The unity of reason the unity of system and this systematic unity not an objective principle, extending its dominion over objects, but subjective maxim, extending its authority over the empirical cognition of objects. The systematic connection which reason gives to the empirical
of the understanding, not only advances the extension of that employment, but ens nres its correctness, and thus the principle of systematic unity of this nature also objective, although only in an indefinite respect (pri? tcipitim raffum). not, however, constitutive principle, deter mining an object to which directly relates merely
employment
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? OP THE SATf/BAt DIALECTIC OF HtJlfAK HEASON.
regulative principle or maxim, advancing and strengthening t lie empirical exercise of reason, by the opening up of new paths of which the understanding is ignorant, while it never conflicts with the laws of its exercise in ihe sphere of experience.
But reason cannot cogitate this systematic unity, without at the same time cogitating an object of the idea -- an object that cannot be presented in any experience, which contains no concrete example of a complete systematic unity. This being (ens rationis ratiocinate) is therefore a mere idea, and is not assumed to be a thing which is real absolutely and in itself. On the contrary, it forms merely the problematical foundation of the connection which the mind introduces among the phee- nomena of the sensuous world. We look upon this con nection, in the light of the above-mentioned idea, as if it drew its origin from the supposed being which corresponds to the idea. And yet all we aim at is the possession of thk idea as a secure foundation for the systematic unity of experience --a unity indispensable to reason, advantageous to the under* standing, and promotive of the interests of empirical cognition.
We mistake the true meaning of this idea, when we regard it as an enouncement, or even as a hypothetical declaration of the existence of a real thing, which we are to regard as the origin or ground of a systematic constitution of the universe. On the contrary, it is left completely undetermined what the nature or properties of this so-called ground may be. The
' idea is merely to be adopted as a point of view, from which this unity, so essential to reason and so beneficial to the under standing, may be regarded as radiating. In one word, this transcendental thing is merely the schema of a regulative principle, by means of which Reason, so far as in her lies, extends the dominion of systematic unity over the whole sphere of experience.
The first object of an idea of this kind is the Ego, con sidered merely as a thinking nature or soul. If I wish to investigate the properties of a thinking being, I must in terrogate experience. But I find that I can apply none of the categories to this object, the schema of these cate gories, which is the condition of their application, being given only in sensuous intuition. But I cannot thus attain to
the cognition of a systematic unity of all the phenomena ? v the internal &en<<e. Instead, therefore of an empirical
417
? ? ? ? 418 TRANSCENDENTAL DIALECTIC.
conception of what the soul really is, reason takes the conception of the empirical unity of ell thought, and, by
cogitating this unity as unconditioned and primitive, con structs the rational conception or idea of a simple substance
which is in itself unchangeable,
and in connection with other real things external to it ; in one word, it constructs the idea of a simple self-subsistent intelligence. But the real aim of reason in this procedure is the attainment of principles of systematic unity for the ex planation of the phenomena of the soul. That reason desires to be able to represent all the determinations of the internal sense, as existing in one subject, all powers as deduced from one fundamental power, all changes as mere varieties in the condition of being which permanent and always the same, and all phenomena in space as entirely different in their nature from the procedure of thought. Essential simpli city (with the other attributes predicated of the Ego) re
garded as the mere schema of this regulative principle
not assumed that the actual ground of the properties of the soul. For these properties may rest upon quite different grounds, of which we are completely ignorant; just as the above predicates could not give us any knowledge of the soul as in itself, even we regarded them as valid in respect of
inasmuch as they constitute mere idea, which cannot be represented in cuncreto. Nothing but good can result from
psychological idea of this kind, we only take proper care not to consider as more than an idea that we regard
as valid merely in relation to the employment of reason,
the sphere of the phenomena of the soul. Under the guidance of this idea, or principle, no empirical laws of cor poreal phenomena are called in to explain that which phenomenon of the internal sense alone no windy hypo theses of the generation, annihilation, and palingenesis of souls are admitted. Thus the consideration of this object of the internal sense kept pure, and unmixed with heteroge neous elements while the investigation of reason aims at reducing all the grounds of explanation employed this sphere of knowledge to single principle. All this best effected, nay, cannot be effected otherwise than by means of such schema, which requires us to regard this ideal thing
as an actual existence. The psychological idea therefore meaningless and inapplicable, except as the schema of ieg>>
possessing personal identity,
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? Of fttl SATtJBAi DIALECTIC Of HUMAN REASON. 419
lative conception. For, if I ask whether the soul is not really of a spiritual nature, --it is a question which has no meaning. From such a conception has been abstracted, not merely all corporeal nature, but all nature, that all the predicates of possible experience and consequently, all the conditions which enable us to cogitate an object to this conception have
But, these conditions are absent, evident that the conception meaningless.
