About six o'clock he was ready to
receive his lector or to converse with artists and
learned men.
receive his lector or to converse with artists and
learned men.
Treitschke - 1915 - Confessions of Frederick the Great
The comparison is
irresistible, for Philip, the rough northern neigh-
bour of Athens, laid the foundation of his son's
conquests, just as Frederick William, the rough
northern neighbour of the Empire, laid the
foundations of the conquests of Frederick the
Great.
And here I must define the expressions "the
Empire " and " German, " which will come so often
into these pages. It is incorrect to call it the
"German Empire. " There never was a German
Emperor actually so-called until WilHam the First
was crowned at Versailles, less than half a century
ago. Maria Theresa's father and husband, who
come into these pages, were Holy Roman Emper-
ors, the successors of the Emperors of the West,
who in their turn had succeeded to the western
half of the Empire founded by Augustus. And
until Maria Theresa's father died, the Emperors
for more than three hundred years in tmbroken
succession had been elected from the House of
Habsburg, who ruled the Austrian monarchy.
As Emperors, the Holy Roman Emperors, even
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? Introduction 7
Charles the Fifth, had no dominions. They were
merely the elected heads of the Holy Roman
Empire, which was, in fact, a loose confederation
of German electors and minor princes. But the
Empire had so long been identified with the Aus-
trian House that the hereditary Austrian domin-
ions became confused with it.
This arrangement seemed likely to go on for
ever, when Prussia, representing the Electorate of
Brandenburg, interfered to get a Bavarian chosen
to replace Maria Theresa's father; but, in point of
fact, in 1806 the I. '^oly Roman Emperor changed his
title to Emperor of Austria, on the groimd that
the Holy Roman Empire was no longer either
Holy, Roman, or an Empire.
Prussia was one of the States of the Empire,
and up to the period of Frederick certain Prussian
law-cases could be carried to the Imperial Courts.
It was once suggested to Frederick the Great
(perhaps prompted d, la Cccsar) that he should have
himself elected Emperor, but he dismissed the
suggestion with characteristic cynicisms about
the poverty of Prussia and the jealousy which it
would provoke from the other States. The
Empire was usually referred to as the Holy Empire
and the word German was not used to signify a
person of Teutonic race, but a member of some
State included in the Holy Empire.
The great Frederick was born with humanistic
ideas uppermost; he took up military studies to
escape some of the awful bullying inflicted on him
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? 8 Introduction
by his father, who hated him so that he tried to
persecute the unhappy child into his grave. Only
the creator of "Oliver Twist" could adequately
describe the boyhood of Frederick the Great.
Frederick had to do so many things to deceive
his father that everyone thought that his interest
and apparent progress in military studies were
only clever pieces of acting. "I have just drilled,
I drill, I shall drill, " he wrote.
So cruel was the father, that the son at the age
of eighteen attempted to flee from Prussia with
his "chum" and confidant, the youthful Katte.
They were arrested and flimg into prison, and
charged with high treason as military officers
who had deserted. Katte, in spite of his acquittal
by the court-martial appointed to try him, was
executed -- a refinement of cruelty -- before his
friend's eyes. Frederick, who had begged to die
in Katte's place, fainted with anguish, and would
have shared his fate but for the remonstrances of
the Emperor. The ambassadors of other sover-
eigns joined in the protest, but probably weighed
nothing in comparison.
Frederick William only listened to the Emperor
as his technical lord, from whom he lacked the
military courage to declare himself free. He
pursued his revenge in various ways. When he
was tired of treating his son as a convict, he made
him marry a woman he did not like, the same
woman who was giving a party at Schonhausen
while Frederick was dying. How Frederick dreaded
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? Introduction 9
his father is proved by an anecdote told by Mr.
Reddaway. "It was Hke a foretaste of death,"
he said, "when a hussar appeared to command his
presence at Berlin. "
I do not know whether to regard the letter which
Frederick wrote to express his submission to his
father as the bottom rung of sycophancy or as
a masterpiece of irony and treachery interblent.
I give Carlyle's translation:
"CusTRiN, 19th November, 1730.
"All-Serenest and All-graciousest Father, --
" To your Royal Majesty, my All-graciousest
Father, have" (i. e. , "1 have," if one durst write the
"I" -- Carlyle), "by my disobedience as Theiro"
(Youro) "subject and soldier, not less than by my
undutifulness as Theiro Son, given occasion to a just
wrath and aversion against me. With the All-obed-
ientest respect I submit myself wholly to the grace of
my most All-gracious Father; and beg him. Most
Ail-graciously to pardon me; as it is not so much the
withdrawal of my liberty in a sad arrest (malheureusen
Arrest), as my own thoughts of the fault I have com-
mitted, that have brought me to reason: Who, with
all-obedientest respect and submission, continue till
my end,
"My All-graciousest King's and Father's faithfully
obedientest
"Servant and Son,"
"Friedrich. "
But for his father's cruelty Frederick might
have borne one of the most honoured names in
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? 10 Introduction
history, instead of fouling his greatness as a
conqueror, and his goodness as a father of his
country, by reducing to a system for Prussia the
treachery and statecraft of Caesar Borgia. For it
was Frederick the Great who founded the Borgia
system, as avowed without shame by himself in
his Confessiojis.
Fortunately or unfortunately for Frederick, the
introducer of the Borgia system into Prussian
politics, the Red Cross was still unknown, or he
would doubtless have converted what victories
the Austrians did win against him into defeats.
I hold that the responsibility for the treachery
of Frederick the Great must be laid at the door of
his father, because without a system of smooth
lying he would have been murdered by that mon-
ster of cold-blooded cruelty.
With this single exception, Frederick comes well
out of that hellish ordeal. The breaking of the
flute which was his chief solace did not deprive him
of his love of music. His flute remained to him
what the harp of David was to Saul. He played
it for a couple of hours a day while he was solving
the stern problems of maintaining the national
existence. The depriving a born writer of all
books except the religious works which are to
literature what stones are to bread, could not rob
him of his desire to write or his literary gift. And,
above all, the harshness with which his governors
and gaolers were compelled to treat him, did not
lead to his revenging himself upon them, when he
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? Introduction ? il
came to have the power; and if he showed no
affection to his wife, or anyone else on earth except
the literary friends who were transfigured to him
by Genius, this also may be put down to Frederick
William, who not only gave him the gall of hatred
instead of the honey of parental love, but deliber-
ately cut him off from every soft breeze of affection.
