Usually, only high-ranking government officials enjoyed protection from lictors, so the fact that they also accompanied Vestal Virgins in public is another example of the esteem and respect
accorded
to the Vestals.
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The first in wars and peace, he rose by wars, which closed in triumphs, and by civic deeds to glory quickly won, and even more his offspring's love exalted him as a new, a heavenly, sign and brightly flam- ing star.
Of all the achievements of great Julius Caesar not one is more ennobling
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to his fame than being father of his glorious son. Was it more glorious for him to subdue the Britons . . . or lead his fleet victorious[ly in Egypt] . . . to have some triumphs and deserve far more, than to be the father of so great a man, with whom as ruler of the human race, O gods, you bless us past all reckoning?
And [to prevent that son from being considered a mere mortal], Julius Caesar must change and be a god. [Next, the goddess Venus appears; she fears that Caesar, a descendant of her son Aeneas, the long-ago founder of the Roman race, might fall victim to an assassination plot, and so she appeals to all the gods to prevent such a tragedy. The gods are sympathetic but helpless, because even they are not strong enough to alter the dictates of fate. The king of the gods, Jupiter, reassures her that Caesar's adopted son Augustus will avenge the inevitable assassination and usher in a Golden Age in Rome. Jupiter speaks]: "With peace established over all the lands, he then will turn his mind to civil rule and as a prudent legislator will enact wise laws. And he will regulate the manners of his people by his own example. Looking forward to the days of future time and of posterity, he will command the offspring born of his devoted wife, to assume the imperial name and the burden of his cares. Nor till his age shall equal Nestor's years will he ascend to heavenly dwellings and his kindred stars. Meanwhile transform the soul [i. e. , of Julius Caesar], which shall be reft from this doomed body, to a starry light, that always god-like Julius may look down in future from his heavenly residence upon our Forum and our Capitol. "
Jupiter had hardly pronounced these words, when kindly Venus, although seen by none, stood in the middle of the Senate-house, and caught from the dying limbs and trunk of her own Caesar his departing soul. She did not give it time so that it could dissolve in air,
but bore it quickly up, toward all the stars of heaven; and on the way, she saw it gleam and blaze and set it free. Above the moon it mounted into heaven, leaving behind a long and fiery trail, and as a star it glittered in the sky. There, wondering at the younger Caesar's [i. e. , Augustus's] deeds, Julius confessed that they were superior to all of his, and he rejoiced because his son was greater even than himself. [Tr. Brookes Otis. Ovid: Metamorphoses 15. http://www. theoi. com/Text/OvidMetamorphoses15. html]
AFTERMATH
"If the pronouncements of prophets contain any truth, I will live on in fame, throughout all the future generations. " These are the final words of Ovid's Metamorphoses, and they reflect
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? glorious son: Julius Caesar had no bio- logical sons. The "glorious son" ref- erenced here is his son by adoption, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, better known as Octavian and later as Augustus.
Nestor's years: Nestor was the prover- bially old chieftain who accompa- nied the Greeks to Troy during the Trojan War.
offspring born: Augustus and his wife Livia did not have any surviving sons, so Augustus was succeeded by his stepson Tiberius, Livia's son by a previous marriage. The phrase "offspring born" refers to Tiberius.
peace established: Augustus was widely credited with founding the Pax Romana, "Roman peace," a long period of relative tranquility after the bloody and destructive civil wars of the 40s and 30s BCE.
wise laws: As emperor, Augustus intro- duced many legal, political, mili- tary, and social reforms into Roman life. A full description of these enactments can be found in the Life of Deified Augustus, writ- ten by the Roman biographer Suetonius (ca. 70-140 CE), espe- cially in Chapters 29 through 56.
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the notion shared by many Greek and Roman authors that their written works would last forever. In Ovid's case, at least, that prophecy still rings true.
ASK YOURSELF
1. What does Ovid mean by the phrase "he [Julius Caesar] rose by wars"?
2. What reason or justification does Ovid give for the deification of Julius Caesar?
3. The general theme of Ovid's Metamorphoses involves the concept of change, or
transformation. How does the deification of Caesar fit into this theme? Into what was he transformed?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e Lucius Annaeus Seneca (sometimes called the "Younger Seneca," 4 BCE- 65 CE) is generally thought to be the author of a parody of the deification process of emperors. Its title: Apocolocyntosis, a play on the for- mal word for deification--apotheosis--and roughly translated as "Pumpkinification. " Read Seneca's Apocolocyntosis (it is very short! ). What elements of satire and parody do you notice in it? Which Roman emperor's apotheosis is Seneca mocking? Are there any similarities between Seneca's satire and Ovid's account of Caesar's apotheosis? (A translation of the Apocolocyntosis may be found at http://ancienthistory . about. com/library/bl/bl_text_seneca_apocol. htm. )
e In our culture we seldom, if ever, hear of families adopting full-grown adults as their sons or daughters. Why do you suppose the ancient Romans did this? What would be the advantages?
e Several of the first-century CE Roman emperors were deified, including Augustus, Claudius, Vespasian, and Titus. Many subsequent emperors also received this honor. Still others demanded to be worshipped as gods while they lived but were never formally granted deification after their deaths. Research this issue. What seem to be the prime requirements for deifica- tion? What are the procedures involved in declaring an emperor a god? Can you think of any modern societies or nations in which the leader is regarded as a god, or almost a god?
e Inthedocumentexcerpt,Ovidclearlywritesaveryfavorable,evenflatter- ing, account of Augustus and his deeds. Yet early in the first century CE, Augustus decreed that Ovid be exiled from Rome for life. The poet was sent to live in the region of the Black Sea, a wild, uncultured place and an extremely hostile environment for a man of Ovid's sophistication and elegance. Although he begged on a number of occasions to be allowed to return to Rome, Augustus never relented. Find out why Augustus appa- rently decided that Ovid should receive such a terrifying punishment. (The true reason is uncertain, but it is quite easy to draw conclusions. ) Are there similar, modern examples of authors being forced to leave their homes and go into exile or hiding because of something they had written?
e Read over the sections of Suetonius's biography of Augustus referenced above. Do you agree with Ovid's assessment that he was a "prudent legisla- tor" who "enact[ed] wise laws"?