The second regulative idea of speculative reason the con ception of the universe. For nature properly the only object presented to us, in regard to which reaaon requires regulative principles. Nature twofold -- thinking and cor poreal nature. To cogitate the latter in regard to its internal possibility, that to determine the application of the cate gories to no idea required -- no representation which transcends experience. In this sphere, therefore, an idea impossible, sensuous intuition being our only guide while, in the sphere of psychology, we require the fundamental idea (I), which contains a priori certain form of thought, namely, the unity of the Ego. Pure reason has therefore nothing left but nature in general, and the completeness of conditions in na ture in accordance with some principle. The absolute totality of the series of these conditions an idea, which can never be fully realized in the empirical exercise of reason, while service able as rule for the procedure of reason in relation to that
totality. requires us, in the explanation of given pheno mena (in the regress or ascent in the series), to proceed, as the series were infinite in itself, that were prolonged in
disappeared.
? while, on the other hand, where reason
indefinitum
regarded as itself the determining cause (in the region of free dom), we are required to proceed as we had not before us an object of sense, but of the pure understanding. In this latter case, the conditions do not exist in the series of pheno- mena, but may be placed quite out of and beyond and the series of conditions may be regarded as had an absolute beginning from an intelligible cause. All this proves that the coamological ideas are nothing but regulative principles, and not constitutive and that their aim not to realize an actual
totality in such series. The full discussion of this subjccJ will be found in its proper place in the chapter on the anti nomy of pure reason.
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The third idea of pure reason, containing the hypothesis of a being which is valid merely as a relative hypothesis, is that of the one and all-sufficient cause of all cosmological series, in other words, the idea of God. We have not the slightest ground absolutely to admit the existence of an object corre sponding to this idea ; for what can empower or authorize us to affirm the existence of a being of the highest perfection -- a being whose existence is absolutely necessary, merely be cause we possess the conception of such a being? The answer -- the existence of the world which renders this hypothesis necessary. But this answer makes perfectly evident, that the idea of this being, like all other speculative ideas, essentially nothing more than demand upon reason that shall regulate the connection which and its subor dinate faculties introduce into the phsenomena of the world
principles of systematic unity, and consequently, that shall regard all plienomena as originating from one all-em bracing being, as the supreme and all-sufficient cause. From this plain that the only aim of reason in this procedure the establishment of its own formal rule for the extension of its dominion in the world of experience that does not aim at an extension of its cognition beyond the limits of experi ence and that, consequently, this idea does not contain any constitutive principle.
