No More Learning

1
ORIENTALISM
Edward W. Said
Routledge & Kegan Paul
London and Henley
2
First published in 1978
by Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.
39 Store Street,
London WCIE 7DD, and
Broadway House,
Newton Road,
Henley-on-Thames,
Oxon RG9 1EN
Reprinted and first published
as a paperback in 1980
Set in Times Roman
and printed in Great Britain by
Redwood Burn Limited
Trowbridge & Esher
© Edward W. Said 1978
No Part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission from the
publisher, except for the quotation of brief passage in criticism.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Said, Edward W.
Orientalism,
1. East – Study and teaching
I. Title
950’. 07 DS32. 8 78-40534
ISBN 0 7100 0040 5
ISBN 0 7100 0555 5 Pbk
3
Grateful acknowledgements is made to the following for permission to reprint
previously published material:
George Allen & Unwin Ltd. : Excerpts from Subject of the Day: Being a Selection of
Speeches and Writings by George Nathaniel Curzon.
George Allen & Unwin Ltd. : Excerpts from Revolution in the Middle East and Other
Case Studies, proceedings of a seminar, edited by P. J. Vatikiotis.
American Jewish Committee: Excerpts from “The Return of Islam” by Bernard
Lewis, in Commentary, vol. 61, no. 1 (January 1976). Reprinted from Commentary by
permission. Copyright © 1976 by the American Jewish Committee.
Basic Books, Inc. : Excerpts from “Renan’s Philological Laboratory” by Edward W.
Said, in Art, Politics, and Will: Essarys in Honor of Lionel Trilling, edited by Quentin
Anderson et al. Copyright © 1977 by Basic Books, Inc.
The Bodley Head and McIntosh & Otis, Inc. : Excerpts from Flaubert in Egypt,
translated and edited by Franscis Steegmuller. Reprinted by permission of Francis
Steegmuller and The Bodley Head.
Jonathan Cape, Ltd. , and The Letters of T. E. Lawrence Trust: Excerpt from the
Letters of T. E. Lawrence, edited by David Garnett.
Jonathan Cape, Ltd. , The Seven Pillars Trust, and Doubleday & Co. , Inc. : Excerpt
from The Seven Pillars of Wisdom: A triumph by T. E. Lawrence. Copyright 1962,
1935 by Doubleday & Co. , Inc.
Doubleday & Co. , Inc. , amd A. P. Watt & Sons, LTd: Excerpt from Verse by
Rudyyard Kipling.
The Georgia Review: Excerpts from “Orientalism,” which originally appeared in the
Georgia Review (Sprint 1977), Copyright © 1977 by the Unuiversity of Georgia.
Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. : Excerpt from a poem by Borniers (1862), Quoted in
De Lesseps of Suez by Charles Beatty.
Macmillar & Co. , London and Basingstoke: Excerpts from Modern Egypt, vol, 2, by
Evelyn Baring, Lord Cromer.
Macmillian Publishing Co. , Inc. : Excerpt from “Propaganda” by Harold Lasswell,in
The Encyclopedia of the Social Siences,edited by Edwin R. A. Seligman,vol. 12(1934).
Macmillan Publishing Co. , Inc. , and A. P. Watt & sons, LTd. : Excerpt from
“Byzantium” by William Butler Yeats, in The Collected Poems. Copyright 1933 by
Macmillan Publishing Co. , Inc. , renewed 1961 by Bertha Georgie Yeats.
The New York Times company: Excerpts from “Arabs, Islam, and the Dogmas of the
West” by Edward W. Said, in The New York Times Book Review, October 31,
1976. Copyright©1976 by the New York Times Compnay. Reprinted by permission.
Northwestern University Press: Excerpt from “The Arab Portrayed” by Edward W.
Said, in The Arab-Israeli Confrontation of June 1967: An Arab Perspective, edited by
Ibrahim Abu-Lughod. Copyright © 1970 by Northwestern University Press.
4
Prentice-Hall Inc. : Excerpt from The Persians by Aeschylus, translated by Anthony J.
Podleck. Copyright © 1970 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
The Royal Asiatic Society, Great Britain and Ireland: Excerpt from “Louis Massignon
(1882-1962),” in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1962)
University of California Press: Excerpts from Modern Islam: The Search for Cultural
Identity by Gustave von Grunebaum. Copyright ©1962 by the Regents of the
University of California.
University of Chicago Press: Excerpts from Modern Trends in Islam by H. A. R. Gibb.
5
FOR JANET AND IBRAHIM
6
Contents
Acknowledgements xi
Introduction 1
Chapter 1 The Scope of Orientalism
I. Knowing the Oriental 31
II. Imaginative Geography an Its Representaions:
Orientalizing the Oriental 49
III. Project 73
IV. Crisis 92
Chapter 2 Orientalist Structures and Restructures
I. Redrawn Frontiers, Redefined Issues, Secularized Religion 113
II. Silverstre de Sacy and Ernest Renan: Rational Anthropology
and Philogical Laboratory 123
III. Oriental Residence and Scholarship:
The Requirements of Lexicography and Imagination 149
IV. Pilgrims and Pilgrimages, British and French 166
Chapter 3 Orientalism Now
I. Latent and Manifest Orientalism 201
II. Style, Experience, Vision: Orientalisj’s Worldiness 226
III. Modern Ango-French Orientalism in Fullest Flower 255
IV. The Latest Phase 284
Notes 329
Index 351
7
Acknowledgements
I have been reading about Orientalism for a number of years, but most of this
book was written during 1975-1976, which I spent as a Fellow at the Center for
Advanced Study in the Behavioural Sciences, Stanfort, California. In this unique and
generous institution, it was my good fortune not only to have benefited agreeably
froms several colleagues, but also from the help of Joan Warmbrunn, Chris Hoth,
Jane Kielsmeier, Preston Cutler, and the center’s director, Gardner Lindzey. The list
of friends, colleagues, and students who read, or listened to, parts or the whole of this
manuscript is so long as to embarrass me, and now that it has finally appeared as a
book, perhaps even them, Nevertheless I should mention with gratitude the always
helpful encouragement of Janet and Ibrahim Abu-Lughod, Noam Chomsky, and
Roger Owen, who followed this project from its beginning to its conclusion.
Likewise I must gratefully acknowledge the helpful and critical interest of the
colleagues, friends, and students in various places whose questions and discussion
sharpened the text considerably. Andre Schiffrin and Jeanne Morton of Pantheon
Books were ideal publisher and copy editor, respectively, and made the ordeal (for
the author, at least) of preparing the manuscript an instructive and genuinely
intelligent process. Marian Said helped me a great deal with her research on the early
modern history of Orientalist institutions. Apart from that, though, her loving support
really made much of the work on this book not only enjoyable but possible.