Julius Caesar Becomes a God
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Further Information
Boyle, A. J. and J. P. Sullivan (eds. ). Roman Poets of the Early Empire. London, 1991. Frankel, Herman. Ovid: A Poet between Two Worlds. Berkeley, CA, 1945.
Galinsky, G. K. Ovid's Metamorphoses: An Introduction to the Basic Aspects. Berkeley and
Los Angeles, 1975.
Otis, Brooks. Ovid as an Epic Poet. Cambridge, 1996.
Website
Extensive bibliography for Ovid: http://uts. cc. utexas. edu/~silver/Ovid/ovid-biblio. html
Bibliography for Document
Humphries, Rolfe (tr. ). Ovid: Metamorphoses. Bloomington, IN, 1955. http://www. theoi. com/Text/OvidMetamorphoses15. html
37. JOB DESCRIPTION FOR A VESTAL VIRGIN
INTRODUCTION
In its earliest days, Rome was ruled by a series of seven kings. The second of these was Numa Pompilius (traditional dates of his reign: 714-671 BCE). The document is excerpted from Plutarch's biography of Numa.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. At least some of the early Roman kings were considered semilegendary, but Numa seems to be fairly well attested. He is credited with a number of religious reforms and innovations, including the establishment of various cult of priests and priest- esses, religious rites, and the construction of temples.
2. One of the best known of the priestly cults that Numa reputedly founded was actually a cult of priestesses: the Vestal Virgins. Their job was to tend the temple of Vesta, the Roman goddess of home and hearth. There were six Vestals, each of whom was expected to serve a term of 30 years.
Document: A Vestal's Duties
To Numa is . . . ascribed the institution of that order of high priests who are called Pontifices, and he himself is said to have been the first of them . . . [Plutarch next embarks upon an interesting discussion of the etymology of the word Pontifices (sg. Pontifex). The word might be derived from the Latin word potens ("powerful"), given that these priests were serving powerful gods. Another explanation, which Plutarch considered spurious, is that it came from a combination of the Latin words pons ("bridge") and facere ("to build"), a "bridge-builder. " The pontifices numbered among their duties the performing of religious sacrifices at bridges over the Tiber River, and beyond that, they were also responsible for the maintenance of bridges. ]
The chief of the Pontifices, the Pontifex Maximus, had the duty of expounding and interpreting the divine will, or rather of directing sacred rites,
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not only being in charge of public ceremonies, but also watching over private sacrifices and preventing any depar- ture from established custom, as well as teaching whatever was requisite for the worship or propitiation of the gods. He was also overseer of the holy virgins called Vestals; for to Numa is ascribed the consecration of the Vestal Virgins, and in general the worship and care of the perpet- ual fire entrusted to their charge. It was either because he thought the nature of fire pure and uncorrupted, and there- fore entrusted it to chaste and undefiled persons, or because he thought of it as unfruitful and barren, and therefore associated it with virginity . . .
In the beginning, then, they say that Gegania and Verenia were consecrated to this office by Numa, who sub- sequently added to them Canuleia and Tarpeia; that at a later time two were added by Servius, making the number [six] which has continued to the present time. It was ordained by the king that the sacred virgins should vow themselves to chastity for thirty years; during the first de- cade they are to learn their duties, during the second to per- form the duties they have learned, and during the third to
teach others these duties. Then, the thirty years being now passed, any one [of the priestesses] who wishes has the liberty to marry and adopt a different mode of life, after laying down her sacred office. We are told, however, that few have welcomed the indulgence, and that those who did so were not happy, but were a prey to repentance and dejection for the rest of their lives, thereby inspiring the rest with superstitious fears, so that until old age and death they remained steadfast in their virginity.
But Numa bestowed great privileges upon them, such as the right to make a will during the lifetime of their fathers, and to transact and manage their other affairs . . . When they appear in public, the fasces are carried before them, and if they accidentally meet a criminal on his way to execution, his life is spared; but the virgin must make oath that the meeting was involuntary and fortuitous, and not of design. He who passes under the litter on which they are borne is put to death. For their minor offenses, the virgins are punished with stripes, the Pontifex Maximus [chief priest, as mentioned above] sometimes scourging the culprit on her bare flesh, in a dark place, with a curtain interposed. But she that has broken her vow of chastity is buried alive . . . [Tr. Bernadotte Perrin. Plutarch's Lives. Life of Numa (9, 10). Volume I. LCL, 1914. Page numbers: 337, 339, 341, 343. ]
AFTERMATH
Numa's long reign was characterized by an extended period of peace; Plutarch writes that "there is no record either of war, or faction, or political revolution while Numa was king. " There was a temple in Rome dedicated to the two-faced Roman god Janus. This temple had double doors, and when these doors were open, it signified that the Romans were at war; when closed, that peace was upon the land. (The open doors indicated that the god
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? fasces: The fasces carried by security officers called lictors. The fasces were rods bound together by leather straps, a symbol of Roman authority and power.
Usually, only high-ranking government officials enjoyed protection from lictors, so the fact that they also accompanied Vestal Virgins in public is another example of the esteem and respect accorded to the Vestals.
right to make a will: The right to make a will was generally reserved for the paterfamilias, the father of the family.