? The highest formal unity, which based upon ideas alone,
the unity of all things-- unity in accordance with an aim
or purpose and the speculative interest of reason renders
necessary to regard all order in the world, as originated from the intention and design of supreme reason. This principle unfolds to the view of reason the sphere of expe rience new and enlarged prospects, and invites to connect the phsenomena of the world according to teleological laws, and in this way to attain to the highest possible degree of sys tematic unity. The hypothesis of supreme intelligence, as the sole cause of the universe --an intelligence which lias for us no more than an ideal existence, accordingly always of the greatest service to reason. Thus, we presuppose, relation to the figure of the earth (which round, but some what flattened at the poles),* or that of mountains or seas,
? The advantage! which circular form, in the case of the earth, hai ? vex every other, are well known. But few are aware that the slight
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? 09 THE NATUBAIi DIALECTIC OF HUMAlt BEABOJT. 421
wise designs on the part of an author of the universe, we cannot fail to make, by the light of this supposition, a great number of interesting discoveries. If we keep to this hypo thesis, as a principle which is purely regulative, even erro- cannot be very detrimental. For, in this cnse, error can have no more serious consequences than that, where we expected to discover a teleological connection (nexus finalia), only a me chanical or physical connection appears. In such a case, we merely fail to find the additional form of unity we expected, but we do not lose the rational unity which the mind requires in its procedure in experience. But even a miscarriage of this sort cannot affect the law in its general and teleological rela tions. For although we may convict an anatomist of an error, when he connects the limb of some animal with a certain
purpose ; it is quite impossible to prove in a single case, that any arrangement of nature, be it what it may, is entirely with out aim or design. And thus medical physiology, by the aid
of a principle presented to it by pure reason, extends its very limited empirical knowledge of the purposes of the different parts of an organized body so far, that it may be asserted with the utmost confidence, and with the approbation of all reflect ing men, that every organ or bodily part of an animal has its use and answers a certain design. Now, this is a supposition, which, if regarded as of a constitutive character, goes much farther than any experience or observation of ours can justify.
Hence it is evident that it is nothing more than a regulative principle of reason, which aims at the highest degree of syste matic unity, by the aid of the idea of a causality according to design in a supreme cause --a cause which it regards as the highest intelligence.
If, however, we neglect this restriction of the idea to a purely regulative influence, reason is betrayed into numerous errors. For it has then left the ground of experience, in which
flattening at the poles, which gives it the figure of a spheroid, is the only cause which prevents the elevations of continents or even of moun tains, perhaps thrown up by some internal convulsion, from continually altering the position of the axis of the earth --and that to some consider able degree in a short time. The great protuberance of the earth under the equator serves to overbalance the impetus of all other masses ot earth, and thus to preserve the axis of the earth, so far as we can ob serve, in its present position. And yet this wise arrangement has bees
unthinkingly explained from the equilibrium of the formerly fluid mass.
? ? ? ? ' 422
TBAJtSCEKDENTAI, DIALECTIC.
? lone are to be found the criteria of truth, and has ventured into the region of the incomprehensible and unsearchable, on the heights of which it loses its power and collectedness, because it has completely severed its connection with experience.
The first error which arises from our employing the idea of a Supreme Being as a constitutive (in repugnance to the very nature of an idea), and not as a regulative principle, is the error of inactive reason (ignava ratio*). We may so term every principle which requires us to regard our investigations of nature as absolutely complete, and allows reason to cease its inquiries, as if it had fully executed its task. Thus the psycho logical idea of the Ego, when employed as a constitutive principle for the explanation of the phsenomena of the soul, and for the extension of our knowledge regarding this sub ject oeyond the limits of experience --even to the condition of the soul after death, is convenient enough for the purposes of pure reason, but detrimental and even ruinous to its in terests in the sphere of nature and experience. The dogma tising spiritualist explains the unchanging unity of our per sonality through all changes of condition from the unity of a thinking substance, the interest which we take in things and events that can happen only after our death, from a con sciousness of the immaterial nature of our thinking subject, and so on. Thus he dispenses with all empirical investiga tions into the cause of these internal phsenomena, and with
all possible explanations of them upon purely natural
grounds ; while, at the dictation of a transcendent reason,
he passes by the immanent sources of cognition in experience, greatly to his own ease and convenience, but to the sacrifice
of all genuine insight and intelligence. These prejudicial