E. W. S.
New York
Septemer-October 1977
8
They cannot represent themselves; they must be represented.
-Karl Marx, The Eighteenth Brumaire
of Louis Bonaparte
The East is a career.
-Benjamin Disraeli, Tancred
9
Introduction
I
On a visit to Beirut during the terrible civil war of 1975-1976 a French journalist wrote
regretfully of the gutted downtown area that “it had once seemed to belong to . . . the Orient of
Chateaubriand and Nerval. ”1 He was right about the place, of course, especially so far as a
European was concerned. The Orient was almost a European invention, and had been since
antiquity ‘a place of romance, exotic beings, haunting memories and landscapes, remarkable
experiences. Now it was disappearing; in a sense it had happened, its time was over. Perhaps it
seemed irrelevant that Orientals themselves had something at stake in the process, that even in the
time of Chateaubriand and Nerval Orientals had lived there, and that now it was they who were
suffering; the main thing for the European visitor was a European representation of the Orient and
its contemporary fate, both of which had a privileged communal significance for the journalist
and his French readers.
Americans will not feel quite the same about the Orient, which for them is much more likely
to be associated very differently with the Far East (China and Japan, mainly). Unlike the
Americans, the French and the British-less so the Germans, Russians, Spanish, Portuguese,
Italians, and Swiss-have had a long tradition of what I shall be calling Orientation a way of
coming to terms with the Orient that is based on the Orient’s special place in European Western
experience. The Orient is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the place of Europe’s greatest and
richest and oldest colonies, the source of its civilizations and languages, its cultural contestant,
and one of its deepest and most recurring images of the other. In addition, the Orient has helped
to define Europe (or the West)
10
as its contrasting image, idea, personality, experience. Yet none of this Orient is merely
imaginative. The Orient is an integral of European material civilization and culture. Orientalism
expresses and represents that part culturally and even ideologically as a mode of discourse with
supporting institutions, vocabulary, scholarship, imagery, doctrines, even colonial bureaucracies
and colonial styles. In contrast, the American understanding of the Orient will seem considerably
less dense, although our recent Japanese, Korean, and Indochinese adventures ought now to be
creating a more sober, more realistic “Oriental” awareness. Moreover, the vastly expanded
American political and economic role in the Near East (the Middle East) makes great claims on
our understanding of that Orient.
It will be clear to the reader (and will become clearer still throughout the many pages that
follow) that by Orientalism I mean several things, all of them, in my opinion, interdependent. The
most ‘read adily accepted designation for Orientalism is an academic one, and indeed the label
still serves in a number of academic institutions. Anyone who teaches, writes about, or researches
the Orient-and this applies whether the person is an anthropologist, sociologist, historian, or
philologist-either in its specific or its general aspects, is an Orientalist, and what he or she does is
Orientalism. Compared with Oriental studies or area studies, it is true that the term Orientalism is
less preferred by specialists today, both because it is too vague and general and because it
connotes the high-handed executive attitude of nineteenth-century and early twentieth-century
European colonialism. Nevertheless books are written and congresses held with “the Orient” as
their main focus, with the Orientalist in his new or old guise as their main authority. The point is
that even if it does not survive as it once did, Orientalism lives on academically through its
doctrines and theses about the Orient and the Oriental.
Related to this academic tradition, whose fortunes, transmigrations, specializations, and
transmissions are in part the subject of this study, is a more general meaning for Orientalism.
Orientalism is a style of thought based upon an ontological and epistemological distinction made
between “the Orient” and (most of the time) “the Occident. ” Thus a very large mass of writers,
among whom are poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and imperial
administrators, have accepted the basic distinction between East and West as the starting point for
elaborate theories, epics, novels, epics, social descriptions and political accounts concerning the
11
Orient, its people, customs, “mind,” destiny, and so on. This Orientalism can accommodate
Aeschylus, say, and Victor Hugo, Dante and Karl Marx. A little later in this introduction I shall
deal with the methodological problems one encounters in so broadly construed a “field” as this.
The inter change between the academic and the more or less imaginative meaning of
Orientalism is a constant one, and since the late eighteenth century there has been a considerable,
quite disciplined-perhaps even regulated-traffic between the two. Here I come to the third
meaning of Orientalism, which is something more historically and materially defined than either
of the other two. Taking the late eighteenth century as a very roughly defined starting point
Orientalism can be discussed and analyzed as the corporate institution for dealing with the Orientdealing
with it by making statements about it, authorizing views of it, describing it, by teaching it
settling it, ruling over it: in short, Orientalism as a Western style for dominating restructuring, and
having authority over the Orient. I have found it useful here to employ is a Foucault’s notion of a
discourse, as described by him in The Archaeology of Knowledge and in Discipline and Punish,
to identify Orientalism. My contention is that without examining Orientalism as a discourse one
cannot possibly understand the enormously systematic discipline by which European culture was
able to manage-and even produce-the Orient politically , sociologically, militarily, ideologically,
scientifically, and imaginatively during the post-Enlightenment period. Moreover, so authoritative
a position did Orientalism have that I believe no one writing, thinking, or acting on the Orient
could do so without taking account of the limitations on thought and action imposed by
Orientalism. In brief, because of Orientalism the Orient was not (and is not) a free subject of
thought or action. This is not to say that Orientalism unilaterally determines what can be said
about the Orient, but that it is the-whole network of interests inevitably brought to bear on (and
therefore always involved) any occasion when that peculiar entity “the Orient” is in question.
How this happens is what this book tries to demonstrate. It also tries to show that European
culture gained in strength and identity by setting itself off against the Orient as a sort of surrogate
an even underground self. ,
Historically and culturally there is a quantitative as well as a qualitative difference between
the Franco-British involvement in the Orient and-until the period of American ascendancy after
12
World War II-the involvement of every other European and Atlantic power. To speak of
Orientalism therefore is to speak mainly, although not exclusively, of a British and French
cultural enterprise a project whose dimensions take in such disparate realms as the imagination
itself, the whole of India and the Levant, the Biblical texts and the Biblical lands, the spice trade,
colonial armies and a long tradition of colonial administrators, a formidable scholarly corpus,
innumerable Oriental “experts” and “hands,” an Oriental professorate, a complex array of
“Oriental” ideas (Oriental despotism, Oriental splendor, cruelt , sensuality), many Eastern sects,
philosophies, and wisdoms domesticated for local European use-the list can be extended more or
less indefinitely. My point is that Orientalism derives from a particular closeness experienced
between Britain and France and the Orient, which until the early nineteenth century had really
meant only India and the Bible lands. From the beginning of the nineteenth century until the end
of World War II France and Britain dominated the Orient and Orientalism; since World War II
America has dominated the Orient, and approaches it as France and Britain once did. Out of that
closeness whose dynamic is enormously productive even if it always demonstrates the
comparatively greater strength of the Occident (British, French, or American), comes the large
body of texts I call Orientalist.