Servius: Rome's sixth king (full name: Servius Tullius), who reigned ca. 579-535 BCE.
? ? ? ? ? 194
had left his temple and the city, with the Roman army, to assist it in upcoming battles; the closed doors symbolized the opposite, that no wars were being fought. ) Plutarch reports that from the beginnings of Rome, down to his own lifetime (a period of some 800 years), the temple doors had been shut only three times: once in 235 BCE, shortly after the end of the First Punic War; again after Augustus had defeated the forces of Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium in 30 BCE; and for a third time during the reign of Numa, when the doors were closed not for a brief period of time, but for the entirety of his reign.
ASK YOURSELF
1. What were the chief duties of the pontifices?
2. What privileges did the Vestal Virgins enjoy? What were they supposed to learn
during each 3 of the 10-year increments of their terms as Vestals?
3. What punishment was prescribed for a Vestal Virgin who broke her vow of chastity?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e Plutarch generally wrote biographies in pairs--a famous Roman matched with a famous Greek. (Hence, the title Parallel Lives is sometimes given to his biographies. ) His prime criteria for selecting the two individuals to be paired in this way were the similarities that each displayed. The Greek leader with whom Plutarch linked Numa was the Spartan king Lycurgus. Research the life of Lycurgus, and determine the commonalities between
Job Description for a Vestal Virgin
? ? ? ? SAVED BY THE VESTALS
Plutarch writes that, should a Vestal Virgin have a chance encounter with a condemned criminal on his way to execution, the criminal's life would automatically be spared. Apparently, the Vestals' power to induce pardons went beyond the realm of mere chance. In his Life of Julius Caesar, the biographer Suetonius notes that when Caesar was a young man, he married a lady named Cornelia. This Cornelia hailed from a family who was at odds with the Roman dictator Sulla; Sulla pressured Caesar to divorce his new wife, but Caesar refused to com- ply. Accordingly, Caesar's name was placed on a hit list, with the result that he had to flee for his life. However, the Vestal Virgins, as well as some of Caesar's political allies, intervened on his behalf and prevailed upon Sulla to remove his name from the list. Sulla reluctantly did so.
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? WANTED: APPLICANTS FOR THE POSITION OF VESTAL VIRGIN
Would-be Vestal Virgins were required to fulfill some fairly unique and stringent requirements, as the essayist Aulus Gellius explains: "[I]t is unlawful for a girl to be chosen who is less than six, or more than ten years old; she must also have both father and mother living. She must be free too from any impediment in her speech, must not have impaired hearing, or be marked by any other bodily defect. She must not herself be freed from paternal control . . . [N]either one nor both of her parents may have been slaves or engaged in mean occupations . . . [T]he daughter of a man without residence in Italy must not be chosen. " Aulus Gellius. Attic Nights 1. 12; tr. Rolfe. ]
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him and Numa that likely led to Plutarch's decision to pair the two of
them.
e Which of the two derivations of the word pontifex (potens, "powerful," or
pons/facere, "bridge-builder") seems more logical? Why do you suppose
Plutarch judged the second explanation to be ridiculously erroneous?
e Plutarch does not specify the kinds of duties the Vestal priestesses were required to perform. Find out what these duties were. Why did it take
the priestesses 10 years to learn these duties?
e Plutarch writes that few Vestal Virgins married after their 30-year term of
service was completed, even though it would have been permissible for them to do so. Why do you suppose most of them did not marry?
Further Information
Scheid, John. An Introduction to Roman Religion, translated by Janet Lloyd. Bloomington, IN, 2003.
Staples, Ariadne. From Good Goddess to Vestal Virgins: Sex and Category in Roman Religion. London, 1998.
Worsfold, T. Cato. History of the Vestal Virgins of Rome. Plymouth, UK, 1934. Websites
Six Vestal Virgins. http://ancienthistory. about. com/cs/rome/a/aa1114001. htm Vestal Virgins. http://www. unrv. com/culture/vestal-virgins. php
Bibliography for Document
Perrin, Bernadotte (tr. ). Plutarch's Lives. Volume I. [LCL. ] London and Cambridge, 1914. Rolfe, John C. (tr. ). The Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius. Volume I. [LCL. ] Cambridge and
London, 1927.
SAFETY
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38. A CASE OF ASSAULT AND BATTERY
INTRODUCTION
The public career of ancient Athens' most famous lawyer and orator, Demosthenes (384-322 BCE), spanned over 40 years. Some 58 extant orations are credited to his name, although contemporary scholars consider several of these to have been produced by other speakers of the time. The speech Against Conon, however, is deemed to be genuine Demosthenes.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. Demosthenes's speeches and court cases can be conveniently divided into three cat- egories: private speeches, involving matters such as inheritances, wills, debt pay- ments, perjury, and assaults; semipublic speeches, argued on behalf of citizens directly involved in public affairs or public policy issues; and public speeches, in which orations are delivered to gatherings of citizens, on topics such as national security, military matters, and treaties. Against Conon clearly belongs in the first cat- egory, private speeches.
2. Two years before, while stationed at a military fort (Panactum) north of Athens, the young plaintiff, Ariston, had been viciously assaulted by the sons of a man named Conon; Demosthenes describes the attack in graphic detail. Then, when all of them had subsequently returned to Athens--with bad blood still apparently lingering-- Ariston was assaulted again, by the same group of muggers, this time aided by several friends and even Conon himself.
