TRANSCENDENT AL POLEMIC:
HERACLITIAN
MEDIT A TIONS
the things are being "interpreted," the memory is also kept alive that the things are also something an sich (in themselves) that has nothing to do with their being known by us.
the things are being "interpreted," the memory is also kept alive that the things are also something an sich (in themselves) that has nothing to do with their being known by us.
Peter-Sloterdijk-Critique-of-Cynical-Reason
Metallurgy is the technically central science in the history of war.
With bronze and iron, the hot phase of cultural evolution as well as the escalation of the art of weapons and war begins.
With the advent of the age of artillery finally, the latter reaches its ultimate sophistication.
All deci- sive types of modern weaponry and military systems --tank divisions, air force, rocket bases, naval systems, etc.
--are basically nothing more than the gigantic outgrowths of the way in which artillery makes use of metals and explosives:
24
swimming, flying, motorized artillery systems.
edge of metals can demonstrate the original connection between this central earth science and polemics. Knowledge of nature and of war are connected through a pragmatic chain of interests. Before iron weapons can be raised against an enemy, a campaign against the earth's crust must have taken place, a many-pronged, laborious, and dangerous process. Deposits must be dug up, the ore broken up into pieces; the masses are transported to the smelting plant where they are trans- formed through the violence of fire into liquid; the substances are separated and are hardened with new amalgams, mixtures, and coolings; they are heated red-hot once more, forged, formed, polished. Only the will to war is able to subject the natural substances to such transformations with such violence as the technology of smelting and forging requires. In metallurgy, a humanity thinking of war opens up its grand offensive against the given structures of matter. What it inflicts on the metals is nothing other than an anticipation of what it will inflict on the enemy with the metals. If the "Iron Age" (Ovid) begins with the emergence of war-- represented in the sword and the spear, the metallic weapons of striking and stabbing --the epoch before the emergence of gunpowder weapons is the Golden Age of war. With artillery, something like a second discovery of fire takes place in civilization. However, it is not the Promethean sunfire of long ago but a mod- ern volcanic underworld fire. Corresponding roughly to the invention of artillery is the development of the political centralized power and the spatial perspective at the beginning of modern times. For the first time, it allows the opponent to be "mastered" from a distance. Herein lies its functional relation to modern adminis- tration and surveillance. The shell corresponds to the sovereign's gaze and to the
25
Since the Industrial Revolution, which emanated from the English mining dis- tricts, the metallization of society again assumes new dimensions. At the same time, the spying out of the earth's interior proceeds with intermittent leaps. From now on, gigantic mines arise that eat into the blackest depths of the planet's bowels. Miners become the ghostly army of industrial civilization --the exploited exploiters. The laborers of the smelteries were advanced to the elite division of the capitalist attack against the earth's "miserly" crust. In the end, the modern
decisions of a centralized administration.
A political theory of the knowl-
1
BLACK EMPIRICISM ? 353
? Illuminating artillery, in Felix Auerbach, Die Physik im Kriege, 3rd ed. (Jena, 1916).
form of economy capitalizes all mineral deposits, and with millions of breaches, borings, and extractions, it pushes on with the mineralogical war against the earth's crust in order to burn the extracted deposits or to work them into tools and weapon systems. Every day, industrial civilizations decide on death sentences against millions upon millions of living beings and millions of tons of substances. In these decisions, the predatory relation of domination of Western cultures to the earth is perfected.
We must take care not to view today's nuclear technology as exceptional. It is, in reality, nothing more than the consistent continuation of the mineralogical- metallurgical attack on the given structures of matter, the purest intensification of polemical theory. Here, there is no discontinuity. The transcendental- polemical framework of our technology comprises the bronze sword just as much as the neutron bomb. At most, the transition from the metal age to the nuclear age signifies a new technological stage within the polemical structure and a new order of magnitude in the offensive means of self-preservation. In order to keep up their war against the Other, modern competition egos and research egos con- quered the previously most secret structural forms and energy sources of matter. In fact, in going beyond the metallurgical explosion of natural substances (ore, etc. ), they even overstepped the threshold of the natural structures of substances
354 ? BLACK EMPIRICISM
in order to reach the point where the previously most puzzling cosmic powers were bound. But also on the nuclear level, the mistreatment of matter merely an- ticipates the mistreatment of the enemy. It projects the pressure for enmity be- tween the rival societies (by way of the "relatively autonomous" intermediate step of natural science) onto radioactive matter. What we are prepared to inflict on the enemy if need be sets the standard for which tools of annihilation are to be wrung from nature. What we have intended for the enemy--large-scale blanket annihilation through incineration, contamination, atomization--has to be first in- flicted on the weapon. It is basically only our message to our opponents; it com- municates what we intend to do to them. The weapon is therefore the enemy's proxy in one's own arsenal. Those who forge weapons make it clear to their ene- mies that they will treat them just as mercilessly as they treat the club, the anvil, the grenade, and the warhead. The weapon is already the maltreated opponent; it is the thing-for-you. Those who arm are already at war. This war takes place de facto continually in intervals of hot and cold phases, the latter being misnamed peace. Seen in the polemical cycle, peace means a period of arming, displacement of hostilities onto the metals; war means, accordingly, the implementation and consumption of arms products, the realization of the weapons on the opponent.
On the highest level of polemical technology, our process of enlightenment reaches the point where it takes leave of a thousand-year-old dualistic tradition of metaphysics: The antagonism between res cogitans and res extensa in the cybernetic age becomes altogether invalid. To the extent that the res (substance) that thinks actually can be represented and produced as machine, the antagonism toward the res that exists in space (extension) disappears. In the meantime, there are modern artillery systems that in strategic jargon are called "intelligent muni- tions" or "smart missiles," that is, rockets that perform classic thought functions (perception, decision making) in flight and behave "subjectively" toward the enemy target. The existence of these systems signifies a metaphysical statutory declaration of our civilization: We have, in fact, become in large part subjects who think of themselves as "thinking things," and it is these thinking things that exchange blows in modern warfare. The difference between the hero and his weapon disappears; the megalomaniac self-preservation egos of our culture have externalized their own being as weapon. If, in the end, the self-sacrificing kami- kaze pilots take over the function of the guiding system (res cogitans) in persona, then, in the case of the most advanced weapons of the present day, this heroic subjectivity has become an electronic subjectivity: The manned dive-bomber still presupposed a pilot who consciously took his inevitable death upon himself and demonstrated an ability to die peculiarly reminiscent of that quality described in ancient philosophy. In intelligent munition, this human factor is fully eliminated. A further degeneration of metaphysics to paranoia has come about; "live and let die" is accordingly not only the secret agent's motto but also the principle of mod- ern warfare based on artillery and its extensions. With the "thinking missile," we
BLACK EMPIRICISM ? 355
16
reach the final station of the modern displacement of the subject because what
is called subject in modern times is, in fact, that self-preservation ego that with- draws step by step from the living, to the summit of paranoia. Withdrawal, dis- tancing, self-displacement are the driving forces of this kind of subjectivity. Ar- tillery is only one of its manifestations and, especially in the form of electronic, intelligent, atomic munition, is the ultimate outgrowth of self-assertion and world domination from a distance. The modern long-range ego wants to preserve itself without recognizing itself in its own weapon. It must thus be split off from it as far as possible. Intelligent munition satisfies this need. Since its invention, the schizoid structure (the subject in the form of the state and the polemical self- preservation ego) approaches its consummation. The next great war foresees only schizophrenics and machines as combatants. Decisive homunculi in the state, ghostly split administrators of destructive forces, will press the decisive buttons "if it has to be," and heroic robots as well as thinking hell-machines will fall on each other--the experimentum mundi is at an end; humanity was a mistake. En- lightenment can only summarize: Humanity cannot be enlightened because it it- self was the false premise of enlightenment. Humanity does not come up to scratch. It carries within itself the obscuring principle of dissimulation (displace- ment), and where its ego appears there cannot shine what was promised by all enlightenments: the light of reason.
Notes
1. Bernard Law Viscount Montgomery of Alamein, Weltgeschichte der Schlachten und Kriegs- ziige, vol. 1 (Munich, 1975), p. 17. See also his sketch of the tactics warriors use to feel each other out: "A commander must be able to think himself into his adversary or at least try to do that. For this reason, during the war against Hitler, I always had a photo of my adversary in my command vehi- cle. In the desert and then again in Normandy, Rommel was my adversary. I repeatedly studied his face and tried to imagine how he would react to the movements I wanted to implement. Strangely enough, this proved to be useful. "
2. This rather offended Stieber. His memoirs contain a good share of self-justification, but also a dose of revenge against the enemies who had "branded [his] character as 'illiberal, inhuman, even cynical' "; Stieber, Spion des Kanzlers, p. 176.
3. See, by contrast, the lucid polemic of Julien Benda in La trahison des clercs (1927).
4. Here I refrain from making the empirically important differentiations of the various concepts and functions of "intelligence," "research," "science," "philosophy," "critique. " Our reflections belong not to the sociology of intelligence but to the forefront of a (polemical) epistemology.
5. Stieber gathered incriminating evidence that played a role in the Cologne Communist trail. 6. Max Gunzenhauser, Geschichte des geheimen Nachrichtendienstes (Frankfurt, 1968), p. 11. 7. They thereby continually anticipate the free-style ethics of the emergency situation ("Them
or us"); for them, the war is never over.
8. Giinther Nollau, Wie sicker ist die Bundesrepublikl (Munich, 1976), p. 9.
9. Stieber mentions several times that Bismarck said to him, "You're seeing ghosts! "
10. From this comes the following hypothesis: Multiparty systems will be less endangered by par- anoia than one-party systems.