His sister Wilhelmina of Baireuth, his fellow-vic-
tim imder the lash, jeigned alone in the one tender
spot in his heart.
His treachery included ingratitude and invested
it with a halo in militarist eyes. It may be due
to a distorted hero-worship for Frederick that the
obligations of hospitality meant less to the Ger-
mans of Antwerp than to the Bedouin of the desert.
Frederick owed his Hfe to Maria Theresa's
father, yet when the Emperor died, he not only
broke the Pragmatic Sanction, Hke the other
monarchs who had signed it, but actually marched
his armies into one of the girl-Princess's richest
provinces in a time of profoimd peace and seized
it. The acquisition of Silesia by Prussia was the
first fruit of Frederick's treachery and brigandage
-- the brigandage extolled by von Bernhardi and
practised by Potsdam. Treachery continued to
sully his glory through every alliance of his reign.
When his ally prospered too much, he went over
to the enemy; it was no part of his policy to let
France crush Austria or Austria crush France.
And though England deserted him instead of his
deserting England, he was offering to desert her for
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? 12 Introduction
France at the same time as he told the British
Ambassador, on Jtily 9, 1757, that "His Prussian
Majesty said that as he resolved to continue
firmly united with His [Britannic] Majesty, it
would be to their mutual interest to think of terms
of peace honourable and safe for both, " etc.
When he was about to seize Silesia, he wrote to
Podewils, who urged that some legal claim could be
furbished up: "The question of right {droit) is
the affair of ministers: it is your affair; it is time
to work at it in secret, for the orders to the troops
are given. " And a quarter of a century later he
wrote: "The jurisprudence of sovereigns is com-
monly the right of the Stronger. "
I may now turn to the white side of his shield,
and I turn with pleasure, for Frederick the Great
was truly great -- perhaps it would not be too much
to say that no one has ever better deserved to be
the national hero. For Prussia would have dis-
appeared from the face of Europe if it had not been
for his invincible soul, instead of being blessed with
a vastly increased population and territory, and
when he had made her position secure on the
battle-field, he showed equal ability and resolution
in rehabilitating commerce and agriculture in his
ruined kingdom, which, after all his wars, he left
free from debt. Nor does the total number of
Prussian soldiers killed during his reign (180,000)
contrast unfavourably with the losses of his
descendant's armies in three months of the present
war.
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? Introduction 13
While his wars lasted, every interest in his
kingdom was sacrificed to the maintenance of his
army. He did not pay any of the salaries to the
civil employees of the Government from his min-
isters downwards, and he drained the country of
nearly everything except the men employed in
agriculture. But when war was over he employed
his war-treasure of 25,000,000 thalers saved for the
next campaign, and his war-horses -- sixty thousand
of them -- and even the personnel of his army in
restoring agriculture and re-starting industries,
and he not only restored them, but set about "pro-
tecting" them.
Justice has not been rendered to his efforts in
this direction, because most of our English lives of
Frederick were written at a time when Free Trade
was a fetish hymned by a chorus of half -persuaded
hypocrites. Frederick saw, as the founders of the
commercial greatness of the United States and the
new German Empire saw, that the creation of
industries depended on discouraging the importa-
tion of anything which could be manufactured in
the country.
The success of Free Trade in England for so
many years reminds me of what Barney Thompson,
the bookmaker, said to one of the richest men in
Australia, when the latter was being purse-proud
in the bar of Mack's Hotel after the Geelong Races :
"What's the good of you blowing about yoiir
money? -- a log could have made it when you did. "
At that time England's Free-traders had met with
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? 14 Introduction
no opposition, because no one else had anything
to sell. Frederick's policy of protection pre-
vented any of the sorely needed gold from leaving
Prussia, and resulted in the establishment of all
sorts of industries, notably those of an agricul-
tural nature. These he helped in a novel way,
and one which was of the highest importance, in a
direction the value of which is not only realized
still in Germany, but is being reaped by Germany
at this moment.
Frederick, who, when his reign began, had a
standing army of over eighty thousand men, raised
from a population of little over two millions, saw
that the amount of fighting men which any nation
can put into the field must ultimately depend on its
population, and Prussia's population was a widow's
mite compared with Austria's. Accordingly he
set to work to drain the marshes in his kingdom,
and settle them with foreigners selected for their
sturdiness, who were induced to accept the position
by gifts of land and exemption from taxes for so
many years. When he died Prussia contained five
million inhabitants and seventy-five thousand
square miles.
Frederick enjoys the further fame of being for
his time a very humane prince. He reduced
capital punishment as much as he could, and was
never vindictive in repressing the indiscretions of
well-disposed people.
This was of a piece with his extraordinary toler-
ance in religious matters. He allowed and pro-
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? Introduction 15
tected all creeds. He allowed his subjects to think
as they liked, provided that they let him do as he
liked. He not only restored the Lutherans, whose
religion was the most dynastic of German religions,
to all their liberties and privileges, but he wel-
comed the Jesuits when they were expelled from
other countries, and found a use for them, because
the supply of educators had rim short in his wars.
They acclimatized readily and impressed their
methods even upon Prussian diplomacy.
In spite of all the ravages of his wars, he left
Prussia immensely stronger than when he came to
it; he laid the foundations upon which Bismarck
reared the stately edifice of the new German
Empire, the edifice filled to overflowing with wealth
and prosperity by William II before he com-
menced the mad gamble now in progress -- a gamble
which recalls the prophecy of Mirabeau: "If ever
a foolish prince ascends this throne we shaU see the
formidable giant suddenly collapse, and Prussia
will fall like Sweden. "
Frederick had few pleasiires, except that of hos-
pitality. He liked good living, and for his boon
companions chose men of the highest intellect,.
chiefly Frenchmen. All the world knows of his
almost passionate friendship for Voltaire, tempered
as it was by Voltaire's contempt for Frederick
except as a man of action, and Frederick's con-
tempt for Voltaire except as a man of letters.