3. Note that Demosthenes speaks in the voice of his client, Ariston.
Document: Demosthenes for the Prosecution
With gross outrage have I met . . . at the hands of the defendant, Conon, and have suffered such bodily injury that for a very long time neither my relatives nor any of the attending physicians thought that I should survive. Contrary to expectation, however, I did recover and regain my strength, and then I brought
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against him this action for the assault. All my friends and relatives, whose advice I asked, declared that for what he had done the defendant was liable to summary seizure as a highwayman or to public indictments for criminal out- rage. But they urged and advised me not to take upon myself matters which I should not be able to carry, or to appear to be bringing suit for the maltreatment I had received in a manner too ambitious for one so young. I took this course, therefore, and, in deference to their advice, have instituted a private suit. [Demosthenes next implores the jury to listen with open minds to his descrip- tion of Ariston's sufferings, and to his appeal for justice to be served. He then explains that Ariston had journeyed to Panactum, and that Conon's sons, who spent most of their afternoon and evening in their customary over- consumption of alcohol, had camped nearby. ]
Well, at whatever time the others might be having their dinner, these men [i. e. , Conon's sons] were already drunk and abusive, at first toward our . . . slaves, but in the end toward ourselves. For, alleging that the slaves annoyed them with smoke while getting dinner, or [inap- propriately taunted them], or whatever else they pleased, they used to beat them . . . [T]here was nothing in the way of brutality and outrage in which they did not indulge. When we saw this, we were annoyed and at first [com- plained to] them, but they mocked at us, and would not [stop], and so our whole mess in a body--not I alone apart from the rest--went to the general and told him what was going on. He rebuked them with stern words, not only for their brutal treatment of us, but for their whole behavior in camp. Yet so far from desisting, or being ashamed of their acts, they burst in upon us that very evening, as soon as it grew dark, and, beginning with abusive language, they proceeded to beat me, and they made such a clamor and tumult about the tent, that both the general and the taxiarchs came and some of the other soldiers, by whose coming we were prevented from suffering, or ourselves doing, some damage that could not be repaired, being victims as we were of their drunken violence. When mat- ters had gone thus far, it was natural that after our return home there should exist between us feelings of anger and hatred. However, on my own part I swear by the gods I never saw fit to bring an action against them, or to pay any attention to what had happened. I simply made this
resolve: in future, to be on my guard, and to take care to have nothing to do with people of that sort.
[Tr. A. T. Murray. Demosthenes: Private Orations. (Against Conon 1; 4-6). Volume VI. LCL, 1939. Page numbers: 127, 129, 131. ]
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? general: Strategos in Greek, from whence came our English words "strategy" and "strategic. " The word had a more specific meaning in the Athenian democracy of the fifth century BCE. There, 10 military leaders were elected to one-year terms, 10 annually. So these 10 strategoi became very prominent in the affairs of the state, politically as well as militarily.
mess: The Greek word is sussitoi, liter- ally "together/eat," or the people with whom one partakes of a meal; "messmates. "
summary seizure; highwayman; indictments: Summary seizure: The technical term is apagoge, referring to the capture of a crimi- nal in the act of doing the crime and bringing him before a magis- trate. Highwayman: The Greek word is lopodutes, literally "some- one who slips into someone else's clothes," a "clothes stealer. " The word then broadened in meaning to refer to any kind of a thief or robber. Indictments: The techni- cal term is graphe, from the word meaning "to write," and thence, a "written" statement.
taxiarchs: According to A. T. Murray, the taxiarchs were "commanders of the infantry detachments. "
tent: The Greek word used by Demosthenes is skene, which was also a technical term from the world of ancient theater; it referred to the painted backdrop of a stage setting. Our word "scene" is a direct descen- dant of skene.
? ? ? 200
AFTERMATH
Demosthenes goes on to describe the second attack (two years later, after having returned to Athens) that Ariston suffered at the hands of Ctesias, son of Conon. Ariston was out for a walk in the agora with his friend Phanostratus, when the two of them were set upon by Ctesias and five named men, including Conon himself, as well as "a number of others. " Ariston was nearly killed in the melee; to add insult to injury, one of the attackers "began to crow, mimicking fighting cocks that have won a battle, and his fellow [attackers egged him on to] flap his elbows against his sides like wings. " Many witnesses were called, and many depositions read, to corroborate Ariston's case. Demosthenes reminded the jury that
A Case of Assault and Battery
? ? ? ? HOW MUCH WAS TOO MUCH?
The Greeks and Romans both enjoyed parties called symposia, literally, a "drinking together. " These festive gatherings, usually held at private homes, involved discussions on popular or philosophical topics, as well as entertainments, music, and, of course, the consumption of wine, always mixed with water. (It was considered uncouth to consume unmixed wine. ) Sometimes, the symposia could get out of hand, especially if the master of ceremonies--the symposiarch--failed to regulate the flow of wine, or if the party were "crashed" by unwel- come guests who were already inebriated. The latter event happened at a famous symposium hosted at the home of an Athenian named Agathon; the details are provided by Plato in his dialogue entitled Symposium. Well after the party had gotten underway, the flamboyant young man-about-town Alcibiades showed up, already drunk, and disrupted the proceedings by refusing to cooperate with the host's request that he contribute something relevant to the topic of discussion.
A fragment from a lost play by the comic playwright Eubulus (ca. fourth century BCE) gives us a hint about the standards governing the quantity of wine consumption at a symposium, or anywhere else, for that matter. The god of wine (fittingly enough) Dionysus is the speaker: "For sensible men, I prepare only three kraters [a krater was a large bowl in which the wine was mixed, and from which it was served]: one for health, which they drink first, the second for love and pleasure, and the third for sleep. After the third one is drained, wise men go home. The fourth krater is not mine anymore--it belongs to bad behavior; the fifth is for shouting; the sixth is for rudeness and insults; the seventh is for fights; the eighth is for breaking the furniture; the ninth is for depression; the tenth is for madness and unconsciousness. "
[Symposium. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Symposium]
It would appear that Conon and his sons, and their friends, customarily kept on drinking at least as far as the fourth round of kraters.