? become still more evident, in the case of the dogmatical treatment of our idea of a Supreme Intelligence, and the theological system of nature (physico-theology) which is falsely based upon it. For, in this case, the aims which
? This was the term applied by the old dialecticians to a sophistical argument, which ran thus : If it is your fate tu die of this disease, you will die, whether you employ a physician or not. Cicero says that this modi; of reasoning has received this appellation, because, if followed, it puts an end to the employment of reason in the affairs of life. For a
similar reason I have applied this designation to the sophistical argument of pure reason,
consequences
? ? ? OF THE NATIlBAIi DIALECTIC OF HUMAK REABON. 423
We observe in nature, and often those which we merely fancy to exist, make the investigation of causes a very easy task, by directing us to refer such and such phenomena imme diately to the unsearchable will and counsel of the Supreme Wisdom, while we ought to investigate their causes in the ge neral laws of the mechanism of matter. We are thus re commended to consider the labour of reason as ended, whet, we have merely dispensed with its employment, which ii guided surely and safely, only by the order of nature and the series of changes in the world--which are arranged according to immanent and general laws. This error may be avoided, if we do not merely consider from the view-point of final aims certain parts of nature, such as the division and struc ture of a continent, the constitution and direction of certain mountain- chains, or even the organisation existing in the vegetable and animal kingdoms, but look upon this system atic unity of nature in a perfectly general way, in relation to the idea of a Supreme Intelligence. If we pursue this advice, we lay as a foundation for all inveitigation the conformity to aims of all phenomena of nature in accordance with universal laws, for which no particular arrangement of nature is exempt, but only cognised by us with more or less difficulty ; and we possess a regulative principle of the systematic unity of a tcleological connection, which we do not attempc to anticipate or predetermine. All that we do, and ought to do, is to follow out the physico-mechanical connection in nature ac cording to general laws, with the hope of discovering, sooner or later, the teleological connection also. Thus, and thus only, can the principle of final unity aid in the extension of the employment of reason in the sphere of experience, with out being in any case detrimental to its interests.
The second error which arises from the misconception of the principle of systematic unity is that of perverted reason (perversa ratio, uartfot vp&npm rationid). The idea of systematic unity is available as a regulative principle in the connection of phsenomena according to general natural laws ; and, how far soever we have to travel upon the path of expe rience to discover some fact or event, this idea requires us to believe that we have approached all the more nearly to the completion of its use in the sphere of nature, although that completion can never be attained. Bat this error reverse* tlx
? ? ? ? 424 TRANSCENDENTAL DIALECTIC.
of reason. We begin by hypostatising the prin ciple of ayatematic unity, and by giving an anthropomorphic determination to the conception of a Supreme Intelligence, and then proceed forcibly to impose aims upon nature. Thus not only does teleology, which ought to aid in the completion of unity in accordance with general laws, operate to the de struction of its influence, but it hinders reason from attaining its proper aim, that the proof, upon natural grounds, of the existence of supreme intelligent cause. For, we can not presuppose supreme finality in nature a priori, that
as essentially belonging to nature, how can we be directed to endeavour to discover this unity, and, rising gradually through its different degrees, to approach the supreme per fection of an author of all-- perfection which
necessary, and therefore cognizable a priori The regulative principle directs us to presuppose systematic unity absolutely, and, consequently, as following from the essential nature of things -- but only as unity
procedure
? of nature, not merely cognized priori, although only in an
empirically, but presupposed
determinate manner. But
foundation of supreme ordaining Being, the unity of nature
insist on basing nature upon the
in effect lost. For, in this case, quite foreign and un essential to the nature of things, and cannot be cognized from the general laws of nature. And thus arises vicious cir cular argument, what ought to have been proved having been presupposed.
To take the regulative principle of systematic
nature for constitutive principle, and to hypostatise and make cause out of that which properly the ideal ground of the consistent and harmonious exercise of reason, involves reason in inextricable embarrassments. The investigation of nature pursues its own path under the guidance of the chain of natural causes, in accordance with the general laws of nature, and ever follows the light of the idea of an author of the universe --not for the purpose of deducing the finality, which constantly pursues, from this Supreme Being, but to attain to the cognition of his existence from the finality which seeks in the existence of the phenomena of nature, and, possible, in that of all things --to cognize this being, consequently, as absolutely necessary. Whether this latter
purpose succeed or not, the idea and must always be true
absolutely
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one, and its employment, when merely regulative, must always be accompanied by truthful and beneficial results.