It should be said at once that even with the generous number of books and authors that I
examine, there is a much larger number that I simply have had to leave out. My argument,
however, depends neither upon an exhaustive catalogue of texts dealing with the Orient nor upon
a clearly delimited set of texts, authors, and ideas that together make up the Orientalist canon. I
have depended instead upon a different methodological alternative-whose backbone in a sense is
the set of historical generalizations I have so far been making in this Introduction-and it is these I
want now to discuss in more analytical detail.
II
I have begun with the assumption that the Orient is not an inert fact of nature. It is not merely
there, just as the Occident itself is not just there either: We must take seriously Vico’s great
observation
13
that men make their own history, that what they can know is what they have made, and extend it
to geography: as both geographical and cultural entities-to say nothing of historical entities -such
locales, regions geographical sectors as “Orient” and “Occident” are man-made. Therefore as
much as the West itself, the Orient is an idea that has a history and a tradition of thought,
imagery, and vocabulary that have given it reality and presence in and for the West. The two
geographical entities thus support and to an extent reflect each other.
Having said that, one must go on to state a number of reasonable qualifications. In the first
place, it would be wrong to conclude that the Orient was essentially an idea, or a creation with no
corresponding reality. When Disraeli said in his novel Tancred that the East was a career, he
meant that to be interested in the East was something bright young Westerners would find to be
an all consuming passion; he should not be interpreted as saying that the East was only a career
for Westerners. There were-and are- cultures and nations whose location is in the East, and their
lives, histories, and customs have a brute reality obviously greater than anything that could be
said about them in the West. About that fact this study of Orientalism has very little to contribute,
except to acknowledge it tacitly. But the phenomenon of Orientalism as I study it here deals
principally, not with a correspondence between Orientalism and Orient, but with the internal
consistency of Orientalism and its ideas about the Orient (the East as career) despite or beyond
any correspondence, or lack thereof, with a “real” Orient. My point is that Disraeli’s statement
about the East refers mainly to that created consistency, that regular constellation of ideas as the
pre-eminent thing about the Orient, and not to its mere being, as Wallace Stevens’s phrase has it.
A second qualification is that ideas, cultures, and histories cannot seriously be understood or
studied without their force, or more precisely their configurations of power, also being studied. To
believe that the Orient was created-or, as I call it, “Orientalized” -and to believe that such things
happen simply as a necessity of the imagination, is to be disingenuous. The relationship between
Occident and Orient is a relationship of power, of domination, of varying degrees of a compex
hegemony an is quite accurately indicated in the title of K. M. Panikkar’s classic Asia and
Western Dominance. ’ The Orient was Orientalized not only because it was discovered to be
“Oriental” in all those ways considered common-
14
place by an average nineteenth-century European, but also because it could be-that is, submitted
to being-made Oriental. There is very little consent to be found, for example, in the fact that
Flau- bert’s encounter with an Egyptian courtesan produced a widely in fluential model of the
Oriental woman; she never spoke of herself, she never represented her emotions, presence, or
history. He spoke for and represented her. He was foreign, comparatively wealthy, male, and
these were historical facts of domination that allowed him not only to possess Kuchuk Hanem
physically but to speak for her and tell his readers in what way she was “typically Oriental. ” My
argument is that Flaubert’s situation of strength in relation to Kuchuk Hanem was not an isolated
instance. It fairly stands for the pattern of relative strength between East and West, and the
discourse about the Orient that it enabled.
This brings us to a third qualification. One ought never to assume that the structure of
Orientalism is nothing more an a structure of lies or of myths which were the truth about them to
be told, would simply blow away. I myself believe that Orientalism is more particularly valuable
as a sign of European-Atlantic power over the Orient then it is as a veridic discourse about the
Orient (which is what, in its academic or scholarly form, it claims to be). Never theless, what we
must respect and try to grasp is the sheer knitted together strength of Orientalist discourse, its
very close ties to the enabling socio-economic and political institutions, and its redoubt- able
durability. After all, any system of ideas that can remain unchanged as teachable wisdom (in
academies, books, congresses, universities, foreign-service institutes) from the period of Ernest
Renan in the late 1840s until the present in the United States must be something more formidable
than a mere collection of. lies. Orientalism, therefore, is not an airy European fantasy about the
Orient but a created body of theory and practice in which, for many rations, there has been a
considerable material investment. Continued investment made Orientalism, as a system of
knowledge about the Orient, an accepted grid for filtering through the Orient into Western
consciousness, just as that same investment multiplied-indeed, made truly productive-the
statements proliferating out from Orientalism into the general culture.
Gramsci has made the useful analytic distinction between civil and political society in which
the former is made up of voluntary (or atleast rational and noncoercive) affiliations like schools,
15
families, and unions, the latter of state institutions (the army, the police, the central bureaucracy)
whose role in the polity is direct domination. Culture, of course, is to be found operating within
civil society, where the influence of ideas, of institutions, and of other persons works not through
domination but by what Gramsci calls consent. In any society not totalitarian, then, certain
cultural forms predominate over others, just as certain ideas are more in- fluential than others; the
form of this cultural leadership is what Gramsci has identified as hegemony, an indispensable
concept for any understanding of cultural life in the industrial West. It is hegemony, or rather the
result of cultural hegemony at work, that gives Orientalism the durability and the strength I have
been speaking about so far. Orientalism is never far from what Denys Hay has called the idea of
Europe,3 a collective notion identifying “us” Europeans as against all “those” non-Europeans, and
indeed it can be argued that the major component in European culture is precisely what made that
culture hegemonic both in and outside Europe: the idea of European identiy as a superior one in
comparison with all the non-European peoples and cultures. There is in addition the hegemony of
European ideas about the Orient, themselves reiterating European superiority over Orental
backwardness usually overriding the possibility that a more independent, or more skeptical,
thinker might have had different views on the matter.