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to his fame than being father of his glorious son. Was it more glorious for him to subdue the Britons . . . or lead his fleet victorious[ly in Egypt] . . . to have some triumphs and deserve far more, than to be the father of so great a man, with whom as ruler of the human race, O gods, you bless us past all reckoning?
And [to prevent that son from being considered a mere mortal], Julius Caesar must change and be a god. [Next, the goddess Venus appears; she fears that Caesar, a descendant of her son Aeneas, the long-ago founder of the Roman race, might fall victim to an assassination plot, and so she appeals to all the gods to prevent such a tragedy. The gods are sympathetic but helpless, because even they are not strong enough to alter the dictates of fate. The king of the gods, Jupiter, reassures her that Caesar's adopted son Augustus will avenge the inevitable assassination and usher in a Golden Age in Rome. Jupiter speaks]: "With peace established over all the lands, he then will turn his mind to civil rule and as a prudent legislator will enact wise laws. And he will regulate the manners of his people by his own example. Looking forward to the days of future time and of posterity, he will command the offspring born of his devoted wife, to assume the imperial name and the burden of his cares. Nor till his age shall equal Nestor's years will he ascend to heavenly dwellings and his kindred stars. Meanwhile transform the soul [i. e. , of Julius Caesar], which shall be reft from this doomed body, to a starry light, that always god-like Julius may look down in future from his heavenly residence upon our Forum and our Capitol. "
Jupiter had hardly pronounced these words, when kindly Venus, although seen by none, stood in the middle of the Senate-house, and caught from the dying limbs and trunk of her own Caesar his departing soul. She did not give it time so that it could dissolve in air,
but bore it quickly up, toward all the stars of heaven; and on the way, she saw it gleam and blaze and set it free. Above the moon it mounted into heaven, leaving behind a long and fiery trail, and as a star it glittered in the sky. There, wondering at the younger Caesar's [i. e. , Augustus's] deeds, Julius confessed that they were superior to all of his, and he rejoiced because his son was greater even than himself. [Tr. Brookes Otis. Ovid: Metamorphoses 15. http://www. theoi. com/Text/OvidMetamorphoses15. html]
AFTERMATH
"If the pronouncements of prophets contain any truth, I will live on in fame, throughout all the future generations. " These are the final words of Ovid's Metamorphoses, and they reflect
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? glorious son: Julius Caesar had no bio- logical sons. The "glorious son" ref- erenced here is his son by adoption, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, better known as Octavian and later as Augustus.
Nestor's years: Nestor was the prover- bially old chieftain who accompa- nied the Greeks to Troy during the Trojan War.
offspring born: Augustus and his wife Livia did not have any surviving sons, so Augustus was succeeded by his stepson Tiberius, Livia's son by a previous marriage. The phrase "offspring born" refers to Tiberius.
peace established: Augustus was widely credited with founding the Pax Romana, "Roman peace," a long period of relative tranquility after the bloody and destructive civil wars of the 40s and 30s BCE.
wise laws: As emperor, Augustus intro- duced many legal, political, mili- tary, and social reforms into Roman life. A full description of these enactments can be found in the Life of Deified Augustus, writ- ten by the Roman biographer Suetonius (ca. 70-140 CE), espe- cially in Chapters 29 through 56.
? ? ? ? ? 190
the notion shared by many Greek and Roman authors that their written works would last forever. In Ovid's case, at least, that prophecy still rings true.
ASK YOURSELF
1. What does Ovid mean by the phrase "he [Julius Caesar] rose by wars"?
2. What reason or justification does Ovid give for the deification of Julius Caesar?
3. The general theme of Ovid's Metamorphoses involves the concept of change, or
transformation. How does the deification of Caesar fit into this theme? Into what was he transformed?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e Lucius Annaeus Seneca (sometimes called the "Younger Seneca," 4 BCE- 65 CE) is generally thought to be the author of a parody of the deification process of emperors. Its title: Apocolocyntosis, a play on the for- mal word for deification--apotheosis--and roughly translated as "Pumpkinification. " Read Seneca's Apocolocyntosis (it is very short! ). What elements of satire and parody do you notice in it? Which Roman emperor's apotheosis is Seneca mocking? Are there any similarities between Seneca's satire and Ovid's account of Caesar's apotheosis? (A translation of the Apocolocyntosis may be found at http://ancienthistory . about. com/library/bl/bl_text_seneca_apocol. htm. )
e In our culture we seldom, if ever, hear of families adopting full-grown adults as their sons or daughters. Why do you suppose the ancient Romans did this? What would be the advantages?
e Several of the first-century CE Roman emperors were deified, including Augustus, Claudius, Vespasian, and Titus. Many subsequent emperors also received this honor. Still others demanded to be worshipped as gods while they lived but were never formally granted deification after their deaths. Research this issue. What seem to be the prime requirements for deifica- tion? What are the procedures involved in declaring an emperor a god? Can you think of any modern societies or nations in which the leader is regarded as a god, or almost a god?
e Inthedocumentexcerpt,Ovidclearlywritesaveryfavorable,evenflatter- ing, account of Augustus and his deeds. Yet early in the first century CE, Augustus decreed that Ovid be exiled from Rome for life. The poet was sent to live in the region of the Black Sea, a wild, uncultured place and an extremely hostile environment for a man of Ovid's sophistication and elegance. Although he begged on a number of occasions to be allowed to return to Rome, Augustus never relented. Find out why Augustus appa- rently decided that Ovid should receive such a terrifying punishment. (The true reason is uncertain, but it is quite easy to draw conclusions. ) Are there similar, modern examples of authors being forced to leave their homes and go into exile or hiding because of something they had written?
e Read over the sections of Suetonius's biography of Augustus referenced above. Do you agree with Ovid's assessment that he was a "prudent legisla- tor" who "enact[ed] wise laws"?