Complete unity, in conformity with aims, constitutes abso lute perfection. But if we do not find this unity in the nature of the things which go to constitute the world of ex perience, that of objective cognition, consequently in the universal and necessary laws of nature, how can we infer from this unity the idea of the supreme and absolutely necessary perfection of primal being, which the origin of all cau
The greatest systematic unity, and consequently teleological unity, constitutes the very foundation of the pos sibility of the most extended employment of human reason. The idea of unity therefore essentially and iudissolubly connected with the nature of our reason. This idea legislative one and hence very natural that we should assume the existence of legislative reason corresponding to
sality
? from which the systematic unity of nature -- the object of the operations of reason -- must be derived.
In the course of our discussion of the antinomies, we stated
that always possible to answer all the questions which pure reason may raise and that the plea of the limited na ture of our cognition, which unavoidable and proper in many questions regarding natural phsenomena, cannot in this case be admitted, because the questions raised do not relate to the nature of things, but are necessarily originated the nature of reason itself, and relate to its own internal constitu tion. We can now establish this assertion, which at first sight appeared so rash, in relation to the two questions in which reason takes the greatest interest, and thus complete our dis cussion of the dialectic of pure reason.
then, the question asked, in relation to transcendental theology first, whether there anything distinct from the world, which contains the ground of cosmical order and con nection according to general laws? The answer Ccr-
After what has been said of the psychological idea of the Ego and its proper employment as regulative principle of the operations of reason, need not enter into details regarding the transcendental illu sion which the systematic unity of all the various phenomena of the internal sense hypostatised. The procedure in this case very simi lar to that which hat heen discussed our remarks on the theological ideal
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TBAH80ES DENTAL DIALECTIC.
tainly. For the world is a sum of phenomena ; there must therefore be some transcendental basis of these phenomena, that basis cogitable the pare understanding alone. tecondly, the question asked, whether this being sub stance, whether of the greatest reality, whether ne cessary, and so forth answer that this question
utterly without meaning. For all the categories which aid me in
forming conception of an object, cannot be employed except in the world of sense, and are without meaning, when not ap
plied to objects of actual or possible experience. Out of this sphere, they are not properly conceptions, but the mere marks or indices of conceptions, which we may admit, although they cannot, without the help of experience, help us to un derstand any subject or thing. If, thirdly, the question whether we may not cogitate this being, which distinct from the world, in analogy with the objects of experience The answer undoubtedly, but only as an ideal, and not as real object. That we must cogitate only as an unkuown substratum of the systematic unity, order, and finality of the world -- unity which reason must employ as the regulative principle of its investigation of nature. Nay, more, we may admit into the idea certain anthromorphic elements, which are promotive of the interests of this regulative principle. For no more than an idea, which does not relate directly to being distinct from the world, but to the regulative prin ciple of the systematic unity of the world, means, however, of schema of this unity -- the schema of Supreme Intel ligence, who the wisely-designing author of the universe. What this basis of cosnucal unity may be in itself, we know not--we cannot discover from the idea we merely know how we ought to employ the idea of this unity, in relation to the
systematic iperation of reason in the sphere of experience. But, will be asked again, can we on these grounds, admit the existence of wise and omnipotent author of the world?
Without doubt and not only so, but we must assume the ex istence of such being. But do we thus extend the limits of our knowledge beyond the field of possible experience By no means. For we have merely presupposed something, of which we have no conception, which we do not know as
in itself but, in relation to the systematic disposition of the universe, which we must presupoose in all our observation
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? OT THE HATTTBAL DIALECTIC OF HUMAN REA8OW. 427
nature, we have cogitated this unknown being in analogy witli an intelligent existence (an empirical conception), that is to say, v,e have endowed it with those attributes, which, judging from the nature of our own reason, may contain the ground of such a systematic unity. This idea is therefore
valid only relatively to the employment in experience of our reason. But if we attribute to it absolute and objective vali dity, we overlook the fact that it is merely an ideal being that we cogitate ; and, by setting out from a basis which is not determinable by considerations drawn from experience, we place ourselves in a position which incapacitates us from ap plying this principle to the empirical employment of reason.