When Voltaire came to Frederick as a political
envoy, Frederick laughed at his diplomacy just as
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? i6 Introduction
much as Voltaire laughed at the King's French
verses. How malicious he could be about Voltaire
will be found in the Confessions. D'Alembert
was another friend of Frederick's, and he made
Maupertuis the head of the Berlin Academy.
He was an indefatigable worker. When he died,
it was said of him that his death was the only rest
he ever took in his life. He certainly worked just
as hard till the day of his death, for at eleven
o'clock on his last night he ordered that he should
be waked at four to work. But he died two hours
too soon in the arms of the faithful valet who had
been holding him up since midnight. The last
words he spoke were to ask for his favourite dog,
and to bid them cover it with a quilt.
Of his habits, Mr. W. F. Reddaway, the most
readable of his biographers, wrote:
His habit was to rise at dawn or earlier. The
first three or four hours of the morning were allotted
to toilet, correspondence, a desultory breakfast of
strong coffee and fruit, preceded by a deep draught of
cold water flavoured with fennel leaves, and flute-
playing as an accompaniment to meditation on busi-
ness. Then came one or two hours of rapid work with
his secretaries, followed by parade, audiences, and
perhaps a little exercise. Punctually at noon Freder-
ick sat down to dinner, which was always the chief
social event of the day, and in later life became his only
solid meal. He supervised his kitchen like a depart-
ment of State, He considered and often amended the
bill of fare, which contained the names of the cooks
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? Introduction 17
responsible for every dish. After dinner he marked
with a cross the courses which had merited his ap-
proval. He inspected his household accounts with
minute care and proved himself a master of domestic
economy. The result was a dinner that Voltaire
considered fairly good for a country in which there was
no game, no decent meat, and no spring chickens.
Two hours, sometimes even four, were spent at
table. Occasionally the time was devoted to the dis-
cussion of important business with high officials,
but in general Frederick used it to refresh himself after
his six or seven hours of toil. He ate freely, preferring
highly spiced dishes, drank claret mixed with water,
and talked incessantly. He was a skilful and agree-
able host, putting his guests instantly at their ease, and
by Voltaire's account, calling forth wit in others.
After dismissing the company he returned to his
flute, and then put the final touches to the morning's
business. After this he drank coffee and passed some
two hours in seclusion. During this period he nerved
himself for fresh grappling with affairs by plunging into
literature. In the year 1749 he produced no less
than forty works.
About six o'clock he was ready to
receive his lector or to converse with artists and
learned men. At seven began a small concert, in
which Frederick himself used often to perform. Sup-
per followed, but was brief, unless the conversation was
of unusual interest. Otherwise the King went to bed
at about nine o'clock and slept five or six hours. In
later life he gave up suppers, but continued to invite
a few friends for conversation. He then allowed him-
self rather more sleep. In his last years he lost the
power to play his flute, and with it, apparently, the
desire to hear music.
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? 1 8 Introduction
Mr. Reddaway adds that Frederick would not
endure the presence of any woman -- that, strictly
speaking, he had no courtiers, and that his private
secretary, Eichel, whom he worked like a slave,
was never seen by any human being.
Frederick, who wrote a great deal more than
most professional authors, could be really witty,
though much of his wit consisted in drawing atten-
tion to other people's weaknesses -- an easy per-
formance for an absolute monarch, since most men
can do it when they are too drunk to fear the con-
sequences, which may be the origin of the saying
in vino Veritas.
Treitschke gives Frederick a very high rank as
an author, but nothing which Frederick ever wrote
is as readable in a translation as the Confessions
which are given in this volume. The truth is that
eighteenth century writings have to be excellent
before they are readable, because they lack the
human frankness of some other centuries. This
frankness Frederick achieved only in the poorest
of his literary productions, and for this reason
Frederick's fame as an author is dead out of his
own country; he is read only for the light which
he throws upon that cynical, valiant soul which
achieved one of the greatest works in the world --
the creation of Prussia.
A few dates may be useful in following Treitsch-
ke' s life of the great Prussian King, for Treitschke
deals in dicta rather than dates.
Frederick was bom on January 24, 17 12. His
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? X
Introduction 19
mother was a sister of George II. He was eighteen
years old when he tried to flee with Katte to France,
and twenty-eight when his father died in 1740.
He was married in 1733 to Princess EHzabeth of
Brunswick-Bevem, related to the Austrian House.
The Emperor Charles VI, Maria Theresa's father,
died on October 20, 1740, and on December i6th
Frederick entered Silesia with twenty-eight thou-
sand men, with the intention of annexing it. His
victory at MoUwitz, which practically gave him
the coimtry, was fought on April 10, 1741, but
he was not confirmed in it till his victory of
Chotusitz, May 17, 1742, which was followed
on June nth by the Peace of Breslau.
This is called the first Silesian war. In the next
war against Austria, in 1744 (the second Silesian
war), he took Prague, September 16, 1744, but
had to abandon it shortly afterwards. He had
his revenge at his great victories of Hohenfriedberg,
on June 5, 1745, and Sohr, September 30, 1745,
both against the Austrians, and Hennersdorf,
November 23, 1745, against the Austrians and
Saxons combined, while the Prince of Dessau
defeated another Austrian and Saxon army at
Kesselsdorf on December 15th. The second
Silesian war was terminated by the Peace of Dres-
den, signed on Christmas Day, 1745.
On August 29, 1756, Frederick crossed the
Saxon frontier and began the Seven Years' War.