In a quite constant way, Orientalism depends for its strategy on this flexible positional
superiority, which puts the Westerner in a whole series of possible relationships with the Orient
without ever losing him the relative upper hand. And why should it have been otherwise,
especially during the period of extraordinary European ascendancy from the late Renaissance to
the present? The scientist, the scholar, the missionary, the trader, or the soldier was in, or thought
about, the Orient because he could be there, or could think about it, with very little resistance on
the Orient’s part. Under the general heading of knowledge of the Orient, and within the umbrella
of Western hegemony over the Orient during the period from the end of the eighteenth century,
there emerged a complex Orient suitable for study in the academy, for display in the museum, for
reconstruction in the colonial office, for theoretical illustration in anthropological, biological,
linguistic, racial, and historical theses about mankind and the universe, for instances of economic
and sociological theories of development, revolution, cultural personality,
16
national or religious character. Additionally, the imaginative examination of things Oriental was
based more or less exclusively upon a sovereign Western consciousness out of whose
unchallenged centrality an Oriental world emerged, first according to general ideas about who or
what was an Oriental, then according to a detailed logic governed not simply by empirical reality
but by a battery of desires, regressions, investments, and projections. If we can point to great
Orientalist works of genuine scholarship like Silvestre de Sacy’s Chrestomathie arabe or Edward
William Lane’s Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, we need also to
note that Renan’s and Gobineau’s racial ideas came out of the same impulse, as did a great many
Victorian pornographic novels (see the analysis by Steven Marcus of “The Lustful Turk”4
`).
And yet, one must repeatedly ask oneself whether what matters in Orientalism is the general
group of ideas overriding the mass of material-about which who could deny that they were shot
through with doctrines of European superiority, various kinds of racism, imperialism, and the
like, dogmatic views of “the Oriental” as a kind of ideal and unchanging abstraction? —or the
much more varied work produced by almost uncountable individual writers, whom one would
take up as individual instances of authors dealing with the Orient. In a sense the two alternatives,
general and particular, are really two perspectives on the same material: in both instances one
would have to deal with pioneers in the field like William Jones, with great artists like Nerval or
Flaubert. And why would it not be possible to employ both perspectives together, or one after the
other? Isn’t there an obvious danger of distortion (of precisely the kind that academic Orientalism
has always been prone to) if either too general or too specific a level of description is maintained
systematically?
The New York Times company: Excerpts from “Arabs, Islam, and the Dogmas of the
West” by Edward W. Said, in The New York Times Book Review, October 31,
1976. Copyright©1976 by the New York Times Compnay. Reprinted by permission.
Northwestern University Press: Excerpt from “The Arab Portrayed” by Edward W.
Said, in The Arab-Israeli Confrontation of June 1967: An Arab Perspective, edited by
Ibrahim Abu-Lughod. Copyright © 1970 by Northwestern University Press.
4
Prentice-Hall Inc. : Excerpt from The Persians by Aeschylus, translated by Anthony J.
Podleck. Copyright © 1970 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
The Royal Asiatic Society, Great Britain and Ireland: Excerpt from “Louis Massignon
(1882-1962),” in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1962)
University of California Press: Excerpts from Modern Islam: The Search for Cultural
Identity by Gustave von Grunebaum. Copyright ©1962 by the Regents of the
University of California.
University of Chicago Press: Excerpts from Modern Trends in Islam by H. A. R. Gibb.
5
FOR JANET AND IBRAHIM
6
Contents
Acknowledgements xi
Introduction 1
Chapter 1 The Scope of Orientalism
I. Knowing the Oriental 31
II. Imaginative Geography an Its Representaions:
Orientalizing the Oriental 49
III. Project 73
IV. Crisis 92
Chapter 2 Orientalist Structures and Restructures
I. Redrawn Frontiers, Redefined Issues, Secularized Religion 113
II. Silverstre de Sacy and Ernest Renan: Rational Anthropology
and Philogical Laboratory 123
III. Oriental Residence and Scholarship:
The Requirements of Lexicography and Imagination 149
IV. Pilgrims and Pilgrimages, British and French 166
Chapter 3 Orientalism Now
I. Latent and Manifest Orientalism 201
II. Style, Experience, Vision: Orientalisj’s Worldiness 226
III. Modern Ango-French Orientalism in Fullest Flower 255
IV. The Latest Phase 284
Notes 329
Index 351
7
Acknowledgements
I have been reading about Orientalism for a number of years, but most of this
book was written during 1975-1976, which I spent as a Fellow at the Center for
Advanced Study in the Behavioural Sciences, Stanfort, California. In this unique and
generous institution, it was my good fortune not only to have benefited agreeably
froms several colleagues, but also from the help of Joan Warmbrunn, Chris Hoth,
Jane Kielsmeier, Preston Cutler, and the center’s director, Gardner Lindzey. The list
of friends, colleagues, and students who read, or listened to, parts or the whole of this
manuscript is so long as to embarrass me, and now that it has finally appeared as a
book, perhaps even them, Nevertheless I should mention with gratitude the always
helpful encouragement of Janet and Ibrahim Abu-Lughod, Noam Chomsky, and
Roger Owen, who followed this project from its beginning to its conclusion.
Likewise I must gratefully acknowledge the helpful and critical interest of the
colleagues, friends, and students in various places whose questions and discussion
sharpened the text considerably. Andre Schiffrin and Jeanne Morton of Pantheon
Books were ideal publisher and copy editor, respectively, and made the ordeal (for
the author, at least) of preparing the manuscript an instructive and genuinely
intelligent process. Marian Said helped me a great deal with her research on the early
modern history of Orientalist institutions. Apart from that, though, her loving support
really made much of the work on this book not only enjoyable but possible.
E. W. S.
New York
Septemer-October 1977
8
They cannot represent themselves; they must be represented.
-Karl Marx, The Eighteenth Brumaire
of Louis Bonaparte
The East is a career.
-Benjamin Disraeli, Tancred
9
Introduction
I
On a visit to Beirut during the terrible civil war of 1975-1976 a French journalist wrote
regretfully of the gutted downtown area that “it had once seemed to belong to . . . the Orient of
Chateaubriand and Nerval. ”1 He was right about the place, of course, especially so far as a
European was concerned. The Orient was almost a European invention, and had been since
antiquity ‘a place of romance, exotic beings, haunting memories and landscapes, remarkable
experiences. Now it was disappearing; in a sense it had happened, its time was over. Perhaps it
seemed irrelevant that Orientals themselves had something at stake in the process, that even in the
time of Chateaubriand and Nerval Orientals had lived there, and that now it was they who were
suffering; the main thing for the European visitor was a European representation of the Orient and
its contemporary fate, both of which had a privileged communal significance for the journalist
and his French readers.