Julius Caesar Becomes a God
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Further Information
Boyle, A. J. and J. P. Sullivan (eds. ). Roman Poets of the Early Empire. London, 1991. Frankel, Herman. Ovid: A Poet between Two Worlds. Berkeley, CA, 1945.
Galinsky, G. K. Ovid's Metamorphoses: An Introduction to the Basic Aspects. Berkeley and
Los Angeles, 1975.
Otis, Brooks. Ovid as an Epic Poet. Cambridge, 1996.
Website
Extensive bibliography for Ovid: http://uts. cc. utexas. edu/~silver/Ovid/ovid-biblio. html
Bibliography for Document
Humphries, Rolfe (tr. ). Ovid: Metamorphoses. Bloomington, IN, 1955. http://www. theoi. com/Text/OvidMetamorphoses15. html
37. JOB DESCRIPTION FOR A VESTAL VIRGIN
INTRODUCTION
In its earliest days, Rome was ruled by a series of seven kings. The second of these was Numa Pompilius (traditional dates of his reign: 714-671 BCE). The document is excerpted from Plutarch's biography of Numa.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. At least some of the early Roman kings were considered semilegendary, but Numa seems to be fairly well attested. He is credited with a number of religious reforms and innovations, including the establishment of various cult of priests and priest- esses, religious rites, and the construction of temples.
2. One of the best known of the priestly cults that Numa reputedly founded was actually a cult of priestesses: the Vestal Virgins. Their job was to tend the temple of Vesta, the Roman goddess of home and hearth. There were six Vestals, each of whom was expected to serve a term of 30 years.
Document: A Vestal's Duties
To Numa is . . . ascribed the institution of that order of high priests who are called Pontifices, and he himself is said to have been the first of them . . . [Plutarch next embarks upon an interesting discussion of the etymology of the word Pontifices (sg. Pontifex). The word might be derived from the Latin word potens ("powerful"), given that these priests were serving powerful gods. Another explanation, which Plutarch considered spurious, is that it came from a combination of the Latin words pons ("bridge") and facere ("to build"), a "bridge-builder. " The pontifices numbered among their duties the performing of religious sacrifices at bridges over the Tiber River, and beyond that, they were also responsible for the maintenance of bridges. ]
The chief of the Pontifices, the Pontifex Maximus, had the duty of expounding and interpreting the divine will, or rather of directing sacred rites,
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not only being in charge of public ceremonies, but also watching over private sacrifices and preventing any depar- ture from established custom, as well as teaching whatever was requisite for the worship or propitiation of the gods. He was also overseer of the holy virgins called Vestals; for to Numa is ascribed the consecration of the Vestal Virgins, and in general the worship and care of the perpet- ual fire entrusted to their charge. It was either because he thought the nature of fire pure and uncorrupted, and there- fore entrusted it to chaste and undefiled persons, or because he thought of it as unfruitful and barren, and therefore associated it with virginity . . .
In the beginning, then, they say that Gegania and Verenia were consecrated to this office by Numa, who sub- sequently added to them Canuleia and Tarpeia; that at a later time two were added by Servius, making the number [six] which has continued to the present time. It was ordained by the king that the sacred virgins should vow themselves to chastity for thirty years; during the first de- cade they are to learn their duties, during the second to per- form the duties they have learned, and during the third to
teach others these duties. Then, the thirty years being now passed, any one [of the priestesses] who wishes has the liberty to marry and adopt a different mode of life, after laying down her sacred office. We are told, however, that few have welcomed the indulgence, and that those who did so were not happy, but were a prey to repentance and dejection for the rest of their lives, thereby inspiring the rest with superstitious fears, so that until old age and death they remained steadfast in their virginity.
But Numa bestowed great privileges upon them, such as the right to make a will during the lifetime of their fathers, and to transact and manage their other affairs . . . When they appear in public, the fasces are carried before them, and if they accidentally meet a criminal on his way to execution, his life is spared; but the virgin must make oath that the meeting was involuntary and fortuitous, and not of design. He who passes under the litter on which they are borne is put to death. For their minor offenses, the virgins are punished with stripes, the Pontifex Maximus [chief priest, as mentioned above] sometimes scourging the culprit on her bare flesh, in a dark place, with a curtain interposed. But she that has broken her vow of chastity is buried alive . . . [Tr. Bernadotte Perrin. Plutarch's Lives. Life of Numa (9, 10). Volume I. LCL, 1914. Page numbers: 337, 339, 341, 343. ]
AFTERMATH
Numa's long reign was characterized by an extended period of peace; Plutarch writes that "there is no record either of war, or faction, or political revolution while Numa was king. " There was a temple in Rome dedicated to the two-faced Roman god Janus. This temple had double doors, and when these doors were open, it signified that the Romans were at war; when closed, that peace was upon the land. (The open doors indicated that the god
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? fasces: The fasces carried by security officers called lictors. The fasces were rods bound together by leather straps, a symbol of Roman authority and power.
Usually, only high-ranking government officials enjoyed protection from lictors, so the fact that they also accompanied Vestal Virgins in public is another example of the esteem and respect accorded to the Vestals.
right to make a will: The right to make a will was generally reserved for the paterfamilias, the father of the family.
Servius: Rome's sixth king (full name: Servius Tullius), who reigned ca. 579-535 BCE.