The indecisive battle of Lobositz was fought
between Frederick and the Austrian Marshal
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? 20 Introduction
Browne, and before the end of the year he took
possession of Saxony. On May 6, 1757, he won
the battle of Prague, after enormous losses on both
sides, and blockaded the city; but on June i8th
he lost the great battle of Kollin, and had to raise
the blockade and evacuate Bohemia. On Novem-
ber 5, 1757, he won the great battle of Rossbach,
and a month later another supreme victory at
Leuthen. On the 2 ist, Breslau capitulated to him,
and a week later Liegnitz. But his General,
Lehwaldt, had been defeated by the Russian
General Apraxin at Gross-Jagersdorf on August
30th. In 1758 he marched into Moravia and
besieged Olmiitz, but was compelled to retreat
owing to the capture of a convoy of three or four
thousand wagons by the Austrian General Laudon ;
on August 25th he won the battle of Zomdorf
over the Russians, which ended their campaign,
but on October 14th he was surprised and heavily
defeated by the Austrians at Hochkirch, and on
the same day lost his sister, the Margravine of
Baireuth.
But for the English subsidy of 4,000,000 thalers
Frederick would have been starved out in 1759.
On July 25th his army was defeated by the Rus-
sians at Kay, and on August 12th he saw his army
utterly routed by the combined Austrians and
Russians at Kunersdorf, He lost Dresden by
surrender on September 24th, and on November
23d Finck and his army of 12,000 men laid down
their arms at Maxen.
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? Introduction 21
In the western field things had gone better.
Ferdinand of Brunswick had driven the French
army across the Rhine on June 23, 1758, at
Crefeld, and though the French took Frankfurt
on January 2, 1759, and won a battle at Bergen
on April 13, 1759, they were severely defeated
at Minden, August i, 1759.
On June 23, 1760, a Prussian corps was anni-
hilated at Landeshut and Glatz capitulated on
July 22d. But Frederick won a great victory
over the Austrians under Laudon at Liegnitz on
August 15th, and a hotly contested battle against
the Austrians under Daun at Torgau on Novem-
ber 3d, though Laudon had surprised and captured
the great fortress of Schweidnitz on October ist.
The condition of Prussia at the end of this year
appeared hopeless ; the army had declined to sixty
thousand men, and even more in quality than in
numbers. But on January 5, 1762, the Czarina
Elizabeth of Russia died, and was succeeded by her
nephew, Peter III, the husband of the great
Catherine, who was an idolatrous admirer of
Frederick and at once recalled the Russian army.
Prussia and Russia signed a peace on May 5th,
and an offensive and defensive alliance on June
8th, and Sweden made peace with Prussia at
Hamburg on May 22d.
But in the interval the elder Pitt had been
replaced as Prime Minister of England by the
feeble Bute, who had but one desire -- to terminate
the war as soon as possible, and six months after
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? 22 Introduction
Peter Ill's succession the whole of Russia became
so disgusted with him that on July 9, 1762, he
was deposed by his wife, and a few days later
strangled by her lover, Alexis Orloff. On July
21, 1762, Frederick won a battle over the Aus-
trians at Burkersdorf, and in October captured
Schweidnitz, Before the end of the year a truce
was made which proved to be the end of the Seven
Years' War -- the Peace of Hubertusburg being
signed on February 5, 1763.
Neither Frederick nor the Austrians gained an
inch of territory in the Seven Years' War, but
Austria failed in her object, which was to form a
coalition to crush Frederick, and from this time for-
wards Prussia and Austria were equals and rivals.
It took Frederick twenty-three years, exactly
half his reign, to arrive at this. The other half
was spent almost entirely in peace, though there
was a campaign, and gave Frederick the oppor-
tunity to show his powers of organizing agricul-
tural and commercial enterprises and an economic
system.
The principal events of the latter half of Freder-
ick's reign were the Partition of Poland, the Bava-
rian Succession War, and the foundation of the
League of Princes. In 1772, Frederick persuaded
Austria and Russia to join him in the first Partition
of Poland. His share was of great value to him,
because until he obtained possession of Prussian
Poland, East Prussia was detached from the rest
of the kingdom.
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? Introduction 23
Maria Theresa was only with great difficulty
persuaded by her ambitious son to come into the
arrangement. She complained that they had
aimed at two incompatible objects at once, "to
act in the Prussian fashion, and at the same time to
preserve the semblance of honesty," to which
Frederick sneeringly repUed : ' ' She is always weep-
ing but always annexing. "
The War of the Bavarian Succession in 1778 led
to very little fighting. The main armies were
unable to attack each other, and when the Czarina
threatened to interfere on the Prussian side,
Austria came to terms and made the Peace of
Teschen, May 13, 1779. A year and a half later
Maria Theresa died, leaving the restless Joseph
without any steadying influence. To counter his
attempts to increase the Imperial authority,
Frederick gradually worked up not only the Pro-
testant Princes of the Empire, but even the Cath-
olic ecclesiastical States, to form the League of
Princes (Furstenbund) , which was signed in the
first instance by Brandenburg, Hanover, and
Saxony only, on July 23, 1785. About a year
afterwards, on August 17, 1786, Frederick died
at the age of seventy -foiir.
This Filrstenhund was a fitting conclusion to his
career, for it coincides approximately with the new
German Empire.
Frederick found Prussia the smallest and weak-
est of the Great Powers, and left her equal to any
of them. That should be his epitaph.
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? 24 Introduction
TREITSCHKE's study of FREDERICK THE GREAT
Treitschke's study of Frederick would be inter-
esting if it were only as a tour de force of character
analysis. I think he overestimates the value of
Frederick's Anti-Machiavel and his Letters on
Patriotism, which are practically dead as far as
the foreign reader is concerned; but in other re-
spects his delineation of Frederick is compara-
tively free from the advocate's partisanship which
depreciates Treitschke's value as an historian.
Whether Treitschke would have treated Freder-
ick so impartially if he had been alive now is
doubtful. To give an instance: a couple of pages
after his magnificent summing-up of Frederick's
greatness, he has a paragraph which is about the
strongest condemnation of the present war which
ever came from a German pen :
The love of peace of the House of HohenzoUern
remained alive even in its greatest war-princes.
Frederick valued power, but only as a means for the
well-being and civilization of the nations; that it
should be an end in itself, that the struggle for power
as such should bestow historic fame, seemed to him
as an insult to the honour of a sovereign. Therefore
he wrote his passionate polemic-treatise against
Machiavelli. Therefore, in his writings, he returned
again and again to the terrible warning of Charles XII
of Sweden. He might have felt secretly that iii his
own breast were working irresistible forces, which
might lead him to similar errors, and was never tired
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? Introduction 25
of portraying the hoUowness of objectless military
fame . . . . Already in his impetuous youth he had
made up his mind about the moral objects of power:
"This State must become strong," he wrote at that
time, "that it may play the lofty rdle of preserving
peace only from love of justice, and not from fear.