Americans will not feel quite the same about the Orient, which for them is much more likely
to be associated very differently with the Far East (China and Japan, mainly). Unlike the
Americans, the French and the British-less so the Germans, Russians, Spanish, Portuguese,
Italians, and Swiss-have had a long tradition of what I shall be calling Orientation a way of
coming to terms with the Orient that is based on the Orient’s special place in European Western
experience. The Orient is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the place of Europe’s greatest and
richest and oldest colonies, the source of its civilizations and languages, its cultural contestant,
and one of its deepest and most recurring images of the other. In addition, the Orient has helped
to define Europe (or the West)
10
as its contrasting image, idea, personality, experience. Yet none of this Orient is merely
imaginative. The Orient is an integral of European material civilization and culture. Orientalism
expresses and represents that part culturally and even ideologically as a mode of discourse with
supporting institutions, vocabulary, scholarship, imagery, doctrines, even colonial bureaucracies
and colonial styles. In contrast, the American understanding of the Orient will seem considerably
less dense, although our recent Japanese, Korean, and Indochinese adventures ought now to be
creating a more sober, more realistic “Oriental” awareness. Moreover, the vastly expanded
American political and economic role in the Near East (the Middle East) makes great claims on
our understanding of that Orient.
It will be clear to the reader (and will become clearer still throughout the many pages that
follow) that by Orientalism I mean several things, all of them, in my opinion, interdependent. The
most ‘read adily accepted designation for Orientalism is an academic one, and indeed the label
still serves in a number of academic institutions. Anyone who teaches, writes about, or researches
the Orient-and this applies whether the person is an anthropologist, sociologist, historian, or
philologist-either in its specific or its general aspects, is an Orientalist, and what he or she does is
Orientalism. Compared with Oriental studies or area studies, it is true that the term Orientalism is
less preferred by specialists today, both because it is too vague and general and because it
connotes the high-handed executive attitude of nineteenth-century and early twentieth-century
European colonialism. Nevertheless books are written and congresses held with “the Orient” as
their main focus, with the Orientalist in his new or old guise as their main authority. The point is
that even if it does not survive as it once did, Orientalism lives on academically through its
doctrines and theses about the Orient and the Oriental.
Related to this academic tradition, whose fortunes, transmigrations, specializations, and
transmissions are in part the subject of this study, is a more general meaning for Orientalism.
Orientalism is a style of thought based upon an ontological and epistemological distinction made
between “the Orient” and (most of the time) “the Occident. ” Thus a very large mass of writers,
among whom are poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and imperial
administrators, have accepted the basic distinction between East and West as the starting point for
elaborate theories, epics, novels, epics, social descriptions and political accounts concerning the
11
Orient, its people, customs, “mind,” destiny, and so on. This Orientalism can accommodate
Aeschylus, say, and Victor Hugo, Dante and Karl Marx. A little later in this introduction I shall
deal with the methodological problems one encounters in so broadly construed a “field” as this.
The inter change between the academic and the more or less imaginative meaning of
Orientalism is a constant one, and since the late eighteenth century there has been a considerable,
quite disciplined-perhaps even regulated-traffic between the two. Here I come to the third
meaning of Orientalism, which is something more historically and materially defined than either
of the other two. Taking the late eighteenth century as a very roughly defined starting point
Orientalism can be discussed and analyzed as the corporate institution for dealing with the Orientdealing
with it by making statements about it, authorizing views of it, describing it, by teaching it
settling it, ruling over it: in short, Orientalism as a Western style for dominating restructuring, and
having authority over the Orient. I have found it useful here to employ is a Foucault’s notion of a
discourse, as described by him in The Archaeology of Knowledge and in Discipline and Punish,
to identify Orientalism. My contention is that without examining Orientalism as a discourse one
cannot possibly understand the enormously systematic discipline by which European culture was
able to manage-and even produce-the Orient politically , sociologically, militarily, ideologically,
scientifically, and imaginatively during the post-Enlightenment period. Moreover, so authoritative
a position did Orientalism have that I believe no one writing, thinking, or acting on the Orient
could do so without taking account of the limitations on thought and action imposed by
Orientalism. In brief, because of Orientalism the Orient was not (and is not) a free subject of
thought or action. This is not to say that Orientalism unilaterally determines what can be said
about the Orient, but that it is the-whole network of interests inevitably brought to bear on (and
therefore always involved) any occasion when that peculiar entity “the Orient” is in question.
How this happens is what this book tries to demonstrate. It also tries to show that European
culture gained in strength and identity by setting itself off against the Orient as a sort of surrogate
an even underground self. ,
Historically and culturally there is a quantitative as well as a qualitative difference between
the Franco-British involvement in the Orient and-until the period of American ascendancy after
12
World War II-the involvement of every other European and Atlantic power. To speak of
Orientalism therefore is to speak mainly, although not exclusively, of a British and French
cultural enterprise a project whose dimensions take in such disparate realms as the imagination
itself, the whole of India and the Levant, the Biblical texts and the Biblical lands, the spice trade,
colonial armies and a long tradition of colonial administrators, a formidable scholarly corpus,
innumerable Oriental “experts” and “hands,” an Oriental professorate, a complex array of
“Oriental” ideas (Oriental despotism, Oriental splendor, cruelt , sensuality), many Eastern sects,
philosophies, and wisdoms domesticated for local European use-the list can be extended more or
less indefinitely. My point is that Orientalism derives from a particular closeness experienced
between Britain and France and the Orient, which until the early nineteenth century had really
meant only India and the Bible lands. From the beginning of the nineteenth century until the end
of World War II France and Britain dominated the Orient and Orientalism; since World War II
America has dominated the Orient, and approaches it as France and Britain once did. Out of that
closeness whose dynamic is enormously productive even if it always demonstrates the
comparatively greater strength of the Occident (British, French, or American), comes the large
body of texts I call Orientalist.
It should be said at once that even with the generous number of books and authors that I
examine, there is a much larger number that I simply have had to leave out. My argument,
however, depends neither upon an exhaustive catalogue of texts dealing with the Orient nor upon
a clearly delimited set of texts, authors, and ideas that together make up the Orientalist canon. I
have depended instead upon a different methodological alternative-whose backbone in a sense is
the set of historical generalizations I have so far been making in this Introduction-and it is these I
want now to discuss in more analytical detail.