conception and hypothesis in my investigations into the world and nature? Yes, for this very purpose was the idea established by reason as a fundamental basis. But may I re gard certain arrangements, which seemed to have been made in conformity with some fixed aim, as the arrangements of design, and look upon them as proceeding from the divine will, with the intervention, however, of certain other particular arrange
ments disposed to that end ? Yes, you may Jo so ; but at the same time you must regard it as indifferent, whether it is asserted that divine wisdom has disposed all things in confor mity with his highest aims, or that the idea of supreme wisdom is a regulative principle in the investigation of nature, and at the same time a principle of the systematic unity of nature according to general laws, even in those cases where we are unable to discover that unity. In other words, it must be perfectly indifferent to you, whether you say, when you have discovered this unity -- God has wisely willed it so, or, nature has wisely arranged this. For it was nothing but the systematic unity, which reason requires as a basis for the in vestigation of nature, that justified you in accepting the idea of a supreme intelligence as a schema for a regulative princi ple ; and, the farther you advance in the discovery of design and finality, the more certain the validity of your idea. But, as the whole aim of this regulative principle was the dis covery of a necessary and systematic unity in nature, we nave, in so far as we attain this, to attribute our success to the idea of a Supreme Being ; while, at the same time, we cannot, without involving ourselves in contradictions, overlook '. In
? But, it will be asked further, can I make any use of this
? ? ? 428 nUNSCENDBNTAL DIALECTIC! .
general laws of nature, as it was in reference to them alone that this idea was employed. We cannot, I say, overlook the general laws of nature, and regard this conformity to aims observable in nature as contingent or hyperphysical in its origin ; inasmuch as there is no ground which can justify us in the admission of a being with such properties distinct from and above nature. All that we are authorized to assert is, that this idea may be employed as a principle, and that the properties of the being which is assumed to correspond to it may be regarded as systematically connected in analogy with the causal determination of phenomena.
For the same reasons we are justified in introducing into the idea of the supreme cause other anthropomorphic elements (for without these we could not predicate anything of
we may regard as allowable to cogitate this cause R3 being with understanding, the feelings of pleasure and displeasure, and faculties of desire and will corresponding to these. At the same time, we may attribute to this being infinite perfection -- perfection which necessarily transcends that which our knowledge of the order and design in the world would authorize us to predicate of it. For the regulative law of systematic unity requires us to study nature on the suppo sition that systematic and final unity in infinitum every where discoverable, even in the highest diversity. For, although we may discover little of this cosmical perfection, belongs to the legislative prerogative of reason, to require us always to seek for and to expect while must always be beneficial to institute all inquiries into nature in accord ance with this principle. But evident that, this idea of supreme author of all, which place as the founda
tion of all inquiries into nature, do not mean to assert the existence of such being, or that have any knowledge of its existence and, consequently, do not really deduce any thing from the existence of this being, but merely from its idea, that to say, from the nature of things in this world, in accordance with this idea. certain dim consciousness of the true use of this idea seems to have dictated to the philo sophers of all times the moderate language used them regarding the cause of the world. We find them employ ing the expressions, wisdom and care of nature, and divine
? wisdom, as synonymous, -- nay, purely speculative discus*
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iions, preferring the former, because it does not carry the ap pearance of greater pretensions than such as we are entitled to make, and at the same time directs reason to its proper field of action --nature and her phenomena.
Thus, pure reason, which at first seemed to promise us nothing less than the extension of our cognition beyond the limits of experience, is found, when thoroughly examined, to contain nothing but regulative principles, the virtue and function of which is to introduce into our cognition a higher degree of unity than the understanding could of itself. These principles, by placing the goal of all our struggles at so great a distance, realise for us the most thorough connection between the different parts of our cognition, and the highest degree of systematic unity. But, on the other hand, if misunder stood and employed as constitutive principles of transcendent cognition, they become the parents of illusions and contradic tions, while pretending to introduce us to new regions of knowledge.