But if ever injustice, bias, and vice gain the upper hand
in Prussia, then I wish the House of Brandenburg
a speedy downfall. That says all. "
To show how different from this is the undiluted
Treitschke, one may quote a passage which has
inspired numberless passages in von Bemhardi:
The educational power of war awakened again
in these North-German races above all that rough
pride which once inspirited the invaders of Italy
(Romfahrer) and the conquerors of the Slavs in the
Middle Ages.
And a few sentences later on he talks of the
"descendants of those heroic nations, the Vandals
and the Goths," in the same way as the present
Emperor bade his soldiers emulate the Huns in
an unfortunate speech which has given, through
newspaper-headings, a severe blow to the German
cause in America.
Yet Treitschke, like von Bemhardi, was, when
he was not crusading, very sane and fair. He
writes, for instance: "The alert self-reliance of the
Prussians contrasted strongly with the inoffensive
kindly modesty of the other Germans, " just as the
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? 26 Introduction
war news of to-day often contrasts the Saxons' or
Bavarians' behaviour in Belgium or France with
that of the Prussians. And a Httle lower down
he says: "It was betrayed now in confident brag-
ging, in the thousand satirical anecdotes of Im-
perial stupidity and Prussian Hussar strategisms. "
For which von Hindenburg's name will probably
supply dictionaries with a new word.
Yet you can see in Frederick many signs of the
anticipation of modern Prussian ideas which
make him one of the most interesting figures in
history, as he is one of the greatest figures at the
present time. For in many ways the Prussia of
to-day is the Prussia of Frederick's time come to
life again. It was Frederick who said :
With such soldiers there is no risk : a General who in
other armies would be considered foolhardy, is only
considered with us as doing his duty. [And again he
says :] It seems that Heaven has appointed the King
to make all preparations which wise precautions
before the beginning of a war demand. Who knows,
if Providence has not reserved it for me to make a
glorious use of these war means at some future time,
and to convert them to the realization of the plans for
which the foresight of my fathers intended them?
But I do not agree with Treitschke when he
writes: "It was Frederick's work that . . . a
third tendency should arise, a policy which was
only Prussian, and nothing further: to it Ger-
many's future belonged. " And he writes later
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? Introduction 27
on: "Dohm concluded a clever pamphlet with
these words: 'German and Prussian interests can
never stand in one another's way. ' The discern-
ing mind of the old King was not moved by such
dreams. "
And we know how widely spread the distrust of
Prussia was in Frederick's day, because Goethe,
quoted by Treitschke, tells us that: "Even the
humblest and weakest of the allied States, Weimar
and Dessau, secretly discussed how they could
protect themselves against their Prussian protect-
or's lust of power. "
When Treitschke talks of the moral justification
of the treacherous seizure of Silesia, one is irresist-
ibly reminded of the justification of the present
war by von Bemhardi and others, for the benefi-
cent results likely to happen from the spread of
Prussian Kultur -- the culture which it would be
more reasonable to call the Prussian vulture,
Treitschke damns Frederick's excuses for seizing
Silesia with faint apologies:
He wished to spare Austria, and contented himself
with bringing forward the most important of the
carefully pondered pretensions of his House. Alone,
without vouchsafing one word to the foreign Powers
on the watch, with an overwhelming invading force,
he broke into Silesia. Germany, used to the solemn
reflections and cross-reflections of her Imperial law-
yers, received with astonishment and indignation the
doctrine that the rights of States were only to be
maintained by active power.
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? 28 Introduction
Elsewhere in this book it will be seen how
Frederick excelled himself on this occasion by
ordering Podewils to find excuses because he had
already given orders to his troops. The doctrine
of the active power has been exploited for all it is
worth by von Bernhardi in his Germany and the
Next War.
Treitschke is not very convincing upon the
subject of Poland. His complaints of "the Poles'
horrible outrages in the Weichsel district, with
that insolent disregard of the rights of others and
the nationality of others which distinguishes the
Poles above all the nations of Europe," leaves us
cold, when our paper every morning brings news
of fresh devastation in Poland. And the sentence
in which Treitschke complains that: "Others re-
peated credulously what Poland's old confederates,
the French, invented to stigmatize the partitioning
Powers," simply kills Treitschke 's reputation as
an impartial historian. The world of honest men
has never ceased to condemn the Partition of
Poland, and hailed with almost religious delight
Russia's proclamation that the ancient nation of
the Poles should be reconstituted as a practically
autonomous people under the shield of the Lion
of the East, the great protector of Slav nationality.
Any criticism, which Germany might have to make
on the subject, is discounted by the fact that she
at once proceeded to suggest a German parody of
the movement, a highly improved province to
embrace Russian Poland as well as Prussian Po-
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? Introduction 29
land. And any advantages, which may have been
latent in this suggestion, are rendered difficult of
realization by the Belging of Russian Poland.
The question of the Balance of Power, which is
handled so destructively by von Bernhardi, comes
up a good deal in Treitschke's life of Frederick
the Great. I think von Bernhardi was right, but
I arrive at my conclusions from a standpoint which
he would hardly share. The European balance
of power for many years has been like a wooden
garden fence, whose bottom under the soil has
rotted. From time to time -- the last time was
during and after the Balkan War against Turkey
-- Europe has been on the verge of a conflagration
like the present because Austria has resisted any
intelUgent solution of the Balkan question.
irresistible, for Philip, the rough northern neigh-
bour of Athens, laid the foundation of his son's
conquests, just as Frederick William, the rough
northern neighbour of the Empire, laid the
foundations of the conquests of Frederick the
Great.
And here I must define the expressions "the
Empire " and " German, " which will come so often
into these pages. It is incorrect to call it the
"German Empire. " There never was a German
Emperor actually so-called until WilHam the First
was crowned at Versailles, less than half a century
ago. Maria Theresa's father and husband, who
come into these pages, were Holy Roman Emper-
ors, the successors of the Emperors of the West,
who in their turn had succeeded to the western
half of the Empire founded by Augustus. And
until Maria Theresa's father died, the Emperors
for more than three hundred years in tmbroken
succession had been elected from the House of
Habsburg, who ruled the Austrian monarchy.
As Emperors, the Holy Roman Emperors, even
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? Introduction 7
Charles the Fifth, had no dominions. They were
merely the elected heads of the Holy Roman
Empire, which was, in fact, a loose confederation
of German electors and minor princes. But the
Empire had so long been identified with the Aus-
trian House that the hereditary Austrian domin-
ions became confused with it.
This arrangement seemed likely to go on for
ever, when Prussia, representing the Electorate of
Brandenburg, interfered to get a Bavarian chosen
to replace Maria Theresa's father; but, in point of
fact, in 1806 the I. '^oly Roman Emperor changed his
title to Emperor of Austria, on the groimd that
the Holy Roman Empire was no longer either
Holy, Roman, or an Empire.
Prussia was one of the States of the Empire,
and up to the period of Frederick certain Prussian
law-cases could be carried to the Imperial Courts.
It was once suggested to Frederick the Great
(perhaps prompted d, la Cccsar) that he should have
himself elected Emperor, but he dismissed the
suggestion with characteristic cynicisms about
the poverty of Prussia and the jealousy which it
would provoke from the other States. The
Empire was usually referred to as the Holy Empire
and the word German was not used to signify a
person of Teutonic race, but a member of some
State included in the Holy Empire.
The great Frederick was born with humanistic
ideas uppermost; he took up military studies to
escape some of the awful bullying inflicted on him
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? 8 Introduction
by his father, who hated him so that he tried to
persecute the unhappy child into his grave. Only
the creator of "Oliver Twist" could adequately
describe the boyhood of Frederick the Great.
Frederick had to do so many things to deceive
his father that everyone thought that his interest
and apparent progress in military studies were
only clever pieces of acting. "I have just drilled,
I drill, I shall drill, " he wrote.
So cruel was the father, that the son at the age
of eighteen attempted to flee from Prussia with
his "chum" and confidant, the youthful Katte.
They were arrested and flimg into prison, and
charged with high treason as military officers
who had deserted. Katte, in spite of his acquittal
by the court-martial appointed to try him, was
executed -- a refinement of cruelty -- before his
friend's eyes. Frederick, who had begged to die
in Katte's place, fainted with anguish, and would
have shared his fate but for the remonstrances of
the Emperor. The ambassadors of other sover-
eigns joined in the protest, but probably weighed
nothing in comparison.
Frederick William only listened to the Emperor
as his technical lord, from whom he lacked the
military courage to declare himself free. He
pursued his revenge in various ways. When he
was tired of treating his son as a convict, he made
him marry a woman he did not like, the same
woman who was giving a party at Schonhausen
while Frederick was dying. How Frederick dreaded
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? Introduction 9
his father is proved by an anecdote told by Mr.
Reddaway. "It was Hke a foretaste of death,"
he said, "when a hussar appeared to command his
presence at Berlin. "
I do not know whether to regard the letter which
Frederick wrote to express his submission to his
father as the bottom rung of sycophancy or as
a masterpiece of irony and treachery interblent.
I give Carlyle's translation:
"CusTRiN, 19th November, 1730.
"All-Serenest and All-graciousest Father, --
" To your Royal Majesty, my All-graciousest
Father, have" (i. e. , "1 have," if one durst write the
"I" -- Carlyle), "by my disobedience as Theiro"
(Youro) "subject and soldier, not less than by my
undutifulness as Theiro Son, given occasion to a just
wrath and aversion against me. With the All-obed-
ientest respect I submit myself wholly to the grace of
my most All-gracious Father; and beg him. Most
Ail-graciously to pardon me; as it is not so much the
withdrawal of my liberty in a sad arrest (malheureusen
Arrest), as my own thoughts of the fault I have com-
mitted, that have brought me to reason: Who, with
all-obedientest respect and submission, continue till
my end,
"My All-graciousest King's and Father's faithfully
obedientest
"Servant and Son,"
"Friedrich. "
But for his father's cruelty Frederick might
have borne one of the most honoured names in
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? 10 Introduction
history, instead of fouling his greatness as a
conqueror, and his goodness as a father of his
country, by reducing to a system for Prussia the
treachery and statecraft of Caesar Borgia. For it
was Frederick the Great who founded the Borgia
system, as avowed without shame by himself in
his Confessiojis.
Fortunately or unfortunately for Frederick, the
introducer of the Borgia system into Prussian
politics, the Red Cross was still unknown, or he
would doubtless have converted what victories
the Austrians did win against him into defeats.
I hold that the responsibility for the treachery
of Frederick the Great must be laid at the door of
his father, because without a system of smooth
lying he would have been murdered by that mon-
ster of cold-blooded cruelty.
With this single exception, Frederick comes well
out of that hellish ordeal. The breaking of the
flute which was his chief solace did not deprive him
of his love of music. His flute remained to him
what the harp of David was to Saul. He played
it for a couple of hours a day while he was solving
the stern problems of maintaining the national
existence. The depriving a born writer of all
books except the religious works which are to
literature what stones are to bread, could not rob
him of his desire to write or his literary gift. And,
above all, the harshness with which his governors
and gaolers were compelled to treat him, did not
lead to his revenging himself upon them, when he
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? Introduction ? il
came to have the power; and if he showed no
affection to his wife, or anyone else on earth except
the literary friends who were transfigured to him
by Genius, this also may be put down to Frederick
William, who not only gave him the gall of hatred
instead of the honey of parental love, but deliber-
ately cut him off from every soft breeze of affection.
His sister Wilhelmina of Baireuth, his fellow-vic-
tim imder the lash, jeigned alone in the one tender
spot in his heart.
His treachery included ingratitude and invested
it with a halo in militarist eyes. It may be due
to a distorted hero-worship for Frederick that the
obligations of hospitality meant less to the Ger-
mans of Antwerp than to the Bedouin of the desert.