II
I have begun with the assumption that the Orient is not an inert fact of nature. It is not merely
there, just as the Occident itself is not just there either: We must take seriously Vico’s great
observation
13
that men make their own history, that what they can know is what they have made, and extend it
to geography: as both geographical and cultural entities-to say nothing of historical entities -such
locales, regions geographical sectors as “Orient” and “Occident” are man-made. Therefore as
much as the West itself, the Orient is an idea that has a history and a tradition of thought,
imagery, and vocabulary that have given it reality and presence in and for the West. The two
geographical entities thus support and to an extent reflect each other.
Having said that, one must go on to state a number of reasonable qualifications. In the first
place, it would be wrong to conclude that the Orient was essentially an idea, or a creation with no
corresponding reality. When Disraeli said in his novel Tancred that the East was a career, he
meant that to be interested in the East was something bright young Westerners would find to be
an all consuming passion; he should not be interpreted as saying that the East was only a career
for Westerners. There were-and are- cultures and nations whose location is in the East, and their
lives, histories, and customs have a brute reality obviously greater than anything that could be
said about them in the West. About that fact this study of Orientalism has very little to contribute,
except to acknowledge it tacitly. But the phenomenon of Orientalism as I study it here deals
principally, not with a correspondence between Orientalism and Orient, but with the internal
consistency of Orientalism and its ideas about the Orient (the East as career) despite or beyond
any correspondence, or lack thereof, with a “real” Orient. My point is that Disraeli’s statement
about the East refers mainly to that created consistency, that regular constellation of ideas as the
pre-eminent thing about the Orient, and not to its mere being, as Wallace Stevens’s phrase has it.
A second qualification is that ideas, cultures, and histories cannot seriously be understood or
studied without their force, or more precisely their configurations of power, also being studied. To
believe that the Orient was created-or, as I call it, “Orientalized” -and to believe that such things
happen simply as a necessity of the imagination, is to be disingenuous. The relationship between
Occident and Orient is a relationship of power, of domination, of varying degrees of a compex
hegemony an is quite accurately indicated in the title of K. M. Panikkar’s classic Asia and
Western Dominance. ’ The Orient was Orientalized not only because it was discovered to be
“Oriental” in all those ways considered common-
14
place by an average nineteenth-century European, but also because it could be-that is, submitted
to being-made Oriental. There is very little consent to be found, for example, in the fact that
Flau- bert’s encounter with an Egyptian courtesan produced a widely in fluential model of the
Oriental woman; she never spoke of herself, she never represented her emotions, presence, or
history. He spoke for and represented her. He was foreign, comparatively wealthy, male, and
these were historical facts of domination that allowed him not only to possess Kuchuk Hanem
physically but to speak for her and tell his readers in what way she was “typically Oriental. ” My
argument is that Flaubert’s situation of strength in relation to Kuchuk Hanem was not an isolated
instance. It fairly stands for the pattern of relative strength between East and West, and the
discourse about the Orient that it enabled.
This brings us to a third qualification. One ought never to assume that the structure of
Orientalism is nothing more an a structure of lies or of myths which were the truth about them to
be told, would simply blow away. I myself believe that Orientalism is more particularly valuable
as a sign of European-Atlantic power over the Orient then it is as a veridic discourse about the
Orient (which is what, in its academic or scholarly form, it claims to be). Never theless, what we
must respect and try to grasp is the sheer knitted together strength of Orientalist discourse, its
very close ties to the enabling socio-economic and political institutions, and its redoubt- able
durability. After all, any system of ideas that can remain unchanged as teachable wisdom (in
academies, books, congresses, universities, foreign-service institutes) from the period of Ernest
Renan in the late 1840s until the present in the United States must be something more formidable
than a mere collection of. lies. Orientalism, therefore, is not an airy European fantasy about the
Orient but a created body of theory and practice in which, for many rations, there has been a
considerable material investment. Continued investment made Orientalism, as a system of
knowledge about the Orient, an accepted grid for filtering through the Orient into Western
consciousness, just as that same investment multiplied-indeed, made truly productive-the
statements proliferating out from Orientalism into the general culture.
Gramsci has made the useful analytic distinction between civil and political society in which
the former is made up of voluntary (or atleast rational and noncoercive) affiliations like schools,
15
families, and unions, the latter of state institutions (the army, the police, the central bureaucracy)
whose role in the polity is direct domination. Culture, of course, is to be found operating within
civil society, where the influence of ideas, of institutions, and of other persons works not through
domination but by what Gramsci calls consent. In any society not totalitarian, then, certain
cultural forms predominate over others, just as certain ideas are more in- fluential than others; the
form of this cultural leadership is what Gramsci has identified as hegemony, an indispensable
concept for any understanding of cultural life in the industrial West. It is hegemony, or rather the
result of cultural hegemony at work, that gives Orientalism the durability and the strength I have
been speaking about so far. Orientalism is never far from what Denys Hay has called the idea of
Europe,3 a collective notion identifying “us” Europeans as against all “those” non-Europeans, and
indeed it can be argued that the major component in European culture is precisely what made that
culture hegemonic both in and outside Europe: the idea of European identiy as a superior one in
comparison with all the non-European peoples and cultures. There is in addition the hegemony of
European ideas about the Orient, themselves reiterating European superiority over Orental
backwardness usually overriding the possibility that a more independent, or more skeptical,
thinker might have had different views on the matter.
In a quite constant way, Orientalism depends for its strategy on this flexible positional
superiority, which puts the Westerner in a whole series of possible relationships with the Orient
without ever losing him the relative upper hand. And why should it have been otherwise,
especially during the period of extraordinary European ascendancy from the late Renaissance to
the present? The scientist, the scholar, the missionary, the trader, or the soldier was in, or thought
about, the Orient because he could be there, or could think about it, with very little resistance on
the Orient’s part. Under the general heading of knowledge of the Orient, and within the umbrella
of Western hegemony over the Orient during the period from the end of the eighteenth century,
there emerged a complex Orient suitable for study in the academy, for display in the museum, for
reconstruction in the colonial office, for theoretical illustration in anthropological, biological,
linguistic, racial, and historical theses about mankind and the universe, for instances of economic
and sociological theories of development, revolution, cultural personality,
16
national or religious character. Additionally, the imaginative examination of things Oriental was
based more or less exclusively upon a sovereign Western consciousness out of whose
unchallenged centrality an Oriental world emerged, first according to general ideas about who or
what was an Oriental, then according to a detailed logic governed not simply by empirical reality
but by a battery of desires, regressions, investments, and projections. If we can point to great
Orientalist works of genuine scholarship like Silvestre de Sacy’s Chrestomathie arabe or Edward
William Lane’s Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, we need also to
note that Renan’s and Gobineau’s racial ideas came out of the same impulse, as did a great many
Victorian pornographic novels (see the analysis by Steven Marcus of “The Lustful Turk”4
`).