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had left his temple and the city, with the Roman army, to assist it in upcoming battles; the closed doors symbolized the opposite, that no wars were being fought. ) Plutarch reports that from the beginnings of Rome, down to his own lifetime (a period of some 800 years), the temple doors had been shut only three times: once in 235 BCE, shortly after the end of the First Punic War; again after Augustus had defeated the forces of Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium in 30 BCE; and for a third time during the reign of Numa, when the doors were closed not for a brief period of time, but for the entirety of his reign.
ASK YOURSELF
1. What were the chief duties of the pontifices?
2. What privileges did the Vestal Virgins enjoy? What were they supposed to learn
during each 3 of the 10-year increments of their terms as Vestals?
3. What punishment was prescribed for a Vestal Virgin who broke her vow of chastity?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e Plutarch generally wrote biographies in pairs--a famous Roman matched with a famous Greek. (Hence, the title Parallel Lives is sometimes given to his biographies. ) His prime criteria for selecting the two individuals to be paired in this way were the similarities that each displayed. The Greek leader with whom Plutarch linked Numa was the Spartan king Lycurgus. Research the life of Lycurgus, and determine the commonalities between
Job Description for a Vestal Virgin
? ? ? ? SAVED BY THE VESTALS
Plutarch writes that, should a Vestal Virgin have a chance encounter with a condemned criminal on his way to execution, the criminal's life would automatically be spared. Apparently, the Vestals' power to induce pardons went beyond the realm of mere chance. In his Life of Julius Caesar, the biographer Suetonius notes that when Caesar was a young man, he married a lady named Cornelia. This Cornelia hailed from a family who was at odds with the Roman dictator Sulla; Sulla pressured Caesar to divorce his new wife, but Caesar refused to com- ply. Accordingly, Caesar's name was placed on a hit list, with the result that he had to flee for his life. However, the Vestal Virgins, as well as some of Caesar's political allies, intervened on his behalf and prevailed upon Sulla to remove his name from the list. Sulla reluctantly did so.
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? WANTED: APPLICANTS FOR THE POSITION OF VESTAL VIRGIN
Would-be Vestal Virgins were required to fulfill some fairly unique and stringent requirements, as the essayist Aulus Gellius explains: "[I]t is unlawful for a girl to be chosen who is less than six, or more than ten years old; she must also have both father and mother living. She must be free too from any impediment in her speech, must not have impaired hearing, or be marked by any other bodily defect. She must not herself be freed from paternal control . . . [N]either one nor both of her parents may have been slaves or engaged in mean occupations . . . [T]he daughter of a man without residence in Italy must not be chosen. " Aulus Gellius. Attic Nights 1. 12; tr. Rolfe. ]
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him and Numa that likely led to Plutarch's decision to pair the two of
them.
e Which of the two derivations of the word pontifex (potens, "powerful," or
pons/facere, "bridge-builder") seems more logical? Why do you suppose
Plutarch judged the second explanation to be ridiculously erroneous?
e Plutarch does not specify the kinds of duties the Vestal priestesses were required to perform. Find out what these duties were. Why did it take
the priestesses 10 years to learn these duties?
e Plutarch writes that few Vestal Virgins married after their 30-year term of
service was completed, even though it would have been permissible for them to do so. Why do you suppose most of them did not marry?
Further Information
Scheid, John. An Introduction to Roman Religion, translated by Janet Lloyd. Bloomington, IN, 2003.
Staples, Ariadne. From Good Goddess to Vestal Virgins: Sex and Category in Roman Religion. London, 1998.
Worsfold, T. Cato. History of the Vestal Virgins of Rome. Plymouth, UK, 1934. Websites
Six Vestal Virgins. http://ancienthistory. about. com/cs/rome/a/aa1114001. htm Vestal Virgins. http://www. unrv. com/culture/vestal-virgins. php
Bibliography for Document
Perrin, Bernadotte (tr. ). Plutarch's Lives. Volume I. [LCL. ] London and Cambridge, 1914. Rolfe, John C. (tr. ). The Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius. Volume I. [LCL. ] Cambridge and
London, 1927.
SAFETY
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38. A CASE OF ASSAULT AND BATTERY
INTRODUCTION
The public career of ancient Athens' most famous lawyer and orator, Demosthenes (384-322 BCE), spanned over 40 years. Some 58 extant orations are credited to his name, although contemporary scholars consider several of these to have been produced by other speakers of the time. The speech Against Conon, however, is deemed to be genuine Demosthenes.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. Demosthenes's speeches and court cases can be conveniently divided into three cat- egories: private speeches, involving matters such as inheritances, wills, debt pay- ments, perjury, and assaults; semipublic speeches, argued on behalf of citizens directly involved in public affairs or public policy issues; and public speeches, in which orations are delivered to gatherings of citizens, on topics such as national security, military matters, and treaties. Against Conon clearly belongs in the first cat- egory, private speeches.
2. Two years before, while stationed at a military fort (Panactum) north of Athens, the young plaintiff, Ariston, had been viciously assaulted by the sons of a man named Conon; Demosthenes describes the attack in graphic detail. Then, when all of them had subsequently returned to Athens--with bad blood still apparently lingering-- Ariston was assaulted again, by the same group of muggers, this time aided by several friends and even Conon himself.