11. "Law as Ideology"; critique finds cores of violence in some phenomena that are generally per-
356 ? BLACK EMPIRICISM
ceived under the fiction of freedom: in the wage-labor contract, in the marriage contract, in the "social contract" as such.
12. This is the prominent theme in the writings of the long-lost pupil of Freud, Otto Gross, finally accessible again in the collection entitled Von geschlechtlicher Not zur sozialen Katastrophe, with an appendix by Franz Jung, ed. Kurt Kreiler (Frankfurt, 1980), pp. 27ff. See also in particular, Uber Konflikt und Beziehung, pp. 7Iff.
13. Of course, a medical typology could be imagined that evaluates these aspects very differently: integrative medicine, which does not treat the sickness as the patient's enemy; combative medicine, which behaves toward the sickness exclusively as an adversary.
14. Does a wastepaper basket not play a role at the beginning of the Dreyfus affair?
15. Attali maintains, in continuing Foucault's analyses, that a good deal of the more recent social history of medicine, particularly of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, is dominated not by doc- tors but by the police. A large part of the suffering is not healed but interned; see L'Ordre cannibale (Paris, 1979).
16. In the nihilism discussion, which likes to employ a strident vocabulary, one speaks rather of the "collapse," the "fall" of metaphysics. I think these pictures are not apposite, at least not any longer. Metaphysical systems do not "fall," but fade, seep away, stagnate, become boring, old hat, unimpor- tant, and improbable.
17. On this point there are fascinating preliminary reflections by the chief of police during the Wilhelminian period, Wilhelm Stieber. He already consciously practiced police town-hygiene, e. g. , in prostitution and dealing in stolen goods.
18. See on this point the discussions of Dostoyevsky's Grand Inquisitor and Heidegger's Anyone, chapter 7.
19. The choice can only be between two types of beyond: an empty one (nihilism) and a full one (spiritualism).
20. And repeatedly, when we think that we have become wise in a new way, through "new ex- periences", we discover that kynical wisdom was there before us. Diogenes Laertius (vol. VI, p. 7) reports of the first kynic, Antisthenes: "To the question as to what one had to learn before all else he replied: To guard against unlearning.
21. Theodor Lessing, Untergang derErde am Geist (Europa und Asien) (Hannover, 1924), a sum- mary of two of his earlier books: Europa und Asien (1914) and Die verfluchte Kultur (1921). See in particular chapter 11, "Der sterbende Pan. " That this book, significant in spite of all its peculiarities, was so crudely misunderstood as "irrationalist" is a part of the traumatic history of Lessing's influence.
22. Suggestions for a history of the political eye can be found in Erik Grawert-May, Zur Geschichte von Polizei- und Liebeskunst. Versuch einer anderen Geschichte des Auges (Tubingen, 1980).
23. This anecdote belongs to the prehistory of the emergence of the modern U. S. secret service.
24. De re metallica (Georg Agricola the Elder, 1556) would be a good title for a social history and a history of science of the metallic civilizations (res publico: the state; res metallica: war).
25. Many stimulating connections between ballistics, the theory of administration, diplomacy, the courier system (predecessor of the postal service), and printing come to mind: telecausal functions that form a new ego.
26. [Verstellung can be rendered as either "displacement" or "dissimulation. " The ambiguity is in- terpretatively significant, here as in psychoanalytic literature. -Trans. ]
Chapter 11
Transcendental Polemic: Heraclitian Meditations
War is the father of all things.
Heraclitus
With the following reflections I want to effect a kind of axis rotation within the critical pragmatism that today predominates in epsitemology (C. S. Peirce, J. Habermas, K. O. Apel). If it was the achievement of this pragmatic theory of knowledge to have presented the connections between knowledge and interest, theory and praxis from first principles, plausibly and without metaphysical mort- gages, it is nonetheless infected, I think, with the weakness of a concept of praxis that is too schematic. The preceding reflections may have made it clear why we cannot be satisfied with an epistemology that, on the one hand, assumes only an a priori interest of the type labor, and on the other, a second interest of the type communication (interaction). This is because the polemical-strategic dimension worked out here (just as the diametrically opposed dimension of the erotic and the reconciliatory interest) can at most be implicitly "co-reflected" in the attempt to ground pragmatism. This avenges itself through a deficit of realism and con- creteness. The transcendental polemic (as well as eroticism, which I do not pres- ent in this book) inserts additional dimensions into the network of "aphoristic" epistemically guiding and forming interests. In war we encounter a combination of motives of labor and interaction that cannot at all be comprehended logically with the schematism employed until now. I maintain that polemical-strategic ac- tion and thinking, which are treated by the aforementioned authors only as an ad- dendum and in passing, in fact forms a dimension that encompasses not only the action of labor and governing but also communicative action. This is not taken sufficiently into account by either the older or the more recent Critical Theory. Neither a critique of instrumental reason nor a critique of functionalist reason dis-
357
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? "Just as I have completed my book, which is meant to finish him off scientifically, he really dies! " Meggendorfer Blatter, 1916.
closes the connection between strategy and cynicism that we here present as the philosophical signature of modernity.
Labor and interaction are from the very beginning crisscrossed by war and eros, enmities and reconciliations, decimations and creations. Whatever is sup- posed to be recognized in the interest of labor and interaction, from the very start and always, receives a "theory form" that is also stamped by the polemical or the erotic. What kind of "objectivity" is chosen is emphatically no innocent alterna- tive. It also makes a categorical difference which form of precision is decided on:
TRANSCENDENTAL POLEMIC: HERACLITIAN MEDITATIONS ? 359
the precision of the polemicist or that of the lover.
1
If that is really an a priori
alternative, there must be a twofold science of all things (and not one basically
neutral theory that then, secondarily, as we say, can be used for good or evil pur-
poses). Whereas pragmatism formally assumes a homogeneous "community of
researchers," the transcendental-polemical view allows us to examine the "war of
the researchers" as the condition of that which they work out as truths. Thus, re-
search is not so much a means for the neutral illumination of reality as an arms
race in theoretical forms. The insights then appear more as weapons than as in-
tellectual instruments at the service of labor and communicative understanding,
and taken in their aggregate, they constitute not an intellectual treasure or ency-
clopedia but an arsenal, a munitions depot (of intelligent cartridges). If we wanted
to remain content with a priori interests such as "labor" and "interaction," we
would have to refrain from interrogating this "labor" and this "interaction" as to
which struggle they serve and which reconciliations they facilitate: in other
words, whether the researcher ego confronts the "object" from the stance of
generalization, distancing, and domination or from that of individualization,
closeness, and surrender. From this viewpoint, the distinction between the "Two
2
Cultures" once again makes sense. In the "First Culture" (which predominates),
we observe a primacy of method, of procedure, of the research process over the objects. Here, only that can be an object that falls into the domain covered by the methods and models. If we attribute everything of a methodological nature to the subject, we can speak of a type of knowledge that issues from an elevation of the knower over what is known: the primacy of the subject (that this, curiously enough, holds for the exact and "objective," or better, objectivistic disciplines il- lustrates the connection between determination of the object [Objektfeststellung] and the displacement [dissimulation] of the subject [Subjektverstellung]). This elevation is the price of "objectivity. " At the same time, it is procured at the cost of a methodological constriction or standardization of what the subject is allowed or not allowed to "know. " The idea that all real sciences in the end will only have a correct theory as a problem presupposes at the same time the expectation that the so-called community of researchers in the long run will grow together into an homogeneous army of subjects who will all be stamped by the same methodo- logical dis-placement (dissimulation) with regard to the "things. " Only when the subjects are epistemologically standardized (same "interest," same concepts, same methods) do the statements about the objects coagulate into their final and correct shape (in the sense of these presuppositions). The one cannot be had with- out the other. Where several hypotheses still stand beside one another, a weak- ness on the side of the subject is uncovered--and this subjective weakness gives the things a chance to reveal themselves in their multiple meanings. Stated to the point: The weaker our methods, the better it is for the "things. " As long as there is a multitude of "interpretations," the things are safe from the delusion of the knowers that they had fixed the objects-as known-once and for all. As long as
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the things are being "interpreted," the memory is also kept alive that the things are also something an sich (in themselves) that has nothing to do with their being known by us.