And yet, one must repeatedly ask oneself whether what matters in Orientalism is the general
group of ideas overriding the mass of material-about which who could deny that they were shot
through with doctrines of European superiority, various kinds of racism, imperialism, and the
like, dogmatic views of “the Oriental” as a kind of ideal and unchanging abstraction? —or the
much more varied work produced by almost uncountable individual writers, whom one would
take up as individual instances of authors dealing with the Orient. In a sense the two alternatives,
general and particular, are really two perspectives on the same material: in both instances one
would have to deal with pioneers in the field like William Jones, with great artists like Nerval or
Flaubert. And why would it not be possible to employ both perspectives together, or one after the
other? Isn’t there an obvious danger of distortion (of precisely the kind that academic Orientalism
has always been prone to) if either too general or too specific a level of description is maintained
systematically?
My two fears are distortion and inaccuracy, or rather the kind of inaccuracy produced by too
dogmatic a generality and too positivistic a localized focus. In trying to deal with these problems
I have tried to deal with three main aspects of my own contemporary reality that seem to me to
point the way out of the methodological or perspectival difficulties I have been discussing,
difficulties that might force one, in the first instance, into writing a coarse polemic on so
unacceptably general a level of description as not to be worth the effort, or in the second instance,
into writing so detailed and atomistic a series of analyses as to lose all track of the general
17
lines of force informing the field, giving it its special cogency. How then to recognize
individuality and to reconcile it with its intelligent, and by no means passive or merely dictatorial,
general and hegemonic context?
III
I mentioned three aspects of my contemporary reality: I must explain and briefly discuss
them now, so that it can be seen how I was led to a particular course of research and writing.
1. The distinction between pure and political knowledge. It is very easy to argue that
knowledge about Shakespeare or Wordsworth is not political whereas knowledge about
contemporary China or the Soviet Union is. My own formal and professional designation is that
of “humanist,” a title which indicates the humanities as my field and therefore the unlikely
eventuality that there might be anything political about what I do in that field. Of course, all these
labels and terms are quite unnuanced as I use them here, but the general truth of what I am
pointing to is, I think, widely held. One reason for saying that a humanist who writes about
Wordsworth, or an editor whose specialty is Keats, is not involved in anything political is that
what he does seems to have no direct political effect upon reality in the everyday sense. A scholar
whose field is Soviet economics works in a highly charged area where there is much government
interest, and what he might produce in the way of studies or proposals will be taken up by
policymakers, government officials, institutional economists, intelligence experts. The distinction
between “humanists” and persons whose work has policy implications, or political significance,
can be broadened further by saying that the former’s ideological color is a matter of incidental
importance to politics (although possibly of great moment to his colleagues in the field, who may
object to his Stalinism or fascism or too easy liberalism), whereas the ideology of the latter is
woven directly into his material-indeed, economics, politics, and sociology in the modern -
academy are ideological sciences-and- therefore taken for granted as being “political. ” .
Nevertheless the determining impingement on most knowledge
18
produced in the contemporary West (and here I speak mainly about the United States) is that it be
nonpolitical, that is, scholarly, academic, impartial, above partisan or small-minded doctrinal
belief. One can have no quarrel with such an ambition in theory, perhaps, but in practice the
reality is much more problematic. No one has ever devised a method for detaching the scholar
from the circumstances of life, from the fact of his involvement (conscious or unconscious) with a
class, a set of beliefs, a social position, or from the mere activity of being a member of a society.
These continue to bear on what he does professionally, even though naturally enough his research
and its fruits do attempt to reach a level of relative freedom from the inhibitions and the
restrictions of brute, everyday reality. For there is such a thing as knowledge that is less, rather
than more, partial than the individual (with his entangling and distracting life circumstances) who
produces it. Yet this knowledge is not therefore automatically nonpolitical.
Whether discussions of literature or of classical philology are fraught with—or have
unmediated-political significance is a very large question that I have tried to treat in some detail
elsewhere. ’ What I am interested in doing now is suggesting how the general liberal consensus
that “true” knowledge is fundamentally non political (and conversely, that overtly political
knowledge is not “true” knowledge) obscures the highly if obscurely organized political
circumstances obtaining when knowledge is produced. No one is helped in understanding this
today when are adjective “political” is used as a label to discredit any work for daring to violate
the protocol of pretended suprapolitical objectivity. We may say, first, that civil society
recognizes a gradation of political importance in the various fields of knowledge. To some extent
the political importance given a field comes from the possibility of its direct translation into
economic terms; but to a greater extent political importance comes from the closeness of a field to
ascertainable sources of power in political society. Thus an economic study of long-term Soviet
energy potential and its effect on military capability is likely to be commissioned by the Defense
Department, and thereafter to acquire a kind of political status impossible for a study of Tolstoi’s
early fiction financed in part by a foundation. Yet both works belong in what civil society
acknowledges to be a similar field, Russian studies, even though one work may be done by a very
conservative economist, the other by a radical literary
19
historian. My point here is that “Russia” as a general subject matter has political priority over
nicer distinctions such as “economics” and “literary history,” because political society in
Gramsci’s sense reaches into such realms of civil society as the academy and saturates them with
significance of direct concern to it.
I do not want to press all this any further on general theoretical grounds: it seems to me that
the value and credibility of my case can be demonstrated by being much more specific, in the
way, for example, Noam Chomsky has studied the instrumental connection between the Vietnam
War and the notion of objective scholarship as it was applied To cover state-sponsored military
research. Now because Britain, France, and- recently the United States are imperial powers, their
political societies impart to their civil societies a sense of urgency, a direct political infusion as it
were, where and whenever matters pertaining to their imperial interests abroad are concerned. I
doubt that it is controversial, for example, to say that an Englishman in India or Egypt in the later
nineteenth century took an interest in those countries that was never far from their status in his
mind as British colonies. To say this may seem quite different from saying that all academic
knowledge about India and Egypt is somehow tinged and impressed with, violated by, the gross
political fact-and that is what 1 am saying in this study of Orientalism. For if it is true that no
production of knowledge in the human sciences can ever ignore or disclaim its author’s
involvement as a human subject in his own circumstances, then it must also be true that for a
European or American studying the Orient there can be no disclaiming the maid circumstances of
his actuality: that he comes up against the Orient as a European or American first, as an
individual second. And to be a European or an American in such a situation is by no means an
inert fact. It meant and means being aware, however dimly, that one belongs to a power with
definite interests in the Orient, and more important, that one belongs to a part of the earth with a
definite history of involvement in the Orient almost since the time of Homer.