3. Note that Demosthenes speaks in the voice of his client, Ariston.
Document: Demosthenes for the Prosecution
With gross outrage have I met . . . at the hands of the defendant, Conon, and have suffered such bodily injury that for a very long time neither my relatives nor any of the attending physicians thought that I should survive. Contrary to expectation, however, I did recover and regain my strength, and then I brought
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against him this action for the assault. All my friends and relatives, whose advice I asked, declared that for what he had done the defendant was liable to summary seizure as a highwayman or to public indictments for criminal out- rage. But they urged and advised me not to take upon myself matters which I should not be able to carry, or to appear to be bringing suit for the maltreatment I had received in a manner too ambitious for one so young. I took this course, therefore, and, in deference to their advice, have instituted a private suit. [Demosthenes next implores the jury to listen with open minds to his descrip- tion of Ariston's sufferings, and to his appeal for justice to be served. He then explains that Ariston had journeyed to Panactum, and that Conon's sons, who spent most of their afternoon and evening in their customary over- consumption of alcohol, had camped nearby. ]
Well, at whatever time the others might be having their dinner, these men [i. e. , Conon's sons] were already drunk and abusive, at first toward our . . . slaves, but in the end toward ourselves. For, alleging that the slaves annoyed them with smoke while getting dinner, or [inap- propriately taunted them], or whatever else they pleased, they used to beat them . . . [T]here was nothing in the way of brutality and outrage in which they did not indulge. When we saw this, we were annoyed and at first [com- plained to] them, but they mocked at us, and would not [stop], and so our whole mess in a body--not I alone apart from the rest--went to the general and told him what was going on. He rebuked them with stern words, not only for their brutal treatment of us, but for their whole behavior in camp. Yet so far from desisting, or being ashamed of their acts, they burst in upon us that very evening, as soon as it grew dark, and, beginning with abusive language, they proceeded to beat me, and they made such a clamor and tumult about the tent, that both the general and the taxiarchs came and some of the other soldiers, by whose coming we were prevented from suffering, or ourselves doing, some damage that could not be repaired, being victims as we were of their drunken violence. When mat- ters had gone thus far, it was natural that after our return home there should exist between us feelings of anger and hatred. However, on my own part I swear by the gods I never saw fit to bring an action against them, or to pay any attention to what had happened. I simply made this
resolve: in future, to be on my guard, and to take care to have nothing to do with people of that sort.
[Tr. A. T. Murray. Demosthenes: Private Orations. (Against Conon 1; 4-6). Volume VI. LCL, 1939. Page numbers: 127, 129, 131. ]
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? general: Strategos in Greek, from whence came our English words "strategy" and "strategic. " The word had a more specific meaning in the Athenian democracy of the fifth century BCE. There, 10 military leaders were elected to one-year terms, 10 annually. So these 10 strategoi became very prominent in the affairs of the state, politically as well as militarily.
mess: The Greek word is sussitoi, liter- ally "together/eat," or the people with whom one partakes of a meal; "messmates. "
summary seizure; highwayman; indictments: Summary seizure: The technical term is apagoge, referring to the capture of a crimi- nal in the act of doing the crime and bringing him before a magis- trate. Highwayman: The Greek word is lopodutes, literally "some- one who slips into someone else's clothes," a "clothes stealer. " The word then broadened in meaning to refer to any kind of a thief or robber. Indictments: The techni- cal term is graphe, from the word meaning "to write," and thence, a "written" statement.
taxiarchs: According to A. T. Murray, the taxiarchs were "commanders of the infantry detachments. "
tent: The Greek word used by Demosthenes is skene, which was also a technical term from the world of ancient theater; it referred to the painted backdrop of a stage setting. Our word "scene" is a direct descen- dant of skene.
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AFTERMATH
Demosthenes goes on to describe the second attack (two years later, after having returned to Athens) that Ariston suffered at the hands of Ctesias, son of Conon. Ariston was out for a walk in the agora with his friend Phanostratus, when the two of them were set upon by Ctesias and five named men, including Conon himself, as well as "a number of others. " Ariston was nearly killed in the melee; to add insult to injury, one of the attackers "began to crow, mimicking fighting cocks that have won a battle, and his fellow [attackers egged him on to] flap his elbows against his sides like wings. " Many witnesses were called, and many depositions read, to corroborate Ariston's case. Demosthenes reminded the jury that
A Case of Assault and Battery
? ? ? ? HOW MUCH WAS TOO MUCH?
The Greeks and Romans both enjoyed parties called symposia, literally, a "drinking together. " These festive gatherings, usually held at private homes, involved discussions on popular or philosophical topics, as well as entertainments, music, and, of course, the consumption of wine, always mixed with water. (It was considered uncouth to consume unmixed wine. ) Sometimes, the symposia could get out of hand, especially if the master of ceremonies--the symposiarch--failed to regulate the flow of wine, or if the party were "crashed" by unwel- come guests who were already inebriated. The latter event happened at a famous symposium hosted at the home of an Athenian named Agathon; the details are provided by Plato in his dialogue entitled Symposium. Well after the party had gotten underway, the flamboyant young man-about-town Alcibiades showed up, already drunk, and disrupted the proceedings by refusing to cooperate with the host's request that he contribute something relevant to the topic of discussion.
A fragment from a lost play by the comic playwright Eubulus (ca. fourth century BCE) gives us a hint about the standards governing the quantity of wine consumption at a symposium, or anywhere else, for that matter. The god of wine (fittingly enough) Dionysus is the speaker: "For sensible men, I prepare only three kraters [a krater was a large bowl in which the wine was mixed, and from which it was served]: one for health, which they drink first, the second for love and pleasure, and the third for sleep. After the third one is drained, wise men go home. The fourth krater is not mine anymore--it belongs to bad behavior; the fifth is for shouting; the sixth is for rudeness and insults; the seventh is for fights; the eighth is for breaking the furniture; the ninth is for depression; the tenth is for madness and unconsciousness. "
[Symposium. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Symposium]
It would appear that Conon and his sons, and their friends, customarily kept on drinking at least as far as the fourth round of kraters.
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