Frederick owed his Hfe to Maria Theresa's
father, yet when the Emperor died, he not only
broke the Pragmatic Sanction, Hke the other
monarchs who had signed it, but actually marched
his armies into one of the girl-Princess's richest
provinces in a time of profoimd peace and seized
it. The acquisition of Silesia by Prussia was the
first fruit of Frederick's treachery and brigandage
-- the brigandage extolled by von Bernhardi and
practised by Potsdam. Treachery continued to
sully his glory through every alliance of his reign.
When his ally prospered too much, he went over
to the enemy; it was no part of his policy to let
France crush Austria or Austria crush France.
And though England deserted him instead of his
deserting England, he was offering to desert her for
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? 12 Introduction
France at the same time as he told the British
Ambassador, on Jtily 9, 1757, that "His Prussian
Majesty said that as he resolved to continue
firmly united with His [Britannic] Majesty, it
would be to their mutual interest to think of terms
of peace honourable and safe for both, " etc.
When he was about to seize Silesia, he wrote to
Podewils, who urged that some legal claim could be
furbished up: "The question of right {droit) is
the affair of ministers: it is your affair; it is time
to work at it in secret, for the orders to the troops
are given. " And a quarter of a century later he
wrote: "The jurisprudence of sovereigns is com-
monly the right of the Stronger. "
I may now turn to the white side of his shield,
and I turn with pleasure, for Frederick the Great
was truly great -- perhaps it would not be too much
to say that no one has ever better deserved to be
the national hero. For Prussia would have dis-
appeared from the face of Europe if it had not been
for his invincible soul, instead of being blessed with
a vastly increased population and territory, and
when he had made her position secure on the
battle-field, he showed equal ability and resolution
in rehabilitating commerce and agriculture in his
ruined kingdom, which, after all his wars, he left
free from debt. Nor does the total number of
Prussian soldiers killed during his reign (180,000)
contrast unfavourably with the losses of his
descendant's armies in three months of the present
war.
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? Introduction 13
While his wars lasted, every interest in his
kingdom was sacrificed to the maintenance of his
army. He did not pay any of the salaries to the
civil employees of the Government from his min-
isters downwards, and he drained the country of
nearly everything except the men employed in
agriculture. But when war was over he employed
his war-treasure of 25,000,000 thalers saved for the
next campaign, and his war-horses -- sixty thousand
of them -- and even the personnel of his army in
restoring agriculture and re-starting industries,
and he not only restored them, but set about "pro-
tecting" them.
Justice has not been rendered to his efforts in
this direction, because most of our English lives of
Frederick were written at a time when Free Trade
was a fetish hymned by a chorus of half -persuaded
hypocrites. Frederick saw, as the founders of the
commercial greatness of the United States and the
new German Empire saw, that the creation of
industries depended on discouraging the importa-
tion of anything which could be manufactured in
the country.
The success of Free Trade in England for so
many years reminds me of what Barney Thompson,
the bookmaker, said to one of the richest men in
Australia, when the latter was being purse-proud
in the bar of Mack's Hotel after the Geelong Races :
"What's the good of you blowing about yoiir
money? -- a log could have made it when you did. "
At that time England's Free-traders had met with
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? 14 Introduction
no opposition, because no one else had anything
to sell. Frederick's policy of protection pre-
vented any of the sorely needed gold from leaving
Prussia, and resulted in the establishment of all
sorts of industries, notably those of an agricul-
tural nature. These he helped in a novel way,
and one which was of the highest importance, in a
direction the value of which is not only realized
still in Germany, but is being reaped by Germany
at this moment.
Frederick, who, when his reign began, had a
standing army of over eighty thousand men, raised
from a population of little over two millions, saw
that the amount of fighting men which any nation
can put into the field must ultimately depend on its
population, and Prussia's population was a widow's
mite compared with Austria's. Accordingly he
set to work to drain the marshes in his kingdom,
and settle them with foreigners selected for their
sturdiness, who were induced to accept the position
by gifts of land and exemption from taxes for so
many years. When he died Prussia contained five
million inhabitants and seventy-five thousand
square miles.
Frederick enjoys the further fame of being for
his time a very humane prince. He reduced
capital punishment as much as he could, and was
never vindictive in repressing the indiscretions of
well-disposed people.
This was of a piece with his extraordinary toler-
ance in religious matters. He allowed and pro-
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? Introduction 15
tected all creeds. He allowed his subjects to think
as they liked, provided that they let him do as he
liked. He not only restored the Lutherans, whose
religion was the most dynastic of German religions,
to all their liberties and privileges, but he wel-
comed the Jesuits when they were expelled from
other countries, and found a use for them, because
the supply of educators had rim short in his wars.
They acclimatized readily and impressed their
methods even upon Prussian diplomacy.
In spite of all the ravages of his wars, he left
Prussia immensely stronger than when he came to
it; he laid the foundations upon which Bismarck
reared the stately edifice of the new German
Empire, the edifice filled to overflowing with wealth
and prosperity by William II before he com-
menced the mad gamble now in progress -- a gamble
which recalls the prophecy of Mirabeau: "If ever
a foolish prince ascends this throne we shaU see the
formidable giant suddenly collapse, and Prussia
will fall like Sweden. "
Frederick had few pleasiires, except that of hos-
pitality. He liked good living, and for his boon
companions chose men of the highest intellect,.
chiefly Frenchmen. All the world knows of his
almost passionate friendship for Voltaire, tempered
as it was by Voltaire's contempt for Frederick
except as a man of action, and Frederick's con-
tempt for Voltaire except as a man of letters.
When Voltaire came to Frederick as a political
envoy, Frederick laughed at his diplomacy just as
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? i6 Introduction
much as Voltaire laughed at the King's French
verses. How malicious he could be about Voltaire
will be found in the Confessions. D'Alembert
was another friend of Frederick's, and he made
Maupertuis the head of the Berlin Academy.
He was an indefatigable worker. When he died,
it was said of him that his death was the only rest
he ever took in his life. He certainly worked just
as hard till the day of his death, for at eleven
o'clock on his last night he ordered that he should
be waked at four to work. But he died two hours
too soon in the arms of the faithful valet who had
been holding him up since midnight. The last
words he spoke were to ask for his favourite dog,
and to bid them cover it with a quilt.
Of his habits, Mr. W. F. Reddaway, the most
readable of his biographers, wrote:
His habit was to rise at dawn or earlier. The
first three or four hours of the morning were allotted
to toilet, correspondence, a desultory breakfast of
strong coffee and fruit, preceded by a deep draught of
cold water flavoured with fennel leaves, and flute-
playing as an accompaniment to meditation on busi-
ness. Then came one or two hours of rapid work with
his secretaries, followed by parade, audiences, and
perhaps a little exercise. Punctually at noon Freder-
ick sat down to dinner, which was always the chief
social event of the day, and in later life became his only
solid meal. He supervised his kitchen like a depart-
ment of State, He considered and often amended the
bill of fare, which contained the names of the cooks
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? Introduction 17
responsible for every dish. After dinner he marked
with a cross the courses which had merited his ap-
proval. He inspected his household accounts with
minute care and proved himself a master of domestic
economy. The result was a dinner that Voltaire
considered fairly good for a country in which there was
no game, no decent meat, and no spring chickens.
Two hours, sometimes even four, were spent at
table. Occasionally the time was devoted to the dis-
cussion of important business with high officials,
but in general Frederick used it to refresh himself after
his six or seven hours of toil. He ate freely, preferring
highly spiced dishes, drank claret mixed with water,
and talked incessantly. He was a skilful and agree-
able host, putting his guests instantly at their ease, and
by Voltaire's account, calling forth wit in others.
After dismissing the company he returned to his
flute, and then put the final touches to the morning's
business. After this he drank coffee and passed some
two hours in seclusion. During this period he nerved
himself for fresh grappling with affairs by plunging into
literature. In the year 1749 he produced no less
than forty works.
About six o'clock he was ready to
receive his lector or to converse with artists and
learned men. At seven began a small concert, in
which Frederick himself used often to perform. Sup-
per followed, but was brief, unless the conversation was
of unusual interest. Otherwise the King went to bed
at about nine o'clock and slept five or six hours. In
later life he gave up suppers, but continued to invite
a few friends for conversation. He then allowed him-
self rather more sleep. In his last years he lost the
power to play his flute, and with it, apparently, the
desire to hear music.
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? 1 8 Introduction
Mr. Reddaway adds that Frederick would not
endure the presence of any woman -- that, strictly
speaking, he had no courtiers, and that his private
secretary, Eichel, whom he worked like a slave,
was never seen by any human being.
Frederick, who wrote a great deal more than
most professional authors, could be really witty,
though much of his wit consisted in drawing atten-
tion to other people's weaknesses -- an easy per-
formance for an absolute monarch, since most men
can do it when they are too drunk to fear the con-
sequences, which may be the origin of the saying
in vino Veritas.
Treitschke gives Frederick a very high rank as
an author, but nothing which Frederick ever wrote
is as readable in a translation as the Confessions
which are given in this volume. The truth is that
eighteenth century writings have to be excellent
before they are readable, because they lack the
human frankness of some other centuries. This
frankness Frederick achieved only in the poorest
of his literary productions, and for this reason
Frederick's fame as an author is dead out of his
own country; he is read only for the light which
he throws upon that cynical, valiant soul which
achieved one of the greatest works in the world --
the creation of Prussia.
A few dates may be useful in following Treitsch-
ke' s life of the great Prussian King, for Treitschke
deals in dicta rather than dates.
Frederick was bom on January 24, 17 12. His
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? X
Introduction 19
mother was a sister of George II. He was eighteen
years old when he tried to flee with Katte to France,
and twenty-eight when his father died in 1740.
He was married in 1733 to Princess EHzabeth of
Brunswick-Bevem, related to the Austrian House.
The Emperor Charles VI, Maria Theresa's father,
died on October 20, 1740, and on December i6th
Frederick entered Silesia with twenty-eight thou-
sand men, with the intention of annexing it. His
victory at MoUwitz, which practically gave him
the coimtry, was fought on April 10, 1741, but
he was not confirmed in it till his victory of
Chotusitz, May 17, 1742, which was followed
on June nth by the Peace of Breslau.
This is called the first Silesian war. In the next
war against Austria, in 1744 (the second Silesian
war), he took Prague, September 16, 1744, but
had to abandon it shortly afterwards. He had
his revenge at his great victories of Hohenfriedberg,
on June 5, 1745, and Sohr, September 30, 1745,
both against the Austrians, and Hennersdorf,
November 23, 1745, against the Austrians and
Saxons combined, while the Prince of Dessau
defeated another Austrian and Saxon army at
Kesselsdorf on December 15th. The second
Silesian war was terminated by the Peace of Dres-
den, signed on Christmas Day, 1745.
On August 29, 1756, Frederick crossed the
Saxon frontier and began the Seven Years' War.
The indecisive battle of Lobositz was fought
between Frederick and the Austrian Marshal
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? 20 Introduction
Browne, and before the end of the year he took
possession of Saxony. On May 6, 1757, he won
the battle of Prague, after enormous losses on both
sides, and blockaded the city; but on June i8th
he lost the great battle of Kollin, and had to raise
the blockade and evacuate Bohemia. On Novem-
ber 5, 1757, he won the great battle of Rossbach,
and a month later another supreme victory at
Leuthen. On the 2 ist, Breslau capitulated to him,
and a week later Liegnitz. But his General,
Lehwaldt, had been defeated by the Russian
General Apraxin at Gross-Jagersdorf on August
30th. In 1758 he marched into Moravia and
besieged Olmiitz, but was compelled to retreat
owing to the capture of a convoy of three or four
thousand wagons by the Austrian General Laudon ;
on August 25th he won the battle of Zomdorf
over the Russians, which ended their campaign,
but on October 14th he was surprised and heavily
defeated by the Austrians at Hochkirch, and on
the same day lost his sister, the Margravine of
Baireuth.
But for the English subsidy of 4,000,000 thalers