Put in this way, these political actualities are still too undefined ltd general to be really
interesting. Anyone would agree to them without necessarily agreeing also that they mattered
very much, for instance, to Flaubert as he wrote Salammbó, or to H. A. R. Gibb as he wrote
Modern Trends in Islam. The trouble is that there is too great a distance between the big
dominating fact, as I have described it,
20
and the details of everyday life that govern the minute discipline of a novel or a scholarly text as
each is being written. Yet if we eliminate from the start any notion that “big” facts like imperial
domination can be applied mechanically and deterministically to such complex matters as culture
and ideas, then we will begin to approach an interesting kind of study. My idea is that European
and then American interest in the Orient was political according to some of the obvious historical
accounts of it that I have given here, but that it was the culture that created that interest, that acted
dynamically along with brute political, economic, and military rationales to make the Orient the
varied and complicated place that it obviously was in the field I call Orientalism.
Therefore, Orientalism is not a mere political subject matter or field that is reflected passively
by culture, scholarship, or institutions; nor is it a large and diffuse collection of texts about the
Orient; nor is it representative and expressive of some nefarious “Western” imperialist plot to
hold down the “Oriental” world. It is rather a distribution of geopolitical awareness into aesthetic,
scholarly, economic, sociological, historical, and philological texts; it is an elaboration not only
of a basic geographical distinction (the world is made up of two unequal halves, Orient and
Occident) but also of a whole series of “interests” which, by such means as scholarly discovery,
philological reconstruction, psychological analysis, landscape and sociological description, it not
only creates but also maintains; it is, rather than expresses, a certain will or intention to
understand, in some cases to control, manipulate, even to incorporate, what is a manifestly
different (or alternative and novel) world; it is, above all, a discourse that is by no means in
direct, corresponding relationship with political power in the raw, but rather is produced and
exists in an uneven exchange with various kinds of power, shaped to a degree by the exchange
with power political (as with a colonial or imperial establishment), power intellectual (as with
reigning sciences like comparative linguistics or anatomy, or any of the modern policy sciences),
power cultural (as with orthodoxies and canons of taste, texts, values), power moral (as with ideas
about what “we” do and what “they” cannot do or understand as “we” do). Indeed, my real
argument is that Orientalism is-and does not simply represent-a considerable dimension of
modern political-intellectual culture, and as such has less to do with the Orient than it does with
“our” world.
21
Because Orientalism is a cultural and a political fact, then, it does not exist in some archival
vacuum; quite the contrary, I think it can be shown that what is thought, said, or even done about
the Orient follows (perhaps occurs within) certain distinct and intellectually knowable lines. Here
too a considerable degree of nuance and elaboration can be seen working as between the broad
superstructural pressures and the details of composition, the facts of textuality. Most humanistic
scholars are, I think, perfectly happy with the notion that texts exist in contexts, that there is such
a thing as intertextuality, that the pressures of conventions, predecessors, and rhetorical styles
limit what Walter Benjamin once called the “overtaxing of the productive person in the name of .
. . the principle of `creativity,’ “in which the poet is believed on his own, and out of his pure
mind, to have brought forth his work. ’ Yet there is a reluctance to allow that political,
institutional, and ideological constraints act in the same manner on the individual author. A
humanist will believe it to be an interesting fact to any interpreter of Balzac that he was
influenced in the Comédie humaine by the conflict between Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Cuvier,
but the same sort of pressure on Balzac of deeply reactionary monarchism is felt in some vague
way to demean his literary “genius” and therefore to be less worth serious study. Similarly-as
Harry Bracken has been tirelessly showing-philosophers will conduct their discussions of Locke,
Hume, and empiricism without ever taking into account that there is an explicit connection in
these classic writers between their “philosophic” doctrines racial theory, justifications of slavery,
or arguments for colonial exploitation. 8
These are common enough ways by which contemporary
scholarship keeps itself pure.
Perhaps it is true that most attempts to rub culture’s nose in the mud of politics have been
crudely iconoclastic; per perhaps also the social interpretation of literature in my own field has
simply riot kept up with the enormous technical advances in detailed textual analysis. But there is
no getting away from the fact that Weary studies in general, and American Marxist theorists in
particular, have avoided the effort of seriously bridging the gap between the superstructural and
the base levels in textual, historical scholarship; on another occasion I have gone so far as to say
that the literary-cultural establishment as a whole has declare the serious study of imperialism and
culture off limits. 9 For Orientalism brings one up directly against that question-that is, to realizing
22
that political imperialism governs an entire field of study, imagination, and scholarly institutionsin
such a way as to make its avoidance an intellectual and historical impossibility. Yet there will
always remain the perennial escape mechanism of saying that a literary scholar and a philosopher,
for example, are trained in literature and philosophy respectively, not in politics or ideological
analysis. In other words, the specialist argument can work quite effectively to block the larger
and, in my opinion, the more intellectually serious perspective.
Here it seems to me there is a simple two-part answer to be given, at least so far as the study
of imperialism and culture (or Orientalism) is concerned. In the first place, nearly every
nineteenth-century writer (and the same is true enough of writers in earlier periods) was
extraordinarily well aware of the fact of empire: this is a subject not very well studied, but it will
not take a modern Victorian specialist long to admit that liberal cultural heroes like John Stuart
Mill, Arnold, Carlyle, Newman, Macaulay, Ruskin, George Eliot, and even Dickens had definite
views on race and imperialism, which are quite easily to be found at work in their writing. So even
a specialist must deal with the knowledge that Mill, for example, made it clear in On Libert and
Representative Government that his views there could not be applied to India (he was an India
Office functionary for a good deal of his life; after all) because the Indians were civilizationally,
if not racially, inferior. The same kind of paradox is to be found in Marx, as I try to show in this
book. In the second place, to believe that politics in the form of imperialism bears upon the
production of literature, scholarship, social theory, and history writing is by no means equivalent
to saying that culture is therefore a demeaned or denigrated thing. Quite the contrary: my whole
point is to say that we can better understand the persistence and the durability of saturating
hegemonic systems like culture when we realize that their internal constraints upon writers and
thinkers were productive, not unilaterally inhibiting. It is this idea that Gramsci, certainly, and
Foucault and Raymond Williams in their very different ways have been trying to illustrate.