If we follow this thought to its extreme, we come to the diametrically opposed
pole of forms of knowledge. Here, what Adorno called the "precedence of the
object" holds. If, with the primary of the subject, the agonistic theory must neces-
sarily arise, then, from a way of treating things that acknowledges the precedence
of objects, something comes forth that may bear the name erotic theory. Where
eros is at play, there, and only there, does the "Second Culture" live, and where
it is alive, it assumes the form of an art rather than a technique. Artists and eroti-
cists live under the impression that the things want something from them rather
than that they want something from the things, and that it is the things that entan-
gle them in the adventure of experience. They go to the things, surrender them-
selves to their impression, and as true researchers, feel themselves under their
3
spell. For artists and eroticists, the things are the river into which, according to
Heraclitus, they cannot enter twice because the things, although they are the same things, are new in every moment, having flowed further into a new relationship. If love is new every morning, the objects of love, along with it, are also new. In them there is nothing "known," at most familiar. With them, there is no "objec- tivity," only intimacy. If the knower approaches them, it is not as master researcher ("Forsch-Herr") but as neighbor, friend, as someone who has been "drawn in. " For lovers, the things are beautiful, and they know that the "relation- ship" is over when, one day, everything looks as if it had always been the same: constant, everyday, identical, predictable. Where the sense for beauty ceases, war, indifference [Gleich-Giiltigkeit, literally, equal validity;-Trans. ] or death begins. Philosophers have rightly taught that the aesthetic dimension is integral for the truth content of realizations. This refers of course to realizations that have submitted themselves to the precedence of the object. Enlightenment, however, has taught us to mistrust such insights deeply. For enlightenment, if it does not continually correct itself against erotic (aesthetic) experience, the objects are the quintessence of that to which we should not surrender ourselves trustingly be- cause both, trust and surrender, are stances that the compulsions of life and en- lightened realism force out of us. Precedence of the objects would mean to be forced to live with a power over us, and because we, quasi-automatically, identify everything that is above us with that which oppresses us, from the viewpoint of this unenlightened enlightenment, there can be, on the contrary, only a stance or polemical distance. Nevertheless, there is another kind of precedence that is not based on subjugation: The precedence the object enjoys in sympathetic under- standing does not demand that we reconcile ourselves to an inferiority and an alienated position. Its prototype is love. The ability to concede the object a prece-
dence would be tantamount to the ability to live and let live (instead of live and let die), and indeed, as an ultimate consequence, also to die and let live (instead
TRANSCENDENTAL POLEMIC: HERACLITIAN MEDITATIONS ? 361
of following the impulse to pull everything down into death with us). Only through eros do we become capable of conceding the "object" a precedence. And
4
Polemic against the Id, or: Think the Devil
Where Id was, Ego should become.
Sigmund Freud
The sketches of the cardinal cynicisms contain the material for a theory of dia- logue and interaction that encompasses the polemical. They describe positions and oppositions in military, political, sexual, medical, religious, and theoretical consciousness that grate against the conventional concept of ideology. In these oppositions, it is not true and false consciousnesses that are counterposed; rather, combative consciousnesses that, on the basis of differing given stances toward the world and toward life situations, find themselves in unavoidable antagonisms with one another. If in the description of kynical and cynical positions, with their reflections and counterreflections, the notion of "stages" being set for an offensive or counteroffensive recurred, it referred to stages for conflict, i. e. , theaters of the noisy and quiet passages of arms of an ineluctably polemical consciousness.
How does a stage arise? Certainly not simply through an antagonism of two "principles. " A dualism would be initially nothing more than a "thought thing," and as such it would have no dramatic force. The dualism would be an sich (in itself) harmless or uninteresting if it were not staged in reality itself. Wherever a dualism emerges, we thus, as a rule, come up against an enmity, a demarcation between Us and Them, and up against the establishing of the predominance of one principle over the opposing principle: Above --Below, Good --Evil, Ego- Id. With this, a real struggle and a real stage arise. On this stage, a dominant in- tellectual position enters first, a nomos-doctrine, an idealism, a "high" and affir- mative theory that presents itself as respectable, stern, and inspired, as if it had been won from higher sources. This is inevitably answered, in the second scene, by a realistic (kynical) antithesis that polemically counterposes the viewpoints and experiences of the underdog, the so-called evil position that is shoved into the id [Es, literally, it; --Trans. ] (matter). In kynicism, therefore, an ego appears that takes it on itself to be that which the nomos-idealists prohibit, exclude, and despise. With this, kynicism from the plebeian perspective bursts the value sys- tem installed from above without fully ceasing to pay regard to it. This also gives kynicism its obviously aggressive and culturally critical aspect. With kynicism, an acidic element penetrates into culture-the first decomposition of the esprit de serieux with which whatever wants to rule has always surrounded itself. At the same time, it appears to those on top as something sinister and dirty, and the more hegemonic consciousness tries to withdraw to pure heights, the more subver-
even if I cease to be, eros wills that Something remain.
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sively and demonically does the kynical refusal appear on its horizon. From then on, it must seem disgusting that this low, mere It stands up for itself and places an ego of its own sort against my own ego. This anti-ego that giggles forth out of the kynical resistance against the metaphysical idealism of master theories probably also constitutes the core of what our tradition calls the diabolical. The displacement of the concept, from "kynicism" to "cynicism" and its metaphysics, provoked by Christianity (as the mentality of the nihilists or the devotees of the Devil) is, to be sure, no mere accident. For if the metaphysical ego identifies itself with the Above and the Good, then the fact that in the Id-Below-Evil an ego also is astir overcomes it like a shock. "It" obviously is no longer content to be merely mute, low, lethargic matter. That this evil id could also be something for itself-- that is the real metaphysical scandal that, since the late Middle Ages, has been discussed in the form of innumerable analyses of the Devil. Nothing seems to du- alistic consciousness (i. e. , bifurcated and identified with the better half) to be so simultaneously agonizing and fascinating than the presentiment that in the so- called evil and low regions, too, there could live a potent, ready-witted self- consciousness. When Plato declares Diogenes to be raving mad, this betrays, be- sides contempt, a measure of self-protection. This can be regarded as relatively harmless, however, since Diogenes, as reported in anecdotes, knew how to turn the tables so that in the end it was not quite clear who the real crazy was. In Chris- tianity, the antagonism was intensified much more dramatically. Christian con- sciousness, which understood itself to be endowed with the absolute truth through revelation, had to conjure up a non-Christian ego in the image of the Anti- Christ--and thereby simultaneously became caught up in a permanent apprehen- sion that "evil" could even be active within ourselves, quaerens quern devoret (seeking whom it will devour) (1 Peter 5).
Here we have to refer again to Faust, the Devil, and the cynicism of Satan. The story of Doctor Faustus can be understood as a document for the unsettling of the older metaphysical dualism through the new empiricism (whereby under empiricism sexual experience is also included). Art between the Middle Ages and modern times experiments with the possibility of an evil subjectivity "also for us"--and in didactic, morally embellished narratives itself tries out how it would be to live in such an "evil" skin --and what kind of exciting experiences that would bring. I have already described this with the example of the Goethean pact with the Devil. Faust explores the wide world ("so that you, set loose, free / experience what life is") as the Devil's partner, and thus as a probationary devil. Only to the Devil does the world of experience stand open without restriction. Like Goethe, folk literature also does not neglect to describe explicitly the acquaintance of the probationary devil (Faust) with sexual evil:
As Doctor Faustus saw that the years of his promise came day by day to an end, he went about leading a slovenly and epicurean life, and
TRANSCENDENTAL POLEMIC: HERACLITIAN MEDITATIONS D 363
called upon seven demonic succubas all of whom he slept with. . . . For he traveled into many kingdoms with his spirit so that he could see all womanly shapes. Of whom he succeeded with two Dutch women, a Hungarian, an Englishwoman, two Swabians, and one Frankish woman, who were paragons of the land. With these demonic women he prac- ticed unchasteness to the end of his life. (Deutsche Volksbilcher, ed. C. O. Conrady [Hamburg, 1968], p. 133)
After this, there can be no doubt that "being evil," or the slovenly and epicu- rean life (which, of course, also means "kynical living") pays off to the extent that we can experience what we long since wanted to experience but did not dare. Who can so easily let themselves go to the Devil? The folktale of Doctor Faustus ex- plores, almost uncensored, the lust to try out evil once for oneself. This is a metaphysically dramatic process, because only in this way, at first virtually and then actually, does the integration of the other side, or in other words, the end
5
ofdualism,becomepossible. Manynarrativeworksofearlymoderntimesoper-
ate according to this moral schema. The folktale allows itself the exciting experi- ment of lending an ego like our own to what is "authentically" evil. It takes the test jump of fantasy into the Devil's ego. Of course, these stories still have to end badly, and the probationary devil, who allowed himself everything that Christians should not do (in the magical, culinary, sexual, tourist, and theoretical domains) in the end has to be punished as an example. "Thus, whoever does evil, dies. " A classically cynical passage can be found in the Faust book, where the Devil makes a maliciously joyful, satirical speech to the poor doctor before the evil spirits come to tear him apart:
Therefore, my good Faust, it is not good to eat cherries with great men and the Devil; they throw the stems in one's face, as you now see. For this reason you probably would have done well to have gone far away; that would have been good against the shooting. But your arrogant pony kicked you. . . .
. . . Look, you were a beautifully made creature, but the roses, as long as they are carried in the hand and smelled, do not last. Those whose bread you have eaten, their song you must also sing. If you post- pone things until Good Friday, it will soon be Easter. What you have promised has not happened without cause; a roasted sausage has two ends; you cannot walk well on the Devil's ice. You have had an evil way, and evil ways do not let evil ways alone, just as the cat does not stop chasing mice. To do something heavy-handedly causes pitting; be- cause the spoon is new, the cook uses it; afterward, when it gets old,
he shits on it, then finishes eating with it. Is it not so with you? You who were a new cooking spoon of the Devil. . . . So let now my teaching and reminder go to your heart, which for all that is thoroughly doomed. You should not have become so well acquainted with the
364 ? TRANSCENDENT AL POLEMIC: HERACLITIAN MEDIT A TIONS
Devil, especially because, as well as being God's ape, he is a liar and murderer. . . . To put up the Devil requires a clever innkeeper. There is more to dancing than a pair of red shoes. If you had had God in mind and had been satisfied with the talents given to you, you would not have danced to this tune, and you should not have so easily bent to the Devil's will and believed; for whoever believes easily is soon de- ceived. Now, the Devil wipes his mouth and goes on his way: You have made yourself guarantor with your own blood, now the guarantor is to be strangled. You let it go in one ear and out the other. (Ibid. , pp. 137-38)
That is nothing short of a model text for the cynical joke. In proverbs, conser-
vative common sense rubs its hands with glee. For we understand so much at
once: That is not the Devil; no sovereign spirit would speak this way. Rather,
in this way, the unsettled human spirit, at the end of its Faustian excursion, tries,
with bold and blatant sarcasm, to cut itself down to size again and to talk itself
down to the level of narrow-minded morality. Ironically, here the Devil poses as
a moralist who reproaches the poor doctor with how he should have been: well-
mannered, accommodating, pleasing in God's eye. The main reproach, very sig-
nificantly, says that Faust should have been more mistrustful. Herein culminates
this moral sermon, in which "the evil spirit punishes the aggrieved Fausto with
strange mocking, jovial speeches and proverbs. " This address is cynical in the
most modern sense because it contains a sardonic restoration of morality by the
one about whom we know anyway that he offends against it in principle. This
devil's speech is perhaps the first model of modern masters' cynicism as such.
These gentlemen with whom one is ill-advised to eat cherries throw the stems in
one's face. After our Faustian experiment, the structure of self-denying, impera-
tive morality is laid bare: Morality is a swindle, but nonetheless it has to be main-
tained, does it not? Therefore, we should make sure that the story ends badly.
In the folktale, the doctor is torn apart by bestial spirits, his brain and blood spat-
ter the walls, his torn corpse lies on the dungheap. (Does the Devil collaborate
with psychopaths, Fascists, perverts? ) It seems that Faust is punished a hundred
times more horribly than he sinned. He pays a shocking price for having been
allowed to live for twenty-four years --the duration of the pact --beyond good and
evil, in a world in which dualism was suspended and everything to do with life
6
waspermitted. Initscollapse,theoldmetaphysicaldualismdemonstratesitsfull
pathogenic energy for the first time.
The vision of the diabolical that comes over people is thus closely connected
with the phenomenon of kynicism. It is not the dualistic separation of good and evil, light and darkness as such that produces the great tension through which the Devil becomes strong; rather, there also must be the experience that the "evil side" is filled with a subjective intensity, that is, with intention, awareness, plan. The id is actually already an ego. This is a far-reaching finding: It enables the
TRANSCENDENTAL POLEMIC: HERACLITIAN MEDITATIONS ? 365
philosophical description of a metaphysical form of consciousness in crisis to be
combined with a psychological description of paranoia. The crisis is triggered by
the fact that evil gradually becomes thinkable as one's own ego; the difference be- 7
gins to fade. An implosion is impending. And only under this threat does the
splitting off of the Id-below-Evil, which, at the same time, has an ego, become
a violent explosion. Only from then on can the concept "devil" be applied to peo-
ple who live among us but are "different" (heretics, magicians, homosexuals,
Jews, clever women). The sharp defensive reaction presupposes that defenders
are undermined by the presentiment that they could be like "those over there. "
On this mechanism is based Pascal's observation that people who want to play the
angel easily become the Devil, more precisely, a devil who declares the opponent
to be a devil in order to eliminate him or her with reasons that are all too good.
The drama is thus not played out only between a good ego and an evil id. Rather,
it comes into its explosive phase through the good ego meeting an opponent who
consciously and unrepententingly takes it on itself to be that which dualism dis-
criminated against as the evil half, that is, the openly evil, kynical "evil" ("that's
the way I am, and I intend to be that way") and consequently, an evil that, viewed
carefully, is perhaps no evil at all. (Therefore, some moral revolutions begin with
phases of kynical polemic in which the "amoralists" openly plead guilty to what
scandalizes the others: Diogenes masturbates in the marketplace; women say,
"We had abortions"; men, "Gay is beautiful"; doctors, "We have practiced eu-
8
thanasia"; etc. Thus if evil can have an ego, only then does suspicion begin to
plow up one's own moral consciousness. For the ego that hides in the evil id could indeed, because it is ego, also be my ego. Only the repression of this possibility produces the energy of the paranoid projection. With it, the suspicion is blown up out of all proportion. Suspicion wants, at all costs, to again ban evil into the non-ego. It wants to burst the I-You relation that is inevitably given as soon as so-called evil enters as another ego. The diabolical thus manifests itself when an ego wants to defend at any price a dualism that has become untenable. The Devil is a reflexive effect; he arises when something that is already ego should be made into id once again. Every ego can be a mirror for every other ego; those who do not want to see themselves take care that the others do not really ascend into the status of ego. The more unmistakably, however, the other ego has already shown itself to be a fact of life, the more fervent becomes the urge in the denying ego to smash the mirror. Paranoia and antireflective politics have the same structure, although on different levels. That in the course of European history this structure ascended to the dominating ideological reality several times --in the period of the Crusades, in the heretics' and witches' inquisitions, in the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution, in the fascisms, in anti-Semitism, in Stalinism-proves the explosiveness of this structure, in which warlike antagonisms, metaphysical dualisms, and paranoid mechanisms coalesce. For this reason, I think, the under- standing of kynicism-as conscious embodiment of that which has been negated,
366 ? TRANSCENDENTAL POLEMIC: HERACLITIAN MEDITATIONS
excluded, humbled, and declared evil (id) --holds a key to the cynical bestiality with which in our culture the fanatical defenders of the so-called good have distin- guished themselves so remarkably since time immemorial. And perhaps with the help of that doctrine that, of all philosophies, least of all represents a "theory," more insight can be won into that counterposed philosophical tradition that began with Plato and presented itself as the highest possible form of theory as such: di- alectics. For we would like to think that dialectics must remain immune against the dualistic-paranoid temptation. Does it not proceed from what the conscious- ness described earlier does not want to admit: from the conflict of positions and principles? Is it not its fundamental thought that against every thesis an antithesis must emerge and that this, which appears horrible to others, is, in fact, good and correct--for the sake of the synthesis and the "higher" truth born of the struggle?
Before we pursue these ideas, we must discuss the turn the "id" took within psychoanalysis. With both his so-called topographies (i. e. , descriptions of limits and areas on the "map of the soul"), Freud ventured forth into an area that for a long time had been philosophy's territory. Nevertheless, there is no doubt about the fundamental antimetaphysical stance of Freudian analysis. What then has hap- pened with the philosophy of the subject that a psychologist can speak as Freud does about the human person? The ego in Freud is not that of subjectivity philoso- phy. Reduced to a formula, Freudian analysis presupposes that the metaphysical dogma of the unity of the person in its ego has been burst--but how this happens is not our topic here. Only so much is certain: Freud only finds this bursting as a fait accompli and does not himself bring it about. That is his place in the history of ideas. From then on, in the rubble left after the explosion, several sectors can be staked out: on the one hand, the conscious and the unconscious domain; on the other, more or less superimposed, the districts of the superego in which the laws, norms, standards of conscience, and ideals reside; the districts of the ego, where everyday knowledge, qualifications, conscious competences, recollec- tions, and plans have their space; and finally the districts of the id from which the vital energies, drives, and dreams ascend. Of course, only because the unity of the person posited by metaphysicians is broken do psychologists have a free hand to speak in their way about another unity of the person. They see this unity not as something given but as a task: What is given is the landscape of rubble, strewn with large clumps that have been exploded into the unconscious, inter- laced by the cracks under which the old abuses and pains seethe. Therefore, Freud can say, "Where id was, ego should become. " He envisages draining the unconscious sea, setting up ego controls over what was previously the inner non- ego (id). In this, it is not so much the function of domination by the ego or of control that should be emphasized. In fact, the "sublation" of the id into the ego presupposes in the first place the opposite of domination by the ego, namely, radi- cal recognition of the id without reservation. In fruitful analytic cures (there are, as is well known, also other sorts of cures), it inevitably comes to the emergence
TRANSCENDENTAL POLEMIC: HERACLITIAN MEDITATIONS ? 367
0f the id to the point where the ego can be thoroughly washed away by those forces that were previously split off. Thus it can no longer be overlooked that "It" (id) belongs to me even if not yet in the sense of my old ego, marked by control and repression. A new ego-broader, livelier, more dynamically moved by the newly uncovered id space--is called into life, an ego that learns to live with its
9
whole history, its traumatic burden, and its madnesses. Cure presupposes the
recognition of the id as the precondition and foundation of life for the mature ego. Wherever that happens, the paranoid structure, the polemicization of the id, must end of its own accord. Thus, in Freudian terminology, a downright philosophical- philanthropic act is also to be discovered: The id is thought of as one's own from the beginning and is set up a priori as still unconscious with an orientation toward the ability of my ego to one day bring light into the darkness. Let us not argue about whether that is exaggerated rationalism or hidden Hegelianism. The point is not that the ego should now become completely the "master of its own house";
10
rather the point lies in the chance that the "spirits of the house" gether under one roof.
learn to live to-
Metapolemic: On the Foundations of European Dialectics in Polemics and Rhythmics
As far as he is able, the author lays his cards on the table; that is in no way the same thing as the game.
Adorno, Preface to Negative Dialectics All kinds of good principles have currency in the world; we
simply neglect to put them into practice.
Pascal, Pensees
Dialectics derives from a polemical tradition that has its beginnings in the Greek
philosophers in the generations before Socrates. In sophistry an art of disputation
and logical rhetoric for overwhelming the opponent arose for the first time, in a
way in which it has scarcely again come to life in our civilization, except in the
a
If, therefore, "dialectician" is supposed to be the name for someone who performs
above average in the art of being in the right, philosophy, but also political reality,
would have one problem less. Dialectics would then be only a prettier word for
rhetoric and sophistry in the negative sense, for caviling and the unscrupulous use
01
nave experienced dialectics, or something that called itself such, in some such
ge of the Scholastics, when likewise, a seasoned art of disputation flourished.
logic and language for the purpose of subduing by surprise.
24
swimming, flying, motorized artillery systems.
edge of metals can demonstrate the original connection between this central earth science and polemics. Knowledge of nature and of war are connected through a pragmatic chain of interests. Before iron weapons can be raised against an enemy, a campaign against the earth's crust must have taken place, a many-pronged, laborious, and dangerous process. Deposits must be dug up, the ore broken up into pieces; the masses are transported to the smelting plant where they are trans- formed through the violence of fire into liquid; the substances are separated and are hardened with new amalgams, mixtures, and coolings; they are heated red-hot once more, forged, formed, polished. Only the will to war is able to subject the natural substances to such transformations with such violence as the technology of smelting and forging requires. In metallurgy, a humanity thinking of war opens up its grand offensive against the given structures of matter. What it inflicts on the metals is nothing other than an anticipation of what it will inflict on the enemy with the metals. If the "Iron Age" (Ovid) begins with the emergence of war-- represented in the sword and the spear, the metallic weapons of striking and stabbing --the epoch before the emergence of gunpowder weapons is the Golden Age of war. With artillery, something like a second discovery of fire takes place in civilization. However, it is not the Promethean sunfire of long ago but a mod- ern volcanic underworld fire. Corresponding roughly to the invention of artillery is the development of the political centralized power and the spatial perspective at the beginning of modern times. For the first time, it allows the opponent to be "mastered" from a distance. Herein lies its functional relation to modern adminis- tration and surveillance. The shell corresponds to the sovereign's gaze and to the
25
Since the Industrial Revolution, which emanated from the English mining dis- tricts, the metallization of society again assumes new dimensions. At the same time, the spying out of the earth's interior proceeds with intermittent leaps. From now on, gigantic mines arise that eat into the blackest depths of the planet's bowels. Miners become the ghostly army of industrial civilization --the exploited exploiters. The laborers of the smelteries were advanced to the elite division of the capitalist attack against the earth's "miserly" crust. In the end, the modern
decisions of a centralized administration.
A political theory of the knowl-
1
BLACK EMPIRICISM ? 353
? Illuminating artillery, in Felix Auerbach, Die Physik im Kriege, 3rd ed. (Jena, 1916).
form of economy capitalizes all mineral deposits, and with millions of breaches, borings, and extractions, it pushes on with the mineralogical war against the earth's crust in order to burn the extracted deposits or to work them into tools and weapon systems. Every day, industrial civilizations decide on death sentences against millions upon millions of living beings and millions of tons of substances. In these decisions, the predatory relation of domination of Western cultures to the earth is perfected.
We must take care not to view today's nuclear technology as exceptional. It is, in reality, nothing more than the consistent continuation of the mineralogical- metallurgical attack on the given structures of matter, the purest intensification of polemical theory. Here, there is no discontinuity. The transcendental- polemical framework of our technology comprises the bronze sword just as much as the neutron bomb. At most, the transition from the metal age to the nuclear age signifies a new technological stage within the polemical structure and a new order of magnitude in the offensive means of self-preservation. In order to keep up their war against the Other, modern competition egos and research egos con- quered the previously most secret structural forms and energy sources of matter. In fact, in going beyond the metallurgical explosion of natural substances (ore, etc. ), they even overstepped the threshold of the natural structures of substances
354 ? BLACK EMPIRICISM
in order to reach the point where the previously most puzzling cosmic powers were bound. But also on the nuclear level, the mistreatment of matter merely an- ticipates the mistreatment of the enemy. It projects the pressure for enmity be- tween the rival societies (by way of the "relatively autonomous" intermediate step of natural science) onto radioactive matter. What we are prepared to inflict on the enemy if need be sets the standard for which tools of annihilation are to be wrung from nature. What we have intended for the enemy--large-scale blanket annihilation through incineration, contamination, atomization--has to be first in- flicted on the weapon. It is basically only our message to our opponents; it com- municates what we intend to do to them. The weapon is therefore the enemy's proxy in one's own arsenal. Those who forge weapons make it clear to their ene- mies that they will treat them just as mercilessly as they treat the club, the anvil, the grenade, and the warhead. The weapon is already the maltreated opponent; it is the thing-for-you. Those who arm are already at war. This war takes place de facto continually in intervals of hot and cold phases, the latter being misnamed peace. Seen in the polemical cycle, peace means a period of arming, displacement of hostilities onto the metals; war means, accordingly, the implementation and consumption of arms products, the realization of the weapons on the opponent.
On the highest level of polemical technology, our process of enlightenment reaches the point where it takes leave of a thousand-year-old dualistic tradition of metaphysics: The antagonism between res cogitans and res extensa in the cybernetic age becomes altogether invalid. To the extent that the res (substance) that thinks actually can be represented and produced as machine, the antagonism toward the res that exists in space (extension) disappears. In the meantime, there are modern artillery systems that in strategic jargon are called "intelligent muni- tions" or "smart missiles," that is, rockets that perform classic thought functions (perception, decision making) in flight and behave "subjectively" toward the enemy target. The existence of these systems signifies a metaphysical statutory declaration of our civilization: We have, in fact, become in large part subjects who think of themselves as "thinking things," and it is these thinking things that exchange blows in modern warfare. The difference between the hero and his weapon disappears; the megalomaniac self-preservation egos of our culture have externalized their own being as weapon. If, in the end, the self-sacrificing kami- kaze pilots take over the function of the guiding system (res cogitans) in persona, then, in the case of the most advanced weapons of the present day, this heroic subjectivity has become an electronic subjectivity: The manned dive-bomber still presupposed a pilot who consciously took his inevitable death upon himself and demonstrated an ability to die peculiarly reminiscent of that quality described in ancient philosophy. In intelligent munition, this human factor is fully eliminated. A further degeneration of metaphysics to paranoia has come about; "live and let die" is accordingly not only the secret agent's motto but also the principle of mod- ern warfare based on artillery and its extensions. With the "thinking missile," we
BLACK EMPIRICISM ? 355
16
reach the final station of the modern displacement of the subject because what
is called subject in modern times is, in fact, that self-preservation ego that with- draws step by step from the living, to the summit of paranoia. Withdrawal, dis- tancing, self-displacement are the driving forces of this kind of subjectivity. Ar- tillery is only one of its manifestations and, especially in the form of electronic, intelligent, atomic munition, is the ultimate outgrowth of self-assertion and world domination from a distance. The modern long-range ego wants to preserve itself without recognizing itself in its own weapon. It must thus be split off from it as far as possible. Intelligent munition satisfies this need. Since its invention, the schizoid structure (the subject in the form of the state and the polemical self- preservation ego) approaches its consummation. The next great war foresees only schizophrenics and machines as combatants. Decisive homunculi in the state, ghostly split administrators of destructive forces, will press the decisive buttons "if it has to be," and heroic robots as well as thinking hell-machines will fall on each other--the experimentum mundi is at an end; humanity was a mistake. En- lightenment can only summarize: Humanity cannot be enlightened because it it- self was the false premise of enlightenment. Humanity does not come up to scratch. It carries within itself the obscuring principle of dissimulation (displace- ment), and where its ego appears there cannot shine what was promised by all enlightenments: the light of reason.
Notes
1. Bernard Law Viscount Montgomery of Alamein, Weltgeschichte der Schlachten und Kriegs- ziige, vol. 1 (Munich, 1975), p. 17. See also his sketch of the tactics warriors use to feel each other out: "A commander must be able to think himself into his adversary or at least try to do that. For this reason, during the war against Hitler, I always had a photo of my adversary in my command vehi- cle. In the desert and then again in Normandy, Rommel was my adversary. I repeatedly studied his face and tried to imagine how he would react to the movements I wanted to implement. Strangely enough, this proved to be useful. "
2. This rather offended Stieber. His memoirs contain a good share of self-justification, but also a dose of revenge against the enemies who had "branded [his] character as 'illiberal, inhuman, even cynical' "; Stieber, Spion des Kanzlers, p. 176.
3. See, by contrast, the lucid polemic of Julien Benda in La trahison des clercs (1927).
4. Here I refrain from making the empirically important differentiations of the various concepts and functions of "intelligence," "research," "science," "philosophy," "critique. " Our reflections belong not to the sociology of intelligence but to the forefront of a (polemical) epistemology.
5. Stieber gathered incriminating evidence that played a role in the Cologne Communist trail. 6. Max Gunzenhauser, Geschichte des geheimen Nachrichtendienstes (Frankfurt, 1968), p. 11. 7. They thereby continually anticipate the free-style ethics of the emergency situation ("Them
or us"); for them, the war is never over.
8. Giinther Nollau, Wie sicker ist die Bundesrepublikl (Munich, 1976), p. 9.
9. Stieber mentions several times that Bismarck said to him, "You're seeing ghosts! "
10. From this comes the following hypothesis: Multiparty systems will be less endangered by par- anoia than one-party systems.
11. "Law as Ideology"; critique finds cores of violence in some phenomena that are generally per-
356 ? BLACK EMPIRICISM
ceived under the fiction of freedom: in the wage-labor contract, in the marriage contract, in the "social contract" as such.
12. This is the prominent theme in the writings of the long-lost pupil of Freud, Otto Gross, finally accessible again in the collection entitled Von geschlechtlicher Not zur sozialen Katastrophe, with an appendix by Franz Jung, ed. Kurt Kreiler (Frankfurt, 1980), pp. 27ff. See also in particular, Uber Konflikt und Beziehung, pp. 7Iff.
13. Of course, a medical typology could be imagined that evaluates these aspects very differently: integrative medicine, which does not treat the sickness as the patient's enemy; combative medicine, which behaves toward the sickness exclusively as an adversary.
14. Does a wastepaper basket not play a role at the beginning of the Dreyfus affair?
15. Attali maintains, in continuing Foucault's analyses, that a good deal of the more recent social history of medicine, particularly of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, is dominated not by doc- tors but by the police. A large part of the suffering is not healed but interned; see L'Ordre cannibale (Paris, 1979).
16. In the nihilism discussion, which likes to employ a strident vocabulary, one speaks rather of the "collapse," the "fall" of metaphysics. I think these pictures are not apposite, at least not any longer. Metaphysical systems do not "fall," but fade, seep away, stagnate, become boring, old hat, unimpor- tant, and improbable.
17. On this point there are fascinating preliminary reflections by the chief of police during the Wilhelminian period, Wilhelm Stieber. He already consciously practiced police town-hygiene, e. g. , in prostitution and dealing in stolen goods.
18. See on this point the discussions of Dostoyevsky's Grand Inquisitor and Heidegger's Anyone, chapter 7.
19. The choice can only be between two types of beyond: an empty one (nihilism) and a full one (spiritualism).
20. And repeatedly, when we think that we have become wise in a new way, through "new ex- periences", we discover that kynical wisdom was there before us. Diogenes Laertius (vol. VI, p. 7) reports of the first kynic, Antisthenes: "To the question as to what one had to learn before all else he replied: To guard against unlearning.
21. Theodor Lessing, Untergang derErde am Geist (Europa und Asien) (Hannover, 1924), a sum- mary of two of his earlier books: Europa und Asien (1914) and Die verfluchte Kultur (1921). See in particular chapter 11, "Der sterbende Pan. " That this book, significant in spite of all its peculiarities, was so crudely misunderstood as "irrationalist" is a part of the traumatic history of Lessing's influence.
22. Suggestions for a history of the political eye can be found in Erik Grawert-May, Zur Geschichte von Polizei- und Liebeskunst. Versuch einer anderen Geschichte des Auges (Tubingen, 1980).
23. This anecdote belongs to the prehistory of the emergence of the modern U. S. secret service.
24. De re metallica (Georg Agricola the Elder, 1556) would be a good title for a social history and a history of science of the metallic civilizations (res publico: the state; res metallica: war).
25. Many stimulating connections between ballistics, the theory of administration, diplomacy, the courier system (predecessor of the postal service), and printing come to mind: telecausal functions that form a new ego.
26. [Verstellung can be rendered as either "displacement" or "dissimulation. " The ambiguity is in- terpretatively significant, here as in psychoanalytic literature. -Trans. ]
Chapter 11
Transcendental Polemic: Heraclitian Meditations
War is the father of all things.
Heraclitus
With the following reflections I want to effect a kind of axis rotation within the critical pragmatism that today predominates in epsitemology (C. S. Peirce, J. Habermas, K. O. Apel). If it was the achievement of this pragmatic theory of knowledge to have presented the connections between knowledge and interest, theory and praxis from first principles, plausibly and without metaphysical mort- gages, it is nonetheless infected, I think, with the weakness of a concept of praxis that is too schematic. The preceding reflections may have made it clear why we cannot be satisfied with an epistemology that, on the one hand, assumes only an a priori interest of the type labor, and on the other, a second interest of the type communication (interaction). This is because the polemical-strategic dimension worked out here (just as the diametrically opposed dimension of the erotic and the reconciliatory interest) can at most be implicitly "co-reflected" in the attempt to ground pragmatism. This avenges itself through a deficit of realism and con- creteness. The transcendental polemic (as well as eroticism, which I do not pres- ent in this book) inserts additional dimensions into the network of "aphoristic" epistemically guiding and forming interests. In war we encounter a combination of motives of labor and interaction that cannot at all be comprehended logically with the schematism employed until now. I maintain that polemical-strategic ac- tion and thinking, which are treated by the aforementioned authors only as an ad- dendum and in passing, in fact forms a dimension that encompasses not only the action of labor and governing but also communicative action. This is not taken sufficiently into account by either the older or the more recent Critical Theory. Neither a critique of instrumental reason nor a critique of functionalist reason dis-
357
358 ? TRANSCENDENTAL POLEMIC: HERACLITIAN MEDITATIONS
? "Just as I have completed my book, which is meant to finish him off scientifically, he really dies! " Meggendorfer Blatter, 1916.
closes the connection between strategy and cynicism that we here present as the philosophical signature of modernity.
Labor and interaction are from the very beginning crisscrossed by war and eros, enmities and reconciliations, decimations and creations. Whatever is sup- posed to be recognized in the interest of labor and interaction, from the very start and always, receives a "theory form" that is also stamped by the polemical or the erotic. What kind of "objectivity" is chosen is emphatically no innocent alterna- tive. It also makes a categorical difference which form of precision is decided on:
TRANSCENDENTAL POLEMIC: HERACLITIAN MEDITATIONS ? 359
the precision of the polemicist or that of the lover.
1
If that is really an a priori
alternative, there must be a twofold science of all things (and not one basically
neutral theory that then, secondarily, as we say, can be used for good or evil pur-
poses). Whereas pragmatism formally assumes a homogeneous "community of
researchers," the transcendental-polemical view allows us to examine the "war of
the researchers" as the condition of that which they work out as truths. Thus, re-
search is not so much a means for the neutral illumination of reality as an arms
race in theoretical forms. The insights then appear more as weapons than as in-
tellectual instruments at the service of labor and communicative understanding,
and taken in their aggregate, they constitute not an intellectual treasure or ency-
clopedia but an arsenal, a munitions depot (of intelligent cartridges). If we wanted
to remain content with a priori interests such as "labor" and "interaction," we
would have to refrain from interrogating this "labor" and this "interaction" as to
which struggle they serve and which reconciliations they facilitate: in other
words, whether the researcher ego confronts the "object" from the stance of
generalization, distancing, and domination or from that of individualization,
closeness, and surrender. From this viewpoint, the distinction between the "Two
2
Cultures" once again makes sense. In the "First Culture" (which predominates),
we observe a primacy of method, of procedure, of the research process over the objects. Here, only that can be an object that falls into the domain covered by the methods and models. If we attribute everything of a methodological nature to the subject, we can speak of a type of knowledge that issues from an elevation of the knower over what is known: the primacy of the subject (that this, curiously enough, holds for the exact and "objective," or better, objectivistic disciplines il- lustrates the connection between determination of the object [Objektfeststellung] and the displacement [dissimulation] of the subject [Subjektverstellung]). This elevation is the price of "objectivity. " At the same time, it is procured at the cost of a methodological constriction or standardization of what the subject is allowed or not allowed to "know. " The idea that all real sciences in the end will only have a correct theory as a problem presupposes at the same time the expectation that the so-called community of researchers in the long run will grow together into an homogeneous army of subjects who will all be stamped by the same methodo- logical dis-placement (dissimulation) with regard to the "things. " Only when the subjects are epistemologically standardized (same "interest," same concepts, same methods) do the statements about the objects coagulate into their final and correct shape (in the sense of these presuppositions). The one cannot be had with- out the other. Where several hypotheses still stand beside one another, a weak- ness on the side of the subject is uncovered--and this subjective weakness gives the things a chance to reveal themselves in their multiple meanings. Stated to the point: The weaker our methods, the better it is for the "things. " As long as there is a multitude of "interpretations," the things are safe from the delusion of the knowers that they had fixed the objects-as known-once and for all. As long as
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TRANSCENDENT AL POLEMIC: HERACLITIAN MEDIT A TIONS
the things are being "interpreted," the memory is also kept alive that the things are also something an sich (in themselves) that has nothing to do with their being known by us.
If we follow this thought to its extreme, we come to the diametrically opposed
pole of forms of knowledge. Here, what Adorno called the "precedence of the
object" holds. If, with the primary of the subject, the agonistic theory must neces-
sarily arise, then, from a way of treating things that acknowledges the precedence
of objects, something comes forth that may bear the name erotic theory. Where
eros is at play, there, and only there, does the "Second Culture" live, and where
it is alive, it assumes the form of an art rather than a technique. Artists and eroti-
cists live under the impression that the things want something from them rather
than that they want something from the things, and that it is the things that entan-
gle them in the adventure of experience. They go to the things, surrender them-
selves to their impression, and as true researchers, feel themselves under their
3
spell. For artists and eroticists, the things are the river into which, according to
Heraclitus, they cannot enter twice because the things, although they are the same things, are new in every moment, having flowed further into a new relationship. If love is new every morning, the objects of love, along with it, are also new. In them there is nothing "known," at most familiar. With them, there is no "objec- tivity," only intimacy. If the knower approaches them, it is not as master researcher ("Forsch-Herr") but as neighbor, friend, as someone who has been "drawn in. " For lovers, the things are beautiful, and they know that the "relation- ship" is over when, one day, everything looks as if it had always been the same: constant, everyday, identical, predictable. Where the sense for beauty ceases, war, indifference [Gleich-Giiltigkeit, literally, equal validity;-Trans. ] or death begins. Philosophers have rightly taught that the aesthetic dimension is integral for the truth content of realizations. This refers of course to realizations that have submitted themselves to the precedence of the object. Enlightenment, however, has taught us to mistrust such insights deeply. For enlightenment, if it does not continually correct itself against erotic (aesthetic) experience, the objects are the quintessence of that to which we should not surrender ourselves trustingly be- cause both, trust and surrender, are stances that the compulsions of life and en- lightened realism force out of us. Precedence of the objects would mean to be forced to live with a power over us, and because we, quasi-automatically, identify everything that is above us with that which oppresses us, from the viewpoint of this unenlightened enlightenment, there can be, on the contrary, only a stance or polemical distance. Nevertheless, there is another kind of precedence that is not based on subjugation: The precedence the object enjoys in sympathetic under- standing does not demand that we reconcile ourselves to an inferiority and an alienated position. Its prototype is love. The ability to concede the object a prece-
dence would be tantamount to the ability to live and let live (instead of live and let die), and indeed, as an ultimate consequence, also to die and let live (instead
TRANSCENDENTAL POLEMIC: HERACLITIAN MEDITATIONS ? 361
of following the impulse to pull everything down into death with us). Only through eros do we become capable of conceding the "object" a precedence. And
4
Polemic against the Id, or: Think the Devil
Where Id was, Ego should become.
Sigmund Freud
The sketches of the cardinal cynicisms contain the material for a theory of dia- logue and interaction that encompasses the polemical. They describe positions and oppositions in military, political, sexual, medical, religious, and theoretical consciousness that grate against the conventional concept of ideology. In these oppositions, it is not true and false consciousnesses that are counterposed; rather, combative consciousnesses that, on the basis of differing given stances toward the world and toward life situations, find themselves in unavoidable antagonisms with one another. If in the description of kynical and cynical positions, with their reflections and counterreflections, the notion of "stages" being set for an offensive or counteroffensive recurred, it referred to stages for conflict, i. e. , theaters of the noisy and quiet passages of arms of an ineluctably polemical consciousness.
How does a stage arise? Certainly not simply through an antagonism of two "principles. " A dualism would be initially nothing more than a "thought thing," and as such it would have no dramatic force. The dualism would be an sich (in itself) harmless or uninteresting if it were not staged in reality itself. Wherever a dualism emerges, we thus, as a rule, come up against an enmity, a demarcation between Us and Them, and up against the establishing of the predominance of one principle over the opposing principle: Above --Below, Good --Evil, Ego- Id. With this, a real struggle and a real stage arise. On this stage, a dominant in- tellectual position enters first, a nomos-doctrine, an idealism, a "high" and affir- mative theory that presents itself as respectable, stern, and inspired, as if it had been won from higher sources. This is inevitably answered, in the second scene, by a realistic (kynical) antithesis that polemically counterposes the viewpoints and experiences of the underdog, the so-called evil position that is shoved into the id [Es, literally, it; --Trans. ] (matter). In kynicism, therefore, an ego appears that takes it on itself to be that which the nomos-idealists prohibit, exclude, and despise. With this, kynicism from the plebeian perspective bursts the value sys- tem installed from above without fully ceasing to pay regard to it. This also gives kynicism its obviously aggressive and culturally critical aspect. With kynicism, an acidic element penetrates into culture-the first decomposition of the esprit de serieux with which whatever wants to rule has always surrounded itself. At the same time, it appears to those on top as something sinister and dirty, and the more hegemonic consciousness tries to withdraw to pure heights, the more subver-
even if I cease to be, eros wills that Something remain.
362 ? TRANSCENDENT AL POLEMIC: HERACLITIAN MEDIT A TIONS
sively and demonically does the kynical refusal appear on its horizon. From then on, it must seem disgusting that this low, mere It stands up for itself and places an ego of its own sort against my own ego. This anti-ego that giggles forth out of the kynical resistance against the metaphysical idealism of master theories probably also constitutes the core of what our tradition calls the diabolical. The displacement of the concept, from "kynicism" to "cynicism" and its metaphysics, provoked by Christianity (as the mentality of the nihilists or the devotees of the Devil) is, to be sure, no mere accident. For if the metaphysical ego identifies itself with the Above and the Good, then the fact that in the Id-Below-Evil an ego also is astir overcomes it like a shock. "It" obviously is no longer content to be merely mute, low, lethargic matter. That this evil id could also be something for itself-- that is the real metaphysical scandal that, since the late Middle Ages, has been discussed in the form of innumerable analyses of the Devil. Nothing seems to du- alistic consciousness (i. e. , bifurcated and identified with the better half) to be so simultaneously agonizing and fascinating than the presentiment that in the so- called evil and low regions, too, there could live a potent, ready-witted self- consciousness. When Plato declares Diogenes to be raving mad, this betrays, be- sides contempt, a measure of self-protection. This can be regarded as relatively harmless, however, since Diogenes, as reported in anecdotes, knew how to turn the tables so that in the end it was not quite clear who the real crazy was. In Chris- tianity, the antagonism was intensified much more dramatically. Christian con- sciousness, which understood itself to be endowed with the absolute truth through revelation, had to conjure up a non-Christian ego in the image of the Anti- Christ--and thereby simultaneously became caught up in a permanent apprehen- sion that "evil" could even be active within ourselves, quaerens quern devoret (seeking whom it will devour) (1 Peter 5).
Here we have to refer again to Faust, the Devil, and the cynicism of Satan. The story of Doctor Faustus can be understood as a document for the unsettling of the older metaphysical dualism through the new empiricism (whereby under empiricism sexual experience is also included). Art between the Middle Ages and modern times experiments with the possibility of an evil subjectivity "also for us"--and in didactic, morally embellished narratives itself tries out how it would be to live in such an "evil" skin --and what kind of exciting experiences that would bring. I have already described this with the example of the Goethean pact with the Devil. Faust explores the wide world ("so that you, set loose, free / experience what life is") as the Devil's partner, and thus as a probationary devil. Only to the Devil does the world of experience stand open without restriction. Like Goethe, folk literature also does not neglect to describe explicitly the acquaintance of the probationary devil (Faust) with sexual evil:
As Doctor Faustus saw that the years of his promise came day by day to an end, he went about leading a slovenly and epicurean life, and
TRANSCENDENTAL POLEMIC: HERACLITIAN MEDITATIONS D 363
called upon seven demonic succubas all of whom he slept with. . . . For he traveled into many kingdoms with his spirit so that he could see all womanly shapes. Of whom he succeeded with two Dutch women, a Hungarian, an Englishwoman, two Swabians, and one Frankish woman, who were paragons of the land. With these demonic women he prac- ticed unchasteness to the end of his life. (Deutsche Volksbilcher, ed. C. O. Conrady [Hamburg, 1968], p. 133)
After this, there can be no doubt that "being evil," or the slovenly and epicu- rean life (which, of course, also means "kynical living") pays off to the extent that we can experience what we long since wanted to experience but did not dare. Who can so easily let themselves go to the Devil? The folktale of Doctor Faustus ex- plores, almost uncensored, the lust to try out evil once for oneself. This is a metaphysically dramatic process, because only in this way, at first virtually and then actually, does the integration of the other side, or in other words, the end
5
ofdualism,becomepossible. Manynarrativeworksofearlymoderntimesoper-
ate according to this moral schema. The folktale allows itself the exciting experi- ment of lending an ego like our own to what is "authentically" evil. It takes the test jump of fantasy into the Devil's ego. Of course, these stories still have to end badly, and the probationary devil, who allowed himself everything that Christians should not do (in the magical, culinary, sexual, tourist, and theoretical domains) in the end has to be punished as an example. "Thus, whoever does evil, dies. " A classically cynical passage can be found in the Faust book, where the Devil makes a maliciously joyful, satirical speech to the poor doctor before the evil spirits come to tear him apart:
Therefore, my good Faust, it is not good to eat cherries with great men and the Devil; they throw the stems in one's face, as you now see. For this reason you probably would have done well to have gone far away; that would have been good against the shooting. But your arrogant pony kicked you. . . .
. . . Look, you were a beautifully made creature, but the roses, as long as they are carried in the hand and smelled, do not last. Those whose bread you have eaten, their song you must also sing. If you post- pone things until Good Friday, it will soon be Easter. What you have promised has not happened without cause; a roasted sausage has two ends; you cannot walk well on the Devil's ice. You have had an evil way, and evil ways do not let evil ways alone, just as the cat does not stop chasing mice. To do something heavy-handedly causes pitting; be- cause the spoon is new, the cook uses it; afterward, when it gets old,
he shits on it, then finishes eating with it. Is it not so with you? You who were a new cooking spoon of the Devil. . . . So let now my teaching and reminder go to your heart, which for all that is thoroughly doomed. You should not have become so well acquainted with the
364 ? TRANSCENDENT AL POLEMIC: HERACLITIAN MEDIT A TIONS
Devil, especially because, as well as being God's ape, he is a liar and murderer. . . . To put up the Devil requires a clever innkeeper. There is more to dancing than a pair of red shoes. If you had had God in mind and had been satisfied with the talents given to you, you would not have danced to this tune, and you should not have so easily bent to the Devil's will and believed; for whoever believes easily is soon de- ceived. Now, the Devil wipes his mouth and goes on his way: You have made yourself guarantor with your own blood, now the guarantor is to be strangled. You let it go in one ear and out the other. (Ibid. , pp. 137-38)
That is nothing short of a model text for the cynical joke. In proverbs, conser-
vative common sense rubs its hands with glee. For we understand so much at
once: That is not the Devil; no sovereign spirit would speak this way. Rather,
in this way, the unsettled human spirit, at the end of its Faustian excursion, tries,
with bold and blatant sarcasm, to cut itself down to size again and to talk itself
down to the level of narrow-minded morality. Ironically, here the Devil poses as
a moralist who reproaches the poor doctor with how he should have been: well-
mannered, accommodating, pleasing in God's eye. The main reproach, very sig-
nificantly, says that Faust should have been more mistrustful. Herein culminates
this moral sermon, in which "the evil spirit punishes the aggrieved Fausto with
strange mocking, jovial speeches and proverbs. " This address is cynical in the
most modern sense because it contains a sardonic restoration of morality by the
one about whom we know anyway that he offends against it in principle. This
devil's speech is perhaps the first model of modern masters' cynicism as such.
These gentlemen with whom one is ill-advised to eat cherries throw the stems in
one's face. After our Faustian experiment, the structure of self-denying, impera-
tive morality is laid bare: Morality is a swindle, but nonetheless it has to be main-
tained, does it not? Therefore, we should make sure that the story ends badly.
In the folktale, the doctor is torn apart by bestial spirits, his brain and blood spat-
ter the walls, his torn corpse lies on the dungheap. (Does the Devil collaborate
with psychopaths, Fascists, perverts? ) It seems that Faust is punished a hundred
times more horribly than he sinned. He pays a shocking price for having been
allowed to live for twenty-four years --the duration of the pact --beyond good and
evil, in a world in which dualism was suspended and everything to do with life
6
waspermitted. Initscollapse,theoldmetaphysicaldualismdemonstratesitsfull
pathogenic energy for the first time.
The vision of the diabolical that comes over people is thus closely connected
with the phenomenon of kynicism. It is not the dualistic separation of good and evil, light and darkness as such that produces the great tension through which the Devil becomes strong; rather, there also must be the experience that the "evil side" is filled with a subjective intensity, that is, with intention, awareness, plan. The id is actually already an ego. This is a far-reaching finding: It enables the
TRANSCENDENTAL POLEMIC: HERACLITIAN MEDITATIONS ? 365
philosophical description of a metaphysical form of consciousness in crisis to be
combined with a psychological description of paranoia. The crisis is triggered by
the fact that evil gradually becomes thinkable as one's own ego; the difference be- 7
gins to fade. An implosion is impending. And only under this threat does the
splitting off of the Id-below-Evil, which, at the same time, has an ego, become
a violent explosion. Only from then on can the concept "devil" be applied to peo-
ple who live among us but are "different" (heretics, magicians, homosexuals,
Jews, clever women). The sharp defensive reaction presupposes that defenders
are undermined by the presentiment that they could be like "those over there. "
On this mechanism is based Pascal's observation that people who want to play the
angel easily become the Devil, more precisely, a devil who declares the opponent
to be a devil in order to eliminate him or her with reasons that are all too good.
The drama is thus not played out only between a good ego and an evil id. Rather,
it comes into its explosive phase through the good ego meeting an opponent who
consciously and unrepententingly takes it on itself to be that which dualism dis-
criminated against as the evil half, that is, the openly evil, kynical "evil" ("that's
the way I am, and I intend to be that way") and consequently, an evil that, viewed
carefully, is perhaps no evil at all. (Therefore, some moral revolutions begin with
phases of kynical polemic in which the "amoralists" openly plead guilty to what
scandalizes the others: Diogenes masturbates in the marketplace; women say,
"We had abortions"; men, "Gay is beautiful"; doctors, "We have practiced eu-
8
thanasia"; etc. Thus if evil can have an ego, only then does suspicion begin to
plow up one's own moral consciousness. For the ego that hides in the evil id could indeed, because it is ego, also be my ego. Only the repression of this possibility produces the energy of the paranoid projection. With it, the suspicion is blown up out of all proportion. Suspicion wants, at all costs, to again ban evil into the non-ego. It wants to burst the I-You relation that is inevitably given as soon as so-called evil enters as another ego. The diabolical thus manifests itself when an ego wants to defend at any price a dualism that has become untenable. The Devil is a reflexive effect; he arises when something that is already ego should be made into id once again. Every ego can be a mirror for every other ego; those who do not want to see themselves take care that the others do not really ascend into the status of ego. The more unmistakably, however, the other ego has already shown itself to be a fact of life, the more fervent becomes the urge in the denying ego to smash the mirror. Paranoia and antireflective politics have the same structure, although on different levels. That in the course of European history this structure ascended to the dominating ideological reality several times --in the period of the Crusades, in the heretics' and witches' inquisitions, in the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution, in the fascisms, in anti-Semitism, in Stalinism-proves the explosiveness of this structure, in which warlike antagonisms, metaphysical dualisms, and paranoid mechanisms coalesce. For this reason, I think, the under- standing of kynicism-as conscious embodiment of that which has been negated,
366 ? TRANSCENDENTAL POLEMIC: HERACLITIAN MEDITATIONS
excluded, humbled, and declared evil (id) --holds a key to the cynical bestiality with which in our culture the fanatical defenders of the so-called good have distin- guished themselves so remarkably since time immemorial. And perhaps with the help of that doctrine that, of all philosophies, least of all represents a "theory," more insight can be won into that counterposed philosophical tradition that began with Plato and presented itself as the highest possible form of theory as such: di- alectics. For we would like to think that dialectics must remain immune against the dualistic-paranoid temptation. Does it not proceed from what the conscious- ness described earlier does not want to admit: from the conflict of positions and principles? Is it not its fundamental thought that against every thesis an antithesis must emerge and that this, which appears horrible to others, is, in fact, good and correct--for the sake of the synthesis and the "higher" truth born of the struggle?
Before we pursue these ideas, we must discuss the turn the "id" took within psychoanalysis. With both his so-called topographies (i. e. , descriptions of limits and areas on the "map of the soul"), Freud ventured forth into an area that for a long time had been philosophy's territory. Nevertheless, there is no doubt about the fundamental antimetaphysical stance of Freudian analysis. What then has hap- pened with the philosophy of the subject that a psychologist can speak as Freud does about the human person? The ego in Freud is not that of subjectivity philoso- phy. Reduced to a formula, Freudian analysis presupposes that the metaphysical dogma of the unity of the person in its ego has been burst--but how this happens is not our topic here. Only so much is certain: Freud only finds this bursting as a fait accompli and does not himself bring it about. That is his place in the history of ideas. From then on, in the rubble left after the explosion, several sectors can be staked out: on the one hand, the conscious and the unconscious domain; on the other, more or less superimposed, the districts of the superego in which the laws, norms, standards of conscience, and ideals reside; the districts of the ego, where everyday knowledge, qualifications, conscious competences, recollec- tions, and plans have their space; and finally the districts of the id from which the vital energies, drives, and dreams ascend. Of course, only because the unity of the person posited by metaphysicians is broken do psychologists have a free hand to speak in their way about another unity of the person. They see this unity not as something given but as a task: What is given is the landscape of rubble, strewn with large clumps that have been exploded into the unconscious, inter- laced by the cracks under which the old abuses and pains seethe. Therefore, Freud can say, "Where id was, ego should become. " He envisages draining the unconscious sea, setting up ego controls over what was previously the inner non- ego (id). In this, it is not so much the function of domination by the ego or of control that should be emphasized. In fact, the "sublation" of the id into the ego presupposes in the first place the opposite of domination by the ego, namely, radi- cal recognition of the id without reservation. In fruitful analytic cures (there are, as is well known, also other sorts of cures), it inevitably comes to the emergence
TRANSCENDENTAL POLEMIC: HERACLITIAN MEDITATIONS ? 367
0f the id to the point where the ego can be thoroughly washed away by those forces that were previously split off. Thus it can no longer be overlooked that "It" (id) belongs to me even if not yet in the sense of my old ego, marked by control and repression. A new ego-broader, livelier, more dynamically moved by the newly uncovered id space--is called into life, an ego that learns to live with its
9
whole history, its traumatic burden, and its madnesses. Cure presupposes the
recognition of the id as the precondition and foundation of life for the mature ego. Wherever that happens, the paranoid structure, the polemicization of the id, must end of its own accord. Thus, in Freudian terminology, a downright philosophical- philanthropic act is also to be discovered: The id is thought of as one's own from the beginning and is set up a priori as still unconscious with an orientation toward the ability of my ego to one day bring light into the darkness. Let us not argue about whether that is exaggerated rationalism or hidden Hegelianism. The point is not that the ego should now become completely the "master of its own house";
10
rather the point lies in the chance that the "spirits of the house" gether under one roof.
learn to live to-
Metapolemic: On the Foundations of European Dialectics in Polemics and Rhythmics
As far as he is able, the author lays his cards on the table; that is in no way the same thing as the game.
Adorno, Preface to Negative Dialectics All kinds of good principles have currency in the world; we
simply neglect to put them into practice.
Pascal, Pensees
Dialectics derives from a polemical tradition that has its beginnings in the Greek
philosophers in the generations before Socrates. In sophistry an art of disputation
and logical rhetoric for overwhelming the opponent arose for the first time, in a
way in which it has scarcely again come to life in our civilization, except in the
a
If, therefore, "dialectician" is supposed to be the name for someone who performs
above average in the art of being in the right, philosophy, but also political reality,
would have one problem less. Dialectics would then be only a prettier word for
rhetoric and sophistry in the negative sense, for caviling and the unscrupulous use
01
nave experienced dialectics, or something that called itself such, in some such
ge of the Scholastics, when likewise, a seasoned art of disputation flourished.
logic and language for the purpose of subduing by surprise.