Thus all human cognition begins with intuitions, proceeds from thence to conceptions, and ends with ideas. Although it possesses in relation to all three elements, a priori sources of cognition, which seemed to transcend the limits of all
a thorough-going criticism demonstrates, that speculative reason can never, by the aid of these elements, pass the bounds of possible experience, and that the proper destination of this highest faculty of cognition, is to employ all methods, and all the principles of these methods, for the purpose of penetrating into the innermost secrets of nature, by the aid of the principles of unity, (among all kinds of which teleological unity is the highest), while it ought not
to attempt to soar above the sphere of experience, beyond which there lies nought for us but the void inane. The criti cal examination, in our Transcendental Analytic, of all the propositions which professed to extend cognition beyond the sphere of experience, completely demonstrated that they can only conduct us to a possible experience. If we were not distrustful even of the clearest abstract theorems, if we were not allured by specious and inviting prospects to escape from the constraining power of their evidence, we might
? experience,
? ? ? 430 tBAHSClNDENfAL DIALECTIC.
spare ourselves the laborious examination of all the dia lectical arguments which a transcendent reason adduces in support of its pretensions; for we should know with the most complete certainty that, however honest such professions might be, they are null and valueless, because they relate to a kind of knowledge to which no man can by any possibility attain. But, as there is no end to discussion, if we cannot discover the true cause of the illusions by which even the wisest are deceived, and as the analysis of all our transcendent cognition into its elements is of itself of no slight value as a psychological study, while it is a duty incumbent on every philosopher, --it was found necessary to investigate the dialec tical procedure of reason in its primary sources. And as the inferences of which this dialectic is the parent, are not only deceitful, but naturally possess a profound interest for hu manity, it was advisable at the same time, to give a full ac count of the momenta of this dialectical procedure, and to deposit it in the archives of human reason, as a warning to all future metaphysicians to avoid theee causes of speculative error.
? ? ? ? n.
TRANSCENDENTAL DOCTRINE OY METHOD.
If we regard the sum of the cognition of pure speculative reason as an edifice, the idea of which, at least, exists iu the human mind, it may be said that we have in the Transcendental Doctrine of Elements examined the materials and determined to what edifice" these belong, and what its height and stability. We have found, indeed, that, although we had purposeu to build for ourselves a tower which should reach to Heaven, the supply of materials sufficed merely for a habitation, which was spacious enough for all terrestrial purposes, and high enough to enable us to survey the level plain of experience, but that the bold undertaking designed necesaarily failed for want of materials, --not to mention the confusion of tongues,
which gave rise to endless disputes among the labourers on the plan of the edifice, and at last scattered them over all the world, each to erect a separate building for himself, according to his own plans and his own inclinations. Our present task relates not to the materials, but to the plan of an edifice ; and, as we have had sufficient warning not to venture blindly upon a design which may be found to transcend our natural powers, while, at the same time, we cannot give up the in tention of erecting a secure abode for the mind, we must pro portion our design to the material which is presented to us, and which at the same time, sufficient for all our wants.
understand, then, the transcendental doctrine of me thod, the determination of the formal conditions of com plete system of pure reason. We shall accordingly have to treat of the Discipline, the Canon, the Architectonic, and, finally, the History of pure reason. This part of our Critique will accomplish, from the transcendental point of view, what
has been usually attempted, but miserably executed, under the name of practical logic. has been badly executed,
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piy, because general logic, not being limited to nny particular kind of cognition (not even to the pure cognition of the un derstanding) nor to any particular objects, it cannot, without borrowing from other sciences, do more than present merely the titles or signs of possible methods and the technical expressions, which are employed in the systematic parts of all sciences ; and
thus the pupil is made acquainted with names, the meaning and application of which he is to learn only at some future time.
TRANSCENDENTAL DOCTRINE OF METHOD.
CHAPTER FIRST.
THE DISCIPLINE OF PUKE REASON.
Negative judgments -- those which are so not merely as re gards their logical form, but in respect of their content -- are not commonly held in especial respect. They are, on the contrary, regarded as jealous enemies of our insatiable desire for knowledge ; and it almost requires an apology to induce ns to tolerate, much less to prixe and to respect them.
All propositions, indeed, may be logically expressed in a negative form ; but, in relation to the content of our cogni
tion, the peculiar province of negative judgments is solely to . prevent error. For this reason, too, negative propositions, which are framed for the purpose of correcting false cognitions where error is absolutely impossible, are undoubtedly true, but inane and senseless ; that they are reality purposeless, and for this reason often very ridiculous.