The words
themselves and grammatical forms have of course undergone no
change.
themselves and grammatical forms have of course undergone no
change.
Warner - World's Best Literature - v06 - Cal to Chr
These missions led him to Flanders,
to France, and to Italy. The subjects were very diverse. One of
the negotiations in which he was concerned was in reference to the
selection of an English port for a Genoese commercial establishment;
another was concerning the marriage of the young monarch of Eng-
land with the daughter of the king of France. It is on his first
journey to Italy of which we have any record - the mission of
1372-73 to Genoa and Florence—that everybody hopes and some suc-
ceed in having an undoubting belief that Chaucer visited Petrarch
at Padua, and there heard from him the story of Griselda, which
the Clerk of Oxford in the 'Canterbury Tales' states that he learned
from the Italian poet.
-
VI-223
## p. 3554 (#536) ###########################################
3554
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
But Chaucer's activity was not confined to foreign missions or to
diplomacy; he was as constantly employed in the civil service. In
1374 he was made controller of the great customs-that is, of wool,
skins, and leather of the port of London. In 1382 he received also
the post in the same port of controller of the petty customs - that
is, of wines, candles, and other articles. The regulations of the office
required him to write the records with his own hand; and it is this
to which Chaucer is supposed to refer in the statement he makes
about his official duties in the House of Fame. ' In that poem the
messenger of Jupiter tells him that though he has done so much in
the service of the God of Love, yet he has never received for it any
compensation. He then goes on to add the following lines, which
give a graphic picture of the poet and of his studious life:—
"Wherfore, as I said ywis,¹
Jupiter considereth this,
And also, beau sir, other things;
That is, that thou hast no tidíngs
Of Lovès folk, if they be glad,
Ne of nought ellès, that God made;
And nought only from far countree
That there no tiding cometh to thee,
But of the very neighèboúrs,
That dwellen almost at thy doors,
Thou hearest neither that nor this;
But when thy labor all done is,
And hast made all thy reckonings,
Instead of rest and newè things,
Thou goest home to thine house anon,
And also dumb as any stone,
Thou sittest at another book,
Till fully dazèd is thy look.
And livest thus as an eremite,
Although thine abstinence is lyte. 3»
In 1386 Chaucer was elected to Parliament as knight of the shire
for the county of Kent. In that same year he lost or gave up both
his positions in the customs. The cause we do not know. It may
have been due to mismanagement on his own part; it is far more
likely that he fell a victim to one of the fierce factional disputes that
were going on during the minority of Richard II.
At any rate, from
this time he again disappears for two years from our knowledge. But
in 1389 he is mentioned as having been appointed clerk of the
King's
works at Westminster and various other places; in 1390 clerk of the
works for St. George's chapel at Windsor. Both of these places he
1 Certainly.
2 As.
3 Little.
## p. 3555 (#537) ###########################################
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
3555
held until the middle of 1391. In that last year he was made one of
the commissioners to repair the roadway along the Thames, and at
about the same time was appointed forester of North Petherton Park
in Somerset, a post which he held till his death. After 1386 he
seems at times to have been in pecuniary difficulties. To what cause
they were owing, or how severe they were, it is the emptiest of
speculations to form any conjectures in the obscurity that envelops
this portion of his life. Whatever may have been his situation, on
the accession of Henry IV. in September, 1399, his fortunes revived.
The father of that monarch was John of Gaunt, the fourth son of
Edward III. That nobleman had pretty certainly been from the out-
set the patron of Chaucer; it is possible as the evidence fails on
one side, it cannot be regarded as proved-that by his marriage
with Katharine Swynford he became the poet's brother-in-law. What-
ever may have been the relationship, if any at all, it is a fact that
one of the very first things the new king did was to confer upon
Chaucer an additional pension. But the poet did not live long to
enjoy the favor of the monarch. On the 24th of December, 1399, he
leased for fifty-three years or during the term of his life a tenement
in the garden of St. Mary's Chapel, Westminster. But after the 5th
of June, 1400, his name appears no longer on any rolls. There is
accordingly no reason to question the accuracy of the inscription on
his tombstone which represents him as having died October 25th,
1400. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. He was the first, and
still remains perhaps the greatest, of the English poets whose bones
have there found their last resting-place.
This comprises all the facts of importance we know of Chaucer's
life. Before leaving this branch of the subject, however, it may be
well to say that many fuller details about his career can be found in
all older accounts of the poet, and in spite of the repeated exposure
of their falsity still crop up occasionally in modern books of refer-
ence. Some are objectionable only upon the ground of being untrue.
Of these are such statements as that he was born in 1328; that he
was a student of Oxford, to which Cambridge is sometimes added;
that he was created poet-laureate; and that he was knighted. But
others are objectionable not only on the ground of being false, but
of being slanderous besides. Of these the most offensive is the
widely circulated and circumstantial story that he was concerned
in the conflict that went on in 1382 between the city of London and
the court in regard to the election of John of Northampton to the
mayoralty; that in consequence of his participation in this contest he
was compelled to seek refuge in the island of Zealand; that there he
remained for some time, but on his return to England was arrested
and thrown into the Tower; and that after having been imprisoned
## p. 3556 (#538) ###########################################
3556
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
for two or three years he was released at last on the condition of
betraying his associates, which he accordingly did. All these details
are fictitious. They were made up from inferences drawn from
obscure passages in a prose work entitled 'The Testament of Love. '
This was once attributed to the poet, but is now known not to have
been written by him. Even had it been his, the statements derived
from it and applied to the life of the poet would have been entirely
unwarranted, as they come into constant conflict with the official
records. Not being his, this piece of spurious biography has the
additional discredit of constituting an unnecessary libel upon his
character.
From Chaucer the man, and the man of affairs, we proceed now
to the consideration of Chaucer the writer. He has left behind a
body of verse consisting of more than thirty-two thousand lines, and
a smaller but still far from inconsiderable quantity of prose. The
latter consists mainly if not wholly of translations—one a version
of that favorite work of the Middle Ages, the treatise of Boëtius on
the 'Consolation of Philosophy'; another the tale of Melibeus in the
'Canterbury Tales,' which is taken directly from the French; thirdly,
the Parson's Tale, derived probably from the same quarter, though
its original has not as yet been discovered with certainty; and
fourthly, an unfinished treatise on the Astrolabe, undertaken for the
instruction of his son Lewis. The prose of any literature always lags
behind, and sometimes centuries behind, its poetry. It is therefore
not surprising to find Chaucer displaying in the former but little of
the peculiar excellence which distinguishes his verse. In the latter
but little room is found for hostile criticism. In the more than thirty
thousand lines of which it is composed there occur of course inferior
passages, and some positively weak; but taking it all in all, there is
comparatively little in it, considered as a whole, which the lover of
literature as literature finds it advisable or necessary to skip. In this
respect the poet holds a peculiar position, which makes the task of
representation difficult. As Southey remarked, Chaucer with the
exception of Shakespeare is the most various of all English authors.
He appeals to the most diversified tastes. He wrote love poems,
religious poems, allegorical poems, occasional poems, tales of com-
mon life, tales of chivalry. His range is so wide that any limited
selection from his works can at best give but an inadequate idea of
the variety and extent of his powers.
The canon of Chaucer's writings has now been settled with a rea-
sonable degree of certainty. For a long time the fashion existed of
imputing to him the composition of any English poem of the century
following his death which was floating about without having attached
to it the name of any author. The consequence is that the older
## p. 3557 (#539) ###########################################
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
3557
editions contain a mass of matter which it would have been distinctly
discreditable for any one to have produced, let alone a great poet.
This has now been gradually dropped, much to the advantage of
Chaucer's reputation; though modern scholarship also refuses to admit
the production by him of two or three pieces, such as The Court
of Love,' 'The Flower and the Leaf,' 'The Cuckoo and the Nightin-
gale,' none of which was unworthy of his powers. It is possible
indeed that the poet himself may have had some dread of being
saddled with the responsibility of having produced pieces which he
did not care to father. It is certainly suggestive that he himself took
the pains on one occasion to furnish what it seems must have been
at the time a fairly complete list of his writings. In the prologue to
the 'Legend of Good Women' he gave an idea of the work which up
to that period he had accomplished. The God of Love, in the inter-
view which is there described as having taken place, inveighs against
the poet for having driven men away from the service due to his
deity, by the character of what he had written.
He says:
'Commentary.
5 Little.
"Thou mayst it not deny:
For in plain text, withouten need of glose,¹
Thou hast translated the Romance of the Rose;
That is an heresy agains my law,
And makest wisè folk fro me withdraw.
And of Cressid thou hast said as thee list;
That makest men to women lessè trist,2
That be as true as ever was any steel. "
Against this charge the queen Alcestis is represented as interpos-
ing to the god a defense of the poet, in which occurs the following
account of Chaucer's writings:-
"Albeit that he cannot well endite,
Yet hath he makèd lewèd folk delight
To serve you, in praising of your name.
4
He made the book that hight the House of Fame,
And eke the Death of Blanche the Duchess,
And the Parliament of Fowlès, as I guess,
And all the love of Palamon and Arcite
Of Thebes, though the story is knowen lyte 5;
And many an hymnè for your holy days
That highten ballades, roundels, virelays;
And for to speak of other holiness,
He hath in prosè translatéd Boece,
And made the Life also of Saint Cecile;
He made also, gone sithen a great while,'
2 Trust.
6 Are called.
3
³ Ignorant.
'Is called.
A great while ago.
## p. 3558 (#540) ###########################################
3558
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
Origenes upon the Maudelain':
Him oughtè now to have the lessè pain;
He hath made many a lay and many a thing. "
This prologue is generally conceded to have been written between
1382 and 1385. Though it does not profess to furnish a complete list
of Chaucer's writings, it can fairly be assumed that it included all
which he then regarded as of importance either on account of their
merit or their length. If so, the titles given above would embrace
the productions of what may be called the first half of his literary
career. In fact, his disciple Lydgate leads us to believe that 'Troi-
lus and Cressida' was a comparatively early production, though it
may have undergone and probably did undergo revision before
assuming its present form. The Legend of Good Women'in dis-
tinction from its prologue-would naturally occupy the time of the
poet during the opening period of what is here termed the second
half of his literary career. The prologue is the only portion of it,
however, that is of distinctly high merit. The work was never com-
pleted, and Chaucer pretty certainly came soon to the conclusion
that it was not worth completing. It was in the taste of the times:
but it did not take him long to perceive that an extended work
dealing exclusively with the sorrows of particular individuals was as
untrue to art as it was to life. It fell under the ban of that criti-
cism which in the Canterbury Tales' he puts into the mouth of the
Knight, who interrupts the doleful recital of the tragical tales told by
the Monk with these words:-
«Ho,' quoth the knight, good sir, no more of this:
That ye have said is right enow, ywis,²
And muchel³ more; for little heaviness
Is right enow to muchel folk, I guess.
I say for me it is a great disease,
Where-as men have been in great wealth and ease,
To hearen of hir sudden fall, alas!
And the contráry is joy and great solas,³
As when a man hath been in poor estate,
And climbeth up and waxeth fortunate,
And there abideth in prosperity.
Such thing is gladsome, as it thinketh me,
And of such thing were goodly for to tell. >>
Accordingly, from the composition of pieces of the one-sided and
unsatisfactory character of those contained in the 'Legend of Good
1 Origen upon Mary Magdalen.
2 Certainly.
3 Much.
* Discomfort.
5 Solace.
6 Seems.
## p. 3559 (#541) ###########################################
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
3559
Women,' Chaucer turned to the preparation of his great work, the
( Canterbury Tales. ' This gave him the fullest opportunity to display
all his powers, and must have constituted the main literary occupa-
tion of his later life.
It will be noticed that two of the works mentioned in the prologue
to the 'Legend of Good Women' are translations, and are so avowed.
One is of the Roman de la Rose,' and the other of the philo-
sophical treatise of Boëtius. In regard to the version of the former
which has come down, it is sufficient to say that there was not long
ago a disposition to deny the genuineness of all of it.
This now
contents itself with denying the genuineness of part of it. The
question cannot be considered here: it is enough to say that in the
opinion of the present writer, while the subject is attended with
certain difficulties, the evidence is strongly in favor of Chaucer's
composition of the whole. But setting aside any discussion of this
point, there can scarcely be any doubt that Chaucer began his career
as a translator. At the period he flourished he could hardly have
done otherwise. It was an almost inevitable method of procedure on
the part of a man who found neither writers nor writings in his own
tongue worthy of imitation, and who could not fail to be struck not
merely by the excellence of the Latin classic poets but also by the
superior culture of the Continent. In the course of his literary
development he would naturally pass from direct translation to adapt-
ation. To the latter practice he assuredly resorted often. He took
the work of the foreign author as a basis, discarded what he did not
need or care for, and added as little or as much as suited his own
convenience. In this way the 5704 lines of the 'Filostrato' of Boc-
caccio became 8246 in the Troilus and Cressida' of Chaucer; but
even of the 5704 of the Italian poet, 2974 were not used by the
English poet at all, and the 2730 that were used underwent consid-
erable compression. In a similar way he composed the Knight's
Tale,' probably the most perfect narrative poem in our tongue. It
was based upon the Theseide' of Boccaccio. But the latter has
9896 lines, while the former comprises but 2250; and of these 2250
fully two-thirds are entirely independent of the Italian poem.
With such free treatment of his material, Chaucer's next step
would be to direct composition, independent of any sources, save in
that general way in which every author is under obligation to what
has been previously produced. This finds its crowning achievement
in the Canterbury Tales'; though several earlier pieces—such as
the 'House of Fame,' the 'Parliament of Fowls,' and the prologue to
the 'Legend of Good Women,'-attest that long before he had
shown his ability to produce work essentially original. But though in
his literary development Chaucer worked himself out of this exact
## p. 3560 (#542) ###########################################
3560
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
reproduction of his models, through a partial working over of them
till he finally attained complete independence, the habits of a
translator clung to him to the very end. Even after he had fully
justified his claim to being a great original poet, passages occur
in his writings which are nothing but the reproduction of passages
found in some foreign poem in Latin, or French, or Italian, the three
languages with which he was conversant. His translation of them
was due to the fact that they had struck his fancy; his insertion of
them into his own work was to please others with what had previ-
ously pleased himself. Numerous passages of this kind have been
pointed out; and doubtless there are others which remain to be
pointed out.
There is another important thing to be marked in the history of
Chaucer's artistic development. Not only was poetic material lacking
in the tongue at the time of his appearance, but also poetic form.
The measures in use, while not inadequate for literary expression,
were incapable of embodying it in its highest flights. Consequently
what Chaucer did not find, he had either to borrow or to invent.
He did both. In the lines which have been quoted he speaks of the
"ballades, roundels, and virelayes" which he had composed. These
were all favorite poetical forms in that Continental country with
whose literature Chaucer was mainly conversant. There can be little
question that he tried all manner of verse which the ingenuity of
the poets of Northern France had devised. As many of his shorter
pieces have very certainly disappeared, his success in these various
attempts cannot be asserted with positiveness. Still, what have sur-
vived show that he was a great literary artist as well as a great
poet. His feats of rhyming, in particular in a tongue so little fitted
for it as is ours, can be seen in his unfinished poem of 'Queen
Anelida and False Arcite,' in the 'Complaint to Venus,' and in the
envoy which follows the Clerk's Tale. In this last piece, though
there are thirty-six lines, the rhymes are only three; and two of
these belong to fifteen lines respectively.
But far more important than such attempts, which prove interest
in versification rather than great poetic achievement, are the two
measures which he introduced into our tongue. The first was the
seven-line stanza. The rhyming lines in it are respectively the first
and third; the second, fourth, and fifth; and the sixth and seventh.
At a later period this was frequently called "rhyme royal," because
the Kingis Quair' was written in it. For fully two centuries it was
one of the most popular measures in English poetry. Since the six-
teenth century, however, it has been but little employed. Far dif-
ferent has been the fate of the line of ten syllables, or rather of five
accents. On account of its frequent use in the 'Canterbury Tales' it
## p. 3561 (#543) ###########################################
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
3561
was called for a long period "riding rhyme"; but it now bears the
title of "heroic verse. " As employed by Chaucer it varies in slight
particulars from the way it is now generally used. With him the
couplet character was never made prominent. The sense was not apt
to end at the second line, but constantly tended to run over into the
line following. There was also frequently with him an unaccented
eleventh syllable; and this, though not unknown to modern verse, is
not common. Still, the difference between the early and the later
form are mere differences of detail, and of comparatively unimpor-
tant detail. The introduction of this measure into English may be
considered Chaucer's greatest achievement in the matter of versifi-
cation. The heroic verse may have existed in the tongue before he
himself used it. If so, it lurked unseen and uninfluential.
He was
the first to employ it on a grand scale, if not to employ it at all,
and to develop its capabilities. Much the largest proportion of his
greatest work is written in that measure. Yet in spite of his exam-
ple, it found for two centuries comparatively few imitators.
It was
not till the end of the sixteenth century that the measure started on
a new course of life, and entered upon the great part it has since
played in English versification.
The most important of what are sometimes called the minor
works of Chaucer are the 'Parliament of Fowls,' the 'House of
Fame,' 'Troilus and Cressida,' and the 'Legend of Good Women. '
These are all favorable examples of his genius. But however good
they may be in particular portions and in particular respects, in gen-
eral excellence they yield place unquestionably to the Canterbury
Tales. ' It seems to have been very clearly the intention of the poet
to embody in this crowning achievement of his literary life every-
thing in the shape of a story he had already composed or was pur-
posing to compose. Two of the pieces, the love of Palamon and
Arcite and the Life of St. Cecilia, as we know from the words of
his already quoted, had appeared long before. The plan of the work
itself was most happily conceived; and in spite of most painstaking
efforts to find an original for it or suggestion of it somewhere else,
there seems no sufficient reason for doubting that the poet himself
was equal to the task of having devised it. No one certainly can
question the felicity with which the framework for embodying the
tales was constructed. All ranks and classes of society are brought
together in the company of pilgrims who assemble at the Tabard
Inn at Southwark to ride to the shrine of the saint at Canterbury.
The military class is represented By the Knight, belonging to the
highest order of the nobility, his son the Squire, and his retainer the
Yeoman; the church by the Abbot, the Friar, the Parson, the Pri-
oress with her attendant Nun, and the three accompanying Priests,
## p. 3562 (#544) ###########################################
3562
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
and less distinctly by the Scholar, the Clerk of Oxford, and by the
Pardoner and the Summoner. For the other professions are the
Doctor of Physic and the Serjeant of Law; for the middle-class land-
holders the Franklin; and for the various crafts and occupations the
Haberdasher, the Carpenter, the Weaver, the Dyer, the Upholsterer,
the Cook, the Ploughman, the Sailor, the Reeve, the Manciple, and
(joining the party in the course of the pilgrimage) the assistant of
the alchemist, who is called the Canon's Yeoman. Into the mouths
of these various personages were to be put tales befitting their char-
acter and condition. Consequently there was ample space for stories
of chivalry, of religion, of love, of magic, and in truth of every
aspect of social life in all its highest and lowest manifestations.
Between the tales themselves were connecting links, in which the
poet had the opportunity to give an account of the incidents that
took place on the pilgrimage, the critical opinions expressed by the
hearers of what had been told, and the disputes and quarrels that
went on between the various members of the party. So far as this
portion of his plan was finished, these connecting links furnish some
of the most striking passages in the work. In one of them - the
prologue to the Wife of Bath's Tale- the genius of the poet reaches
along certain lines its highest development; while the general pro-
logue describing the various personages of the party, though not
containing the highest poetry of the work as poetry, is the most
acute, discriminating, and brilliant picture of men and manners that
can be found in our literature.
Such was the plan of the work. It was laid out on an extensive
scale, perhaps on too extensive a scale ever to have been completed.
Certain it is that it was very far from ever reaching even remotely
that result. According to the scheme set forth in the prologue, the
work when finished should have included over one hundred and
twenty tales. It actually comprises but twenty-four. Even of these,
two are incomplete: the Cook's Tale, which is little more than begun,
and the romantic Eastern tale of the Squire, which, in Milton's words,
is "left half told. " To those that are finished, the connecting links
have not been supplied in many cases. Accordingly the work exists
not as a perfect whole, but in eight or nine fragmentary parts, each
complete in itself, but lacking a close connection with the others,
though all are bound together by the unity of a common central
interest. The value of what has been done makes doubly keen the
regret that so much has been left undone. Politics, religion, litera-
ture, manners, are all touched upon in this wide-embracing view,
which still never misses what is really essential; and added to this
is a skill of portrayal by which the actors, whether narrating the
tales themselves, or themselves forming the heroes of the narration,
## p. 3563 (#545) ###########################################
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
3563
fairly live and breathe before our eyes. Had the work been com-
pleted on the scale upon which it was begun, we should have had a
picture of life and opinion in the fourteenth century more vivid and
exact than has been drawn of any century before or since.
The selections given are partly of extracts and partly of complete
pieces. To the former class belong the lines taken from the opening
of the 'Canterbury Tales,' with the description of a few of the char-
acters; the description of the temples of Mars, of Venus, and of Diana
in the Knight's Tale; and the account of the disappearance of the
fairies at the opening of the Wife of Bath's Tale. The complete
pieces are the tales of the Pardoner, and of the Nun's Priest. From
the first, however, has been dropped the discourse on drunkenness,
profanity, and gambling, which, though in keeping with the character
of the narrator, has no connection with the development of the
story. The second, the tale of the Nun's Priest, was modernized by
Dryden under the title of the Cock and the Fox. ' All of these are
in heroic verse. The final selection is the ballade now usually enti-
tled 'Truth. In it the peculiar ballade construction can be studied—
that is, the formation in three stanzas, either with or without an
envoy; the same rhymes running through the three stanzas; and the
final line of each stanza precisely the same. One of Chaucer's reli-
gious poems-the so-called 'A B C can be found under Deguile-
ville, from whose Pèlerinage la de Vie Humaine' it is translated.
Chaucer's style, like that of all great early writers, is marked by
perfect simplicity, and his language is therefore comparatively easy
to understand. In the extracts here given the spelling has been
modernized, save occasionally at the end of the line, when the
rhyme has required the retention of an earlier form.
The words
themselves and grammatical forms have of course undergone no
change. There are two marks used to indicate the pronunciation:
first, the acute accent to indicate that a heavier stress than ordinary
is to be placed on the syllable over which it stands; and secondly,
the grave accent to indicate that the letter or syllable over which it
appears, though silent in modern pronunciation, was then sounded.
Thus landès, grovès, friendès, knavès, would have the final syllable
sounded; and in a similar way timè, Romè, and others ending in e, when
the next word begins with a vowel or h mute. The acute accent can
be exemplified in words like courage, reasón, honour, translated, where
the accent would show that the final syllable would either receive the
main stress or a heavier stress than is now given it. Again, a word
like cre-a-ture consists, in the pronunciation here given, of three sylla-
bles and not of two, and is accordingly represented by a grave accent
over the a to signify that this vowel forms a separate syllable, and
by the acute accent over the ture to indicate that this final syllable
## p. 3564 (#546) ###########################################
3564
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
should receive more weight of pronunciation than usual. It accord-
ingly appears as creàtúre. In a similar way con-dit-i-on would be a
word of four syllables, and its pronunciation would be indicated by
this method condition. It is never to be forgotten that Chaucer had
no superior in the English tongue as a master of melody; and if a
verse of his sounds inharmonious, it is either because the line is
rupt or because the reader has not succeeded in pronouncing it
rectly.
cor-
cor-
the
con-
The explanation of obsolete words or meanings is given in
foot-notes. In addition to these the following variations from mod-
ern English that occur constantly, and are therefore not defined,
should be noted. Hir and hem stand for their' and 'them. ' The
affix y is frequently prefixed to the past participle, which itself
sometimes omits the final en or -n, as 'ydrawe,' 'yshake. ' The im-
perative plural ends in -th, as 'dreadeth. ' The general negative ne
is sometimes to be defined by 'not,' sometimes by 'nor'; and
nected with forms of the verb 'be' gives us nis, 'is not'; nas, was
not. ' As is often an expletive, and cannot be rendered at all;
that
before 'one' and 'other' is usually the definite article; there is fre
quently to be rendered by 'where'; mo always means 'more'; thilke
means that' or 'that sam
ame'; del is 'deal' in the sense of bit,'
'whit'; and the comparatives of 'long' and 'strong' are lenger and
strenger. Finally it should be borne in mind that the double nega
tive invariably strengthens the negation.
<
Thomas R. Lounsbury
1 Sweet.
PROLOGUE TO THE CANTERBURY TALES›
HEN that Aprílè with his showers swoot¹
WHEN
The drought of March hath pierced to the root,
And bathed every vein in such liqoúr
Of which virtue engendered is the flower;
When Zephyrús eke with his sweetè breath
Inspirèd hath in every holt and heath
The tender croppès, and the youngè sun
Hath in the Ram his halfè course yrun,
And smallè fowlès maken melody,
That sleepen all the night with open eye,
So pricketh hem natúre in hir couráges2-
Then longen folk to go on pilgrimages,
2 Hearts.
-
-
## p. 3565 (#547) ###########################################
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
3565
·
And palmers for to seeken strangè strands,
To fernè hallows' couth in sundry lands;
And specially, from every shirès end
Of Engeland, to Canterbury they wend,
The holy blissful martyr for to seek,
That hem hath holpen when that they were sick.
Befell that in that season on a day,
In Southwark at the Tabard³ as I lay,
Ready to wenden on my pilgrimáge
To Canterbury with full devout courage,
At night were come into that hostelry
Well nine and twenty in a company
Of sundry folk, by áventúre yfalle
In fellowship, and pilgrims were they all,
That toward Canterbury woulden ride.
The chambers and the stables weren wide,
And well we weren easèd' at the best.
And shortly, when the sunnè was to rest,
So had I spoken with hem evereach-one,"
That I was of hir fellowship anon,
And madè forward' early for to rise
To take our way there-as I you devise. Ⓡ
But nathèless, while I have time and space,
Ere that I further in this talè pace,
Me thinketh it accordant to reasón,
To tellen you all the conditión
Of each of hem, so as it seemed me,
And which they weren, and of what degree,
And eke in what array that they were in:
And at a knight then will I first begin.
THE KNIGHT
A KNIGHT there was, and that a worthy⁹ man,
That 10 from the timè that he first began
To riden out, he ¹ lovèd chivalry,
Truth and honoúr, freedom" and courtesy.
Full worthy was he in his Lordès war,
And thereto had he ridden, no man farre, 12
1 Distant saints.
2 Known.
'Tabard: sign of the inn at Southwark.
• Accident.
5 Accommodated.
"Every one.
'Agreement.
8 Tell.
'Of high rank.
10 That-he=who.
11 Liberality.
12 Farther.
## p. 3566 (#548) ###########################################
3566
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
As well in Christendom as in Heatheness,,
And ever honoured for his worthiness.
At Alexandr' he was when it was won;
Full oftè time he had the board begun¹
Aboven allè natìóns in Prusse;
In Lettowe had he reyséd³ and in Russe,
No Christian man so oft of his degree;
In Gernade at the siegè had he be
Of Algezir, and ridden in Belmarié.
At Lieys' was he, and at Satalié,
When they were won; and in the Greatè Sea'
At many a noble army 10 had he be.
At mortal battles had he been fifteen,
And foughten for our faith at Tramassene ¹¹
In listès thriès, and aye slain his foe.
This ilkè" worthy knight had been also
Sometimè with the lord of Palatié, 13
Again another heathen in Turkéy:
And evermore he had a sovereign pris. ¹
15
And though that he were worthy 5 he was wise,
And of his port as meek as is a maid.
He never yet no villainy 16 ne said
In all his life unto no manner wight. "
He was a very perfect gentle knight.
But for to tellen you of his array,
His horse were good, but he ne was not gay
Of fustìán he wearèd a gipon, 19
All besmuterèd 20 with his habergeón,
For he was late ycome from his viáge,"1
And wentè for to do his pilgrimage.
1 Sat at the head of the table.
2 Lithuania.
3 Traveled.
'Grenada.
5 Algeciras.
"Moorish Kingdom of Africa.
'Lieys: in Armenia.
8 Satalie: ancient Attalia.
"Mediterranean.
10 Armed expedition.
11 Tramassene: a kingdom in Africa.
12 Same.
13 Palatie: Palatine in Anatolia.
14 Estimation.
15 Of high rank.
16 Anything discourteous.
17 No sort of person.
18 Richly dressed.
19 Cassock.
20 Soiled.
21 Journey.
## p. 3567 (#549) ###########################################
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
3567
'Called.
2 Intoned.
3 Properly.
* Pleasure.
5 Bit.
THE PRIORESS
There was also a Nun, a PRIORESS,
That of her smiling was full simple and coy;
Her greatest oath was but by Sáìnt Loy;
And she was clepèd¹ Madame Eglentine.
Full well she sang the servicè divine,
Entunéd in her nose full seemély;
And French she spake full fair and fetisly
After the school of Stratford-at-the-Bow,
For French of Paris vas to her unknowe.
At meatè well ytaught was she withal;
She let no morsel from her lippès fall,
Ne wet her fingers in her saucè deep.
Well could she carry a morsel, and well keep,
That no dropè ne fell upon her breast.
In courtesy was set full much her lest. "
16 Smartly.
Her over-lippè wipèd she so clean,
9
That in her cup there was no farthing³ seen
Of grease, when she drunken had her draught;
Full seemély after her meat she raught:
And sickerly' she was of great disport,
And full pleasant and amiable of port,
And painèd her to counterfeiten cheer
Of court, and to be stately of manére,
And to be holden digne 10 of reverénce.
But for to speaken of her conscience,"
She was so charitable and so pitoús,
She wouldè weep if that she saw a mouse
Caught in a trap, if it were dead or bled;
Of smallè houndès had she, that she fed
With roasted flesh, or milk and wastel-bread ¹²;
But sore wept sh' if one of hem were dead, 13
Or if men smote it with a yardè smarte 16:
And all was consciénce and tender heart.
Full seemély her wimple" pinchèd 18 was;
Her nosè tretys, her eyen gray as glass,
Her mouth full small and thereto soft and red;
But sickerly 19 she had a fair forehéad;
14
6 Reached.
7 Certainly.
8 Took pains.
9 Imitate.
10 Worthy.
17 Covering for the neck.
3
18 Plaited.
11 Tender-heartedness.
12 Bread of the, finest flour.
13 Died.
14 One.
15 Staff.
19 Certainly.
## p. 3568 (#550) ###########################################
3568
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
1
It was almost a spannè broad, I trow,
For hardily she was not undergrowe. 2
Full fetis was her cloak, as I was ware.
Of small corál about her arm she bare
3
A pair of beadès gauded all with green";
And thereon hung a brooch of gold full sheen,
On which ther was first writ a crownèd A,
And after, Amor vincit omnia.
Another Nunnè with her haddè she,
That was her chapèlain, and Priestès three.
THE FRIAR
A FRERE there was, a wanton and a merry,
A limitoúr, a full solemnè man.
In all the orders four is none that can'
So much of dalliance and fair language.
He haddè made full many a marrìáge
Of youngè women at his owen cost.
Unto his order he was a noble post;
Full well beloved and fámiliár was he
With franklins over-all 10 in his country,
And eke with worthy" women of the town:
For he had power of confessión,
As saidè hímself, more than a curáte,
For of his order he was licentiáte.
Full sweetèly heard he confessión,
And pleasant was his absolutión.
He was an easy man to give penance,
There-as he wist to have a good pittánce;
For unto a poor order for to give
¹ Certainly.
2 Undergrown.
3 Neat.
13
Is signè that a man is well yshrive;
For if he gave, he durstè make avaunt, 1s
He wistè that a man was répentánt.
For many a man so hard is of his heart,
He may not weep although him sorè smart;
Therefore instead of weeping and prayérs,
Men mote give silver to the poorè freres.
'String.
Having the gaudies, or large beads,
green.
"Private secretary.
'Licensed to beg within certain limits.
8 Festive.
9 Knows.
10 Everywhere.
11 Of high position.
12 Where he knew he should have.
13 Boast.
## p. 3569 (#551) ###########################################
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
3569
1 Stuffed.
2 A stringed instrument.
3 Songs.
* Estimation.
5 Innkeeper.
His tippet was aye farsèd¹ full of knives
And pinnès, for to given fairè wives;
And certainly he had a merry note:
Well could he sing and playen on a rote2;
Of yeddings he bare utterly the pris. '
His neckè white was as the fleur-de-lis.
Thereto he strong was as a champión.
He knew the taverns well in every town,
And every hostèlér³ and tapèstér,
Bet than a lazár or a beggestér¹;
For unto such a worthy man as he
Accorded nought, as by his faculty,
To have with sickè lazárs ácquaintance;
It is not honest, it may not advance
For to dealen with no such poraille,"
But all with rich and sellers of vitaille. 10
And o'er-all," there-as profit should arise,
Courteous he was and lowly of service.
There nas no man nowhere so virtuous 12;
He was the bestè beggar in his house:
[And gave a certain farmè 3 for the grant,
None of his brethren came there in his haunt. ]
13
For though a widow haddè not a shoe,
So pleasant was his In principio,"
Yet would he have a farthing ere he went;
His purchase 5 was well better than his rent.
And rage" he could as it were right a whelp:
In lovèdays there could he muchel help;
For there he was not like a cloisterér
With a threadbare cope, as is a poor scholér;
But he was like a master or a pope.
Of double worsted was his semicope, "
That rounded as a bell out of the press.
Somewhat he lispèd for his wantonness,
19
6 Leper.
¡ Beggar.
8 Poor people.
" Givers.
10 Victuals.
11
Everywhere.
12 Efficient.
13 Rent.
16
¹¹ In principio: In the beginning — the
friar's salutation.
15 Proceeds from begging.
16 Income.
17 Toy wantonly.
18
Days for settling differences.
19 Short cape
VI-224
## p. 3570 (#552) ###########################################
3570
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
To make his English sweet upon his tongue;
And in his harping, when that he had sung,
His eyen twinkled in his head aright,
As do the starrès in the frosty night.
This worthy limitour was cleped' Hubérd.
THE CLERK OF OXFORD
A CLERK there was of Oxenford' also,
That unto logic haddè long ygo. ³
As leanè was his horse as is a rake,
And he was not right fat, I undertake,*
But looked hollow, and thereto soberly.
Full threadbare was his overest courtepy,"
For he had geten him yet no benefice,
Ne was so worldly for to have office.
For him was liefer have at his bed's head
Twenty bookès clad in black or red,
Of Aristotle, and his philosophy,
7
Than robes rich, or fiddle, or gay psaltery.
But albe that he was a philosopher,
Yet hadde he but little gold in coffer,
But all that he might of his friendès hent,"
On bookes and his learning he it spent,
And busily 10 gan for the soulés pray
Of hem, that gave him wherewith to scolay";
Of study took he most cure and most heed.
Not one word spake he more than was need;
And that was said in form and reverence,
And short and quick, and full of high sentence. "
Sounding in moral virtue was his speech,
And gladly would he learn and gladly teach.
1 Called.
2 Oxford.
3 Gone.
4 Venture to say.
5 Uppermost.
Short cloak.
Gotten.
8 Rather.
9 Get.
10 Earnestly.
11 To attend school.
12 Matter.
## p. 3571 (#553) ###########################################
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
3571
THE LAWYER
A SERGEANT OF THE LAWÈ, ware and wise,
That often had ybeen at the Parvys,¹
There was also, full rich of excellence.
Discreet he was and of great reverence;
He seemed such, his wordès were so wise;
Justice he was full often in assize,
By patent and by plein commissión.
For his science, and for his high renown,
Of fees and robès had he many one;
So great a purchaser³ was nowhere none;
All was fee simple to him in effect,
His purchasing mightè not be infect. "
Nowhere so busy a man as he there nas,
And yet he seemèd busier than he was.
In termès had he case and doomès all,
That from the time of King William were fall.
Thereto he could indite, and make a thing,
There couldè no wight pinch at his writing;
And every statute could' he pleins by rote.
He rode but homely in a medley' coat,
Girt with a ceint 10 of silk, with barrès smale";
Of his array tell I no lenger tale.
THE SHIPMAN
13
A SHIPMAN was there, woning 12 far by West:
For aught I wot, he was of Dartèmouth.
He rode upon a rouncy,' as he couth,"
In a gown of falding 15 to the knee.
A dagger hanging on a lace had he
About his neck under his arm adown;
The hotè summer had made his hue all brown;
And certainly he was a good felláw.
Full many a draught of wine had he ydrawe
1
¹ Parvys: the portico of St. Paul's, fre-
quented by lawyers for consultation.
2 Full.
Acquirer of property.
Tainted by illegality.
5 Cases and decisions.
Find a flaw.
7 Knew.
8 Fully.
Mixed in color.
10 Girdle.
11 Small.
12 Dwelling.
13 Hack.
14 Could.
15 Coarse cloth.
I
1
1
## p. 3572 (#554) ###########################################
3572
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
'Supercargo.
to France, and to Italy. The subjects were very diverse. One of
the negotiations in which he was concerned was in reference to the
selection of an English port for a Genoese commercial establishment;
another was concerning the marriage of the young monarch of Eng-
land with the daughter of the king of France. It is on his first
journey to Italy of which we have any record - the mission of
1372-73 to Genoa and Florence—that everybody hopes and some suc-
ceed in having an undoubting belief that Chaucer visited Petrarch
at Padua, and there heard from him the story of Griselda, which
the Clerk of Oxford in the 'Canterbury Tales' states that he learned
from the Italian poet.
-
VI-223
## p. 3554 (#536) ###########################################
3554
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
But Chaucer's activity was not confined to foreign missions or to
diplomacy; he was as constantly employed in the civil service. In
1374 he was made controller of the great customs-that is, of wool,
skins, and leather of the port of London. In 1382 he received also
the post in the same port of controller of the petty customs - that
is, of wines, candles, and other articles. The regulations of the office
required him to write the records with his own hand; and it is this
to which Chaucer is supposed to refer in the statement he makes
about his official duties in the House of Fame. ' In that poem the
messenger of Jupiter tells him that though he has done so much in
the service of the God of Love, yet he has never received for it any
compensation. He then goes on to add the following lines, which
give a graphic picture of the poet and of his studious life:—
"Wherfore, as I said ywis,¹
Jupiter considereth this,
And also, beau sir, other things;
That is, that thou hast no tidíngs
Of Lovès folk, if they be glad,
Ne of nought ellès, that God made;
And nought only from far countree
That there no tiding cometh to thee,
But of the very neighèboúrs,
That dwellen almost at thy doors,
Thou hearest neither that nor this;
But when thy labor all done is,
And hast made all thy reckonings,
Instead of rest and newè things,
Thou goest home to thine house anon,
And also dumb as any stone,
Thou sittest at another book,
Till fully dazèd is thy look.
And livest thus as an eremite,
Although thine abstinence is lyte. 3»
In 1386 Chaucer was elected to Parliament as knight of the shire
for the county of Kent. In that same year he lost or gave up both
his positions in the customs. The cause we do not know. It may
have been due to mismanagement on his own part; it is far more
likely that he fell a victim to one of the fierce factional disputes that
were going on during the minority of Richard II.
At any rate, from
this time he again disappears for two years from our knowledge. But
in 1389 he is mentioned as having been appointed clerk of the
King's
works at Westminster and various other places; in 1390 clerk of the
works for St. George's chapel at Windsor. Both of these places he
1 Certainly.
2 As.
3 Little.
## p. 3555 (#537) ###########################################
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
3555
held until the middle of 1391. In that last year he was made one of
the commissioners to repair the roadway along the Thames, and at
about the same time was appointed forester of North Petherton Park
in Somerset, a post which he held till his death. After 1386 he
seems at times to have been in pecuniary difficulties. To what cause
they were owing, or how severe they were, it is the emptiest of
speculations to form any conjectures in the obscurity that envelops
this portion of his life. Whatever may have been his situation, on
the accession of Henry IV. in September, 1399, his fortunes revived.
The father of that monarch was John of Gaunt, the fourth son of
Edward III. That nobleman had pretty certainly been from the out-
set the patron of Chaucer; it is possible as the evidence fails on
one side, it cannot be regarded as proved-that by his marriage
with Katharine Swynford he became the poet's brother-in-law. What-
ever may have been the relationship, if any at all, it is a fact that
one of the very first things the new king did was to confer upon
Chaucer an additional pension. But the poet did not live long to
enjoy the favor of the monarch. On the 24th of December, 1399, he
leased for fifty-three years or during the term of his life a tenement
in the garden of St. Mary's Chapel, Westminster. But after the 5th
of June, 1400, his name appears no longer on any rolls. There is
accordingly no reason to question the accuracy of the inscription on
his tombstone which represents him as having died October 25th,
1400. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. He was the first, and
still remains perhaps the greatest, of the English poets whose bones
have there found their last resting-place.
This comprises all the facts of importance we know of Chaucer's
life. Before leaving this branch of the subject, however, it may be
well to say that many fuller details about his career can be found in
all older accounts of the poet, and in spite of the repeated exposure
of their falsity still crop up occasionally in modern books of refer-
ence. Some are objectionable only upon the ground of being untrue.
Of these are such statements as that he was born in 1328; that he
was a student of Oxford, to which Cambridge is sometimes added;
that he was created poet-laureate; and that he was knighted. But
others are objectionable not only on the ground of being false, but
of being slanderous besides. Of these the most offensive is the
widely circulated and circumstantial story that he was concerned
in the conflict that went on in 1382 between the city of London and
the court in regard to the election of John of Northampton to the
mayoralty; that in consequence of his participation in this contest he
was compelled to seek refuge in the island of Zealand; that there he
remained for some time, but on his return to England was arrested
and thrown into the Tower; and that after having been imprisoned
## p. 3556 (#538) ###########################################
3556
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
for two or three years he was released at last on the condition of
betraying his associates, which he accordingly did. All these details
are fictitious. They were made up from inferences drawn from
obscure passages in a prose work entitled 'The Testament of Love. '
This was once attributed to the poet, but is now known not to have
been written by him. Even had it been his, the statements derived
from it and applied to the life of the poet would have been entirely
unwarranted, as they come into constant conflict with the official
records. Not being his, this piece of spurious biography has the
additional discredit of constituting an unnecessary libel upon his
character.
From Chaucer the man, and the man of affairs, we proceed now
to the consideration of Chaucer the writer. He has left behind a
body of verse consisting of more than thirty-two thousand lines, and
a smaller but still far from inconsiderable quantity of prose. The
latter consists mainly if not wholly of translations—one a version
of that favorite work of the Middle Ages, the treatise of Boëtius on
the 'Consolation of Philosophy'; another the tale of Melibeus in the
'Canterbury Tales,' which is taken directly from the French; thirdly,
the Parson's Tale, derived probably from the same quarter, though
its original has not as yet been discovered with certainty; and
fourthly, an unfinished treatise on the Astrolabe, undertaken for the
instruction of his son Lewis. The prose of any literature always lags
behind, and sometimes centuries behind, its poetry. It is therefore
not surprising to find Chaucer displaying in the former but little of
the peculiar excellence which distinguishes his verse. In the latter
but little room is found for hostile criticism. In the more than thirty
thousand lines of which it is composed there occur of course inferior
passages, and some positively weak; but taking it all in all, there is
comparatively little in it, considered as a whole, which the lover of
literature as literature finds it advisable or necessary to skip. In this
respect the poet holds a peculiar position, which makes the task of
representation difficult. As Southey remarked, Chaucer with the
exception of Shakespeare is the most various of all English authors.
He appeals to the most diversified tastes. He wrote love poems,
religious poems, allegorical poems, occasional poems, tales of com-
mon life, tales of chivalry. His range is so wide that any limited
selection from his works can at best give but an inadequate idea of
the variety and extent of his powers.
The canon of Chaucer's writings has now been settled with a rea-
sonable degree of certainty. For a long time the fashion existed of
imputing to him the composition of any English poem of the century
following his death which was floating about without having attached
to it the name of any author. The consequence is that the older
## p. 3557 (#539) ###########################################
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
3557
editions contain a mass of matter which it would have been distinctly
discreditable for any one to have produced, let alone a great poet.
This has now been gradually dropped, much to the advantage of
Chaucer's reputation; though modern scholarship also refuses to admit
the production by him of two or three pieces, such as The Court
of Love,' 'The Flower and the Leaf,' 'The Cuckoo and the Nightin-
gale,' none of which was unworthy of his powers. It is possible
indeed that the poet himself may have had some dread of being
saddled with the responsibility of having produced pieces which he
did not care to father. It is certainly suggestive that he himself took
the pains on one occasion to furnish what it seems must have been
at the time a fairly complete list of his writings. In the prologue to
the 'Legend of Good Women' he gave an idea of the work which up
to that period he had accomplished. The God of Love, in the inter-
view which is there described as having taken place, inveighs against
the poet for having driven men away from the service due to his
deity, by the character of what he had written.
He says:
'Commentary.
5 Little.
"Thou mayst it not deny:
For in plain text, withouten need of glose,¹
Thou hast translated the Romance of the Rose;
That is an heresy agains my law,
And makest wisè folk fro me withdraw.
And of Cressid thou hast said as thee list;
That makest men to women lessè trist,2
That be as true as ever was any steel. "
Against this charge the queen Alcestis is represented as interpos-
ing to the god a defense of the poet, in which occurs the following
account of Chaucer's writings:-
"Albeit that he cannot well endite,
Yet hath he makèd lewèd folk delight
To serve you, in praising of your name.
4
He made the book that hight the House of Fame,
And eke the Death of Blanche the Duchess,
And the Parliament of Fowlès, as I guess,
And all the love of Palamon and Arcite
Of Thebes, though the story is knowen lyte 5;
And many an hymnè for your holy days
That highten ballades, roundels, virelays;
And for to speak of other holiness,
He hath in prosè translatéd Boece,
And made the Life also of Saint Cecile;
He made also, gone sithen a great while,'
2 Trust.
6 Are called.
3
³ Ignorant.
'Is called.
A great while ago.
## p. 3558 (#540) ###########################################
3558
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
Origenes upon the Maudelain':
Him oughtè now to have the lessè pain;
He hath made many a lay and many a thing. "
This prologue is generally conceded to have been written between
1382 and 1385. Though it does not profess to furnish a complete list
of Chaucer's writings, it can fairly be assumed that it included all
which he then regarded as of importance either on account of their
merit or their length. If so, the titles given above would embrace
the productions of what may be called the first half of his literary
career. In fact, his disciple Lydgate leads us to believe that 'Troi-
lus and Cressida' was a comparatively early production, though it
may have undergone and probably did undergo revision before
assuming its present form. The Legend of Good Women'in dis-
tinction from its prologue-would naturally occupy the time of the
poet during the opening period of what is here termed the second
half of his literary career. The prologue is the only portion of it,
however, that is of distinctly high merit. The work was never com-
pleted, and Chaucer pretty certainly came soon to the conclusion
that it was not worth completing. It was in the taste of the times:
but it did not take him long to perceive that an extended work
dealing exclusively with the sorrows of particular individuals was as
untrue to art as it was to life. It fell under the ban of that criti-
cism which in the Canterbury Tales' he puts into the mouth of the
Knight, who interrupts the doleful recital of the tragical tales told by
the Monk with these words:-
«Ho,' quoth the knight, good sir, no more of this:
That ye have said is right enow, ywis,²
And muchel³ more; for little heaviness
Is right enow to muchel folk, I guess.
I say for me it is a great disease,
Where-as men have been in great wealth and ease,
To hearen of hir sudden fall, alas!
And the contráry is joy and great solas,³
As when a man hath been in poor estate,
And climbeth up and waxeth fortunate,
And there abideth in prosperity.
Such thing is gladsome, as it thinketh me,
And of such thing were goodly for to tell. >>
Accordingly, from the composition of pieces of the one-sided and
unsatisfactory character of those contained in the 'Legend of Good
1 Origen upon Mary Magdalen.
2 Certainly.
3 Much.
* Discomfort.
5 Solace.
6 Seems.
## p. 3559 (#541) ###########################################
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
3559
Women,' Chaucer turned to the preparation of his great work, the
( Canterbury Tales. ' This gave him the fullest opportunity to display
all his powers, and must have constituted the main literary occupa-
tion of his later life.
It will be noticed that two of the works mentioned in the prologue
to the 'Legend of Good Women' are translations, and are so avowed.
One is of the Roman de la Rose,' and the other of the philo-
sophical treatise of Boëtius. In regard to the version of the former
which has come down, it is sufficient to say that there was not long
ago a disposition to deny the genuineness of all of it.
This now
contents itself with denying the genuineness of part of it. The
question cannot be considered here: it is enough to say that in the
opinion of the present writer, while the subject is attended with
certain difficulties, the evidence is strongly in favor of Chaucer's
composition of the whole. But setting aside any discussion of this
point, there can scarcely be any doubt that Chaucer began his career
as a translator. At the period he flourished he could hardly have
done otherwise. It was an almost inevitable method of procedure on
the part of a man who found neither writers nor writings in his own
tongue worthy of imitation, and who could not fail to be struck not
merely by the excellence of the Latin classic poets but also by the
superior culture of the Continent. In the course of his literary
development he would naturally pass from direct translation to adapt-
ation. To the latter practice he assuredly resorted often. He took
the work of the foreign author as a basis, discarded what he did not
need or care for, and added as little or as much as suited his own
convenience. In this way the 5704 lines of the 'Filostrato' of Boc-
caccio became 8246 in the Troilus and Cressida' of Chaucer; but
even of the 5704 of the Italian poet, 2974 were not used by the
English poet at all, and the 2730 that were used underwent consid-
erable compression. In a similar way he composed the Knight's
Tale,' probably the most perfect narrative poem in our tongue. It
was based upon the Theseide' of Boccaccio. But the latter has
9896 lines, while the former comprises but 2250; and of these 2250
fully two-thirds are entirely independent of the Italian poem.
With such free treatment of his material, Chaucer's next step
would be to direct composition, independent of any sources, save in
that general way in which every author is under obligation to what
has been previously produced. This finds its crowning achievement
in the Canterbury Tales'; though several earlier pieces—such as
the 'House of Fame,' the 'Parliament of Fowls,' and the prologue to
the 'Legend of Good Women,'-attest that long before he had
shown his ability to produce work essentially original. But though in
his literary development Chaucer worked himself out of this exact
## p. 3560 (#542) ###########################################
3560
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
reproduction of his models, through a partial working over of them
till he finally attained complete independence, the habits of a
translator clung to him to the very end. Even after he had fully
justified his claim to being a great original poet, passages occur
in his writings which are nothing but the reproduction of passages
found in some foreign poem in Latin, or French, or Italian, the three
languages with which he was conversant. His translation of them
was due to the fact that they had struck his fancy; his insertion of
them into his own work was to please others with what had previ-
ously pleased himself. Numerous passages of this kind have been
pointed out; and doubtless there are others which remain to be
pointed out.
There is another important thing to be marked in the history of
Chaucer's artistic development. Not only was poetic material lacking
in the tongue at the time of his appearance, but also poetic form.
The measures in use, while not inadequate for literary expression,
were incapable of embodying it in its highest flights. Consequently
what Chaucer did not find, he had either to borrow or to invent.
He did both. In the lines which have been quoted he speaks of the
"ballades, roundels, and virelayes" which he had composed. These
were all favorite poetical forms in that Continental country with
whose literature Chaucer was mainly conversant. There can be little
question that he tried all manner of verse which the ingenuity of
the poets of Northern France had devised. As many of his shorter
pieces have very certainly disappeared, his success in these various
attempts cannot be asserted with positiveness. Still, what have sur-
vived show that he was a great literary artist as well as a great
poet. His feats of rhyming, in particular in a tongue so little fitted
for it as is ours, can be seen in his unfinished poem of 'Queen
Anelida and False Arcite,' in the 'Complaint to Venus,' and in the
envoy which follows the Clerk's Tale. In this last piece, though
there are thirty-six lines, the rhymes are only three; and two of
these belong to fifteen lines respectively.
But far more important than such attempts, which prove interest
in versification rather than great poetic achievement, are the two
measures which he introduced into our tongue. The first was the
seven-line stanza. The rhyming lines in it are respectively the first
and third; the second, fourth, and fifth; and the sixth and seventh.
At a later period this was frequently called "rhyme royal," because
the Kingis Quair' was written in it. For fully two centuries it was
one of the most popular measures in English poetry. Since the six-
teenth century, however, it has been but little employed. Far dif-
ferent has been the fate of the line of ten syllables, or rather of five
accents. On account of its frequent use in the 'Canterbury Tales' it
## p. 3561 (#543) ###########################################
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
3561
was called for a long period "riding rhyme"; but it now bears the
title of "heroic verse. " As employed by Chaucer it varies in slight
particulars from the way it is now generally used. With him the
couplet character was never made prominent. The sense was not apt
to end at the second line, but constantly tended to run over into the
line following. There was also frequently with him an unaccented
eleventh syllable; and this, though not unknown to modern verse, is
not common. Still, the difference between the early and the later
form are mere differences of detail, and of comparatively unimpor-
tant detail. The introduction of this measure into English may be
considered Chaucer's greatest achievement in the matter of versifi-
cation. The heroic verse may have existed in the tongue before he
himself used it. If so, it lurked unseen and uninfluential.
He was
the first to employ it on a grand scale, if not to employ it at all,
and to develop its capabilities. Much the largest proportion of his
greatest work is written in that measure. Yet in spite of his exam-
ple, it found for two centuries comparatively few imitators.
It was
not till the end of the sixteenth century that the measure started on
a new course of life, and entered upon the great part it has since
played in English versification.
The most important of what are sometimes called the minor
works of Chaucer are the 'Parliament of Fowls,' the 'House of
Fame,' 'Troilus and Cressida,' and the 'Legend of Good Women. '
These are all favorable examples of his genius. But however good
they may be in particular portions and in particular respects, in gen-
eral excellence they yield place unquestionably to the Canterbury
Tales. ' It seems to have been very clearly the intention of the poet
to embody in this crowning achievement of his literary life every-
thing in the shape of a story he had already composed or was pur-
posing to compose. Two of the pieces, the love of Palamon and
Arcite and the Life of St. Cecilia, as we know from the words of
his already quoted, had appeared long before. The plan of the work
itself was most happily conceived; and in spite of most painstaking
efforts to find an original for it or suggestion of it somewhere else,
there seems no sufficient reason for doubting that the poet himself
was equal to the task of having devised it. No one certainly can
question the felicity with which the framework for embodying the
tales was constructed. All ranks and classes of society are brought
together in the company of pilgrims who assemble at the Tabard
Inn at Southwark to ride to the shrine of the saint at Canterbury.
The military class is represented By the Knight, belonging to the
highest order of the nobility, his son the Squire, and his retainer the
Yeoman; the church by the Abbot, the Friar, the Parson, the Pri-
oress with her attendant Nun, and the three accompanying Priests,
## p. 3562 (#544) ###########################################
3562
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
and less distinctly by the Scholar, the Clerk of Oxford, and by the
Pardoner and the Summoner. For the other professions are the
Doctor of Physic and the Serjeant of Law; for the middle-class land-
holders the Franklin; and for the various crafts and occupations the
Haberdasher, the Carpenter, the Weaver, the Dyer, the Upholsterer,
the Cook, the Ploughman, the Sailor, the Reeve, the Manciple, and
(joining the party in the course of the pilgrimage) the assistant of
the alchemist, who is called the Canon's Yeoman. Into the mouths
of these various personages were to be put tales befitting their char-
acter and condition. Consequently there was ample space for stories
of chivalry, of religion, of love, of magic, and in truth of every
aspect of social life in all its highest and lowest manifestations.
Between the tales themselves were connecting links, in which the
poet had the opportunity to give an account of the incidents that
took place on the pilgrimage, the critical opinions expressed by the
hearers of what had been told, and the disputes and quarrels that
went on between the various members of the party. So far as this
portion of his plan was finished, these connecting links furnish some
of the most striking passages in the work. In one of them - the
prologue to the Wife of Bath's Tale- the genius of the poet reaches
along certain lines its highest development; while the general pro-
logue describing the various personages of the party, though not
containing the highest poetry of the work as poetry, is the most
acute, discriminating, and brilliant picture of men and manners that
can be found in our literature.
Such was the plan of the work. It was laid out on an extensive
scale, perhaps on too extensive a scale ever to have been completed.
Certain it is that it was very far from ever reaching even remotely
that result. According to the scheme set forth in the prologue, the
work when finished should have included over one hundred and
twenty tales. It actually comprises but twenty-four. Even of these,
two are incomplete: the Cook's Tale, which is little more than begun,
and the romantic Eastern tale of the Squire, which, in Milton's words,
is "left half told. " To those that are finished, the connecting links
have not been supplied in many cases. Accordingly the work exists
not as a perfect whole, but in eight or nine fragmentary parts, each
complete in itself, but lacking a close connection with the others,
though all are bound together by the unity of a common central
interest. The value of what has been done makes doubly keen the
regret that so much has been left undone. Politics, religion, litera-
ture, manners, are all touched upon in this wide-embracing view,
which still never misses what is really essential; and added to this
is a skill of portrayal by which the actors, whether narrating the
tales themselves, or themselves forming the heroes of the narration,
## p. 3563 (#545) ###########################################
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
3563
fairly live and breathe before our eyes. Had the work been com-
pleted on the scale upon which it was begun, we should have had a
picture of life and opinion in the fourteenth century more vivid and
exact than has been drawn of any century before or since.
The selections given are partly of extracts and partly of complete
pieces. To the former class belong the lines taken from the opening
of the 'Canterbury Tales,' with the description of a few of the char-
acters; the description of the temples of Mars, of Venus, and of Diana
in the Knight's Tale; and the account of the disappearance of the
fairies at the opening of the Wife of Bath's Tale. The complete
pieces are the tales of the Pardoner, and of the Nun's Priest. From
the first, however, has been dropped the discourse on drunkenness,
profanity, and gambling, which, though in keeping with the character
of the narrator, has no connection with the development of the
story. The second, the tale of the Nun's Priest, was modernized by
Dryden under the title of the Cock and the Fox. ' All of these are
in heroic verse. The final selection is the ballade now usually enti-
tled 'Truth. In it the peculiar ballade construction can be studied—
that is, the formation in three stanzas, either with or without an
envoy; the same rhymes running through the three stanzas; and the
final line of each stanza precisely the same. One of Chaucer's reli-
gious poems-the so-called 'A B C can be found under Deguile-
ville, from whose Pèlerinage la de Vie Humaine' it is translated.
Chaucer's style, like that of all great early writers, is marked by
perfect simplicity, and his language is therefore comparatively easy
to understand. In the extracts here given the spelling has been
modernized, save occasionally at the end of the line, when the
rhyme has required the retention of an earlier form.
The words
themselves and grammatical forms have of course undergone no
change. There are two marks used to indicate the pronunciation:
first, the acute accent to indicate that a heavier stress than ordinary
is to be placed on the syllable over which it stands; and secondly,
the grave accent to indicate that the letter or syllable over which it
appears, though silent in modern pronunciation, was then sounded.
Thus landès, grovès, friendès, knavès, would have the final syllable
sounded; and in a similar way timè, Romè, and others ending in e, when
the next word begins with a vowel or h mute. The acute accent can
be exemplified in words like courage, reasón, honour, translated, where
the accent would show that the final syllable would either receive the
main stress or a heavier stress than is now given it. Again, a word
like cre-a-ture consists, in the pronunciation here given, of three sylla-
bles and not of two, and is accordingly represented by a grave accent
over the a to signify that this vowel forms a separate syllable, and
by the acute accent over the ture to indicate that this final syllable
## p. 3564 (#546) ###########################################
3564
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
should receive more weight of pronunciation than usual. It accord-
ingly appears as creàtúre. In a similar way con-dit-i-on would be a
word of four syllables, and its pronunciation would be indicated by
this method condition. It is never to be forgotten that Chaucer had
no superior in the English tongue as a master of melody; and if a
verse of his sounds inharmonious, it is either because the line is
rupt or because the reader has not succeeded in pronouncing it
rectly.
cor-
cor-
the
con-
The explanation of obsolete words or meanings is given in
foot-notes. In addition to these the following variations from mod-
ern English that occur constantly, and are therefore not defined,
should be noted. Hir and hem stand for their' and 'them. ' The
affix y is frequently prefixed to the past participle, which itself
sometimes omits the final en or -n, as 'ydrawe,' 'yshake. ' The im-
perative plural ends in -th, as 'dreadeth. ' The general negative ne
is sometimes to be defined by 'not,' sometimes by 'nor'; and
nected with forms of the verb 'be' gives us nis, 'is not'; nas, was
not. ' As is often an expletive, and cannot be rendered at all;
that
before 'one' and 'other' is usually the definite article; there is fre
quently to be rendered by 'where'; mo always means 'more'; thilke
means that' or 'that sam
ame'; del is 'deal' in the sense of bit,'
'whit'; and the comparatives of 'long' and 'strong' are lenger and
strenger. Finally it should be borne in mind that the double nega
tive invariably strengthens the negation.
<
Thomas R. Lounsbury
1 Sweet.
PROLOGUE TO THE CANTERBURY TALES›
HEN that Aprílè with his showers swoot¹
WHEN
The drought of March hath pierced to the root,
And bathed every vein in such liqoúr
Of which virtue engendered is the flower;
When Zephyrús eke with his sweetè breath
Inspirèd hath in every holt and heath
The tender croppès, and the youngè sun
Hath in the Ram his halfè course yrun,
And smallè fowlès maken melody,
That sleepen all the night with open eye,
So pricketh hem natúre in hir couráges2-
Then longen folk to go on pilgrimages,
2 Hearts.
-
-
## p. 3565 (#547) ###########################################
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
3565
·
And palmers for to seeken strangè strands,
To fernè hallows' couth in sundry lands;
And specially, from every shirès end
Of Engeland, to Canterbury they wend,
The holy blissful martyr for to seek,
That hem hath holpen when that they were sick.
Befell that in that season on a day,
In Southwark at the Tabard³ as I lay,
Ready to wenden on my pilgrimáge
To Canterbury with full devout courage,
At night were come into that hostelry
Well nine and twenty in a company
Of sundry folk, by áventúre yfalle
In fellowship, and pilgrims were they all,
That toward Canterbury woulden ride.
The chambers and the stables weren wide,
And well we weren easèd' at the best.
And shortly, when the sunnè was to rest,
So had I spoken with hem evereach-one,"
That I was of hir fellowship anon,
And madè forward' early for to rise
To take our way there-as I you devise. Ⓡ
But nathèless, while I have time and space,
Ere that I further in this talè pace,
Me thinketh it accordant to reasón,
To tellen you all the conditión
Of each of hem, so as it seemed me,
And which they weren, and of what degree,
And eke in what array that they were in:
And at a knight then will I first begin.
THE KNIGHT
A KNIGHT there was, and that a worthy⁹ man,
That 10 from the timè that he first began
To riden out, he ¹ lovèd chivalry,
Truth and honoúr, freedom" and courtesy.
Full worthy was he in his Lordès war,
And thereto had he ridden, no man farre, 12
1 Distant saints.
2 Known.
'Tabard: sign of the inn at Southwark.
• Accident.
5 Accommodated.
"Every one.
'Agreement.
8 Tell.
'Of high rank.
10 That-he=who.
11 Liberality.
12 Farther.
## p. 3566 (#548) ###########################################
3566
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
As well in Christendom as in Heatheness,,
And ever honoured for his worthiness.
At Alexandr' he was when it was won;
Full oftè time he had the board begun¹
Aboven allè natìóns in Prusse;
In Lettowe had he reyséd³ and in Russe,
No Christian man so oft of his degree;
In Gernade at the siegè had he be
Of Algezir, and ridden in Belmarié.
At Lieys' was he, and at Satalié,
When they were won; and in the Greatè Sea'
At many a noble army 10 had he be.
At mortal battles had he been fifteen,
And foughten for our faith at Tramassene ¹¹
In listès thriès, and aye slain his foe.
This ilkè" worthy knight had been also
Sometimè with the lord of Palatié, 13
Again another heathen in Turkéy:
And evermore he had a sovereign pris. ¹
15
And though that he were worthy 5 he was wise,
And of his port as meek as is a maid.
He never yet no villainy 16 ne said
In all his life unto no manner wight. "
He was a very perfect gentle knight.
But for to tellen you of his array,
His horse were good, but he ne was not gay
Of fustìán he wearèd a gipon, 19
All besmuterèd 20 with his habergeón,
For he was late ycome from his viáge,"1
And wentè for to do his pilgrimage.
1 Sat at the head of the table.
2 Lithuania.
3 Traveled.
'Grenada.
5 Algeciras.
"Moorish Kingdom of Africa.
'Lieys: in Armenia.
8 Satalie: ancient Attalia.
"Mediterranean.
10 Armed expedition.
11 Tramassene: a kingdom in Africa.
12 Same.
13 Palatie: Palatine in Anatolia.
14 Estimation.
15 Of high rank.
16 Anything discourteous.
17 No sort of person.
18 Richly dressed.
19 Cassock.
20 Soiled.
21 Journey.
## p. 3567 (#549) ###########################################
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
3567
'Called.
2 Intoned.
3 Properly.
* Pleasure.
5 Bit.
THE PRIORESS
There was also a Nun, a PRIORESS,
That of her smiling was full simple and coy;
Her greatest oath was but by Sáìnt Loy;
And she was clepèd¹ Madame Eglentine.
Full well she sang the servicè divine,
Entunéd in her nose full seemély;
And French she spake full fair and fetisly
After the school of Stratford-at-the-Bow,
For French of Paris vas to her unknowe.
At meatè well ytaught was she withal;
She let no morsel from her lippès fall,
Ne wet her fingers in her saucè deep.
Well could she carry a morsel, and well keep,
That no dropè ne fell upon her breast.
In courtesy was set full much her lest. "
16 Smartly.
Her over-lippè wipèd she so clean,
9
That in her cup there was no farthing³ seen
Of grease, when she drunken had her draught;
Full seemély after her meat she raught:
And sickerly' she was of great disport,
And full pleasant and amiable of port,
And painèd her to counterfeiten cheer
Of court, and to be stately of manére,
And to be holden digne 10 of reverénce.
But for to speaken of her conscience,"
She was so charitable and so pitoús,
She wouldè weep if that she saw a mouse
Caught in a trap, if it were dead or bled;
Of smallè houndès had she, that she fed
With roasted flesh, or milk and wastel-bread ¹²;
But sore wept sh' if one of hem were dead, 13
Or if men smote it with a yardè smarte 16:
And all was consciénce and tender heart.
Full seemély her wimple" pinchèd 18 was;
Her nosè tretys, her eyen gray as glass,
Her mouth full small and thereto soft and red;
But sickerly 19 she had a fair forehéad;
14
6 Reached.
7 Certainly.
8 Took pains.
9 Imitate.
10 Worthy.
17 Covering for the neck.
3
18 Plaited.
11 Tender-heartedness.
12 Bread of the, finest flour.
13 Died.
14 One.
15 Staff.
19 Certainly.
## p. 3568 (#550) ###########################################
3568
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
1
It was almost a spannè broad, I trow,
For hardily she was not undergrowe. 2
Full fetis was her cloak, as I was ware.
Of small corál about her arm she bare
3
A pair of beadès gauded all with green";
And thereon hung a brooch of gold full sheen,
On which ther was first writ a crownèd A,
And after, Amor vincit omnia.
Another Nunnè with her haddè she,
That was her chapèlain, and Priestès three.
THE FRIAR
A FRERE there was, a wanton and a merry,
A limitoúr, a full solemnè man.
In all the orders four is none that can'
So much of dalliance and fair language.
He haddè made full many a marrìáge
Of youngè women at his owen cost.
Unto his order he was a noble post;
Full well beloved and fámiliár was he
With franklins over-all 10 in his country,
And eke with worthy" women of the town:
For he had power of confessión,
As saidè hímself, more than a curáte,
For of his order he was licentiáte.
Full sweetèly heard he confessión,
And pleasant was his absolutión.
He was an easy man to give penance,
There-as he wist to have a good pittánce;
For unto a poor order for to give
¹ Certainly.
2 Undergrown.
3 Neat.
13
Is signè that a man is well yshrive;
For if he gave, he durstè make avaunt, 1s
He wistè that a man was répentánt.
For many a man so hard is of his heart,
He may not weep although him sorè smart;
Therefore instead of weeping and prayérs,
Men mote give silver to the poorè freres.
'String.
Having the gaudies, or large beads,
green.
"Private secretary.
'Licensed to beg within certain limits.
8 Festive.
9 Knows.
10 Everywhere.
11 Of high position.
12 Where he knew he should have.
13 Boast.
## p. 3569 (#551) ###########################################
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
3569
1 Stuffed.
2 A stringed instrument.
3 Songs.
* Estimation.
5 Innkeeper.
His tippet was aye farsèd¹ full of knives
And pinnès, for to given fairè wives;
And certainly he had a merry note:
Well could he sing and playen on a rote2;
Of yeddings he bare utterly the pris. '
His neckè white was as the fleur-de-lis.
Thereto he strong was as a champión.
He knew the taverns well in every town,
And every hostèlér³ and tapèstér,
Bet than a lazár or a beggestér¹;
For unto such a worthy man as he
Accorded nought, as by his faculty,
To have with sickè lazárs ácquaintance;
It is not honest, it may not advance
For to dealen with no such poraille,"
But all with rich and sellers of vitaille. 10
And o'er-all," there-as profit should arise,
Courteous he was and lowly of service.
There nas no man nowhere so virtuous 12;
He was the bestè beggar in his house:
[And gave a certain farmè 3 for the grant,
None of his brethren came there in his haunt. ]
13
For though a widow haddè not a shoe,
So pleasant was his In principio,"
Yet would he have a farthing ere he went;
His purchase 5 was well better than his rent.
And rage" he could as it were right a whelp:
In lovèdays there could he muchel help;
For there he was not like a cloisterér
With a threadbare cope, as is a poor scholér;
But he was like a master or a pope.
Of double worsted was his semicope, "
That rounded as a bell out of the press.
Somewhat he lispèd for his wantonness,
19
6 Leper.
¡ Beggar.
8 Poor people.
" Givers.
10 Victuals.
11
Everywhere.
12 Efficient.
13 Rent.
16
¹¹ In principio: In the beginning — the
friar's salutation.
15 Proceeds from begging.
16 Income.
17 Toy wantonly.
18
Days for settling differences.
19 Short cape
VI-224
## p. 3570 (#552) ###########################################
3570
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
To make his English sweet upon his tongue;
And in his harping, when that he had sung,
His eyen twinkled in his head aright,
As do the starrès in the frosty night.
This worthy limitour was cleped' Hubérd.
THE CLERK OF OXFORD
A CLERK there was of Oxenford' also,
That unto logic haddè long ygo. ³
As leanè was his horse as is a rake,
And he was not right fat, I undertake,*
But looked hollow, and thereto soberly.
Full threadbare was his overest courtepy,"
For he had geten him yet no benefice,
Ne was so worldly for to have office.
For him was liefer have at his bed's head
Twenty bookès clad in black or red,
Of Aristotle, and his philosophy,
7
Than robes rich, or fiddle, or gay psaltery.
But albe that he was a philosopher,
Yet hadde he but little gold in coffer,
But all that he might of his friendès hent,"
On bookes and his learning he it spent,
And busily 10 gan for the soulés pray
Of hem, that gave him wherewith to scolay";
Of study took he most cure and most heed.
Not one word spake he more than was need;
And that was said in form and reverence,
And short and quick, and full of high sentence. "
Sounding in moral virtue was his speech,
And gladly would he learn and gladly teach.
1 Called.
2 Oxford.
3 Gone.
4 Venture to say.
5 Uppermost.
Short cloak.
Gotten.
8 Rather.
9 Get.
10 Earnestly.
11 To attend school.
12 Matter.
## p. 3571 (#553) ###########################################
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
3571
THE LAWYER
A SERGEANT OF THE LAWÈ, ware and wise,
That often had ybeen at the Parvys,¹
There was also, full rich of excellence.
Discreet he was and of great reverence;
He seemed such, his wordès were so wise;
Justice he was full often in assize,
By patent and by plein commissión.
For his science, and for his high renown,
Of fees and robès had he many one;
So great a purchaser³ was nowhere none;
All was fee simple to him in effect,
His purchasing mightè not be infect. "
Nowhere so busy a man as he there nas,
And yet he seemèd busier than he was.
In termès had he case and doomès all,
That from the time of King William were fall.
Thereto he could indite, and make a thing,
There couldè no wight pinch at his writing;
And every statute could' he pleins by rote.
He rode but homely in a medley' coat,
Girt with a ceint 10 of silk, with barrès smale";
Of his array tell I no lenger tale.
THE SHIPMAN
13
A SHIPMAN was there, woning 12 far by West:
For aught I wot, he was of Dartèmouth.
He rode upon a rouncy,' as he couth,"
In a gown of falding 15 to the knee.
A dagger hanging on a lace had he
About his neck under his arm adown;
The hotè summer had made his hue all brown;
And certainly he was a good felláw.
Full many a draught of wine had he ydrawe
1
¹ Parvys: the portico of St. Paul's, fre-
quented by lawyers for consultation.
2 Full.
Acquirer of property.
Tainted by illegality.
5 Cases and decisions.
Find a flaw.
7 Knew.
8 Fully.
Mixed in color.
10 Girdle.
11 Small.
12 Dwelling.
13 Hack.
14 Could.
15 Coarse cloth.
I
1
1
## p. 3572 (#554) ###########################################
3572
GEOFFREY CHAUCER
'Supercargo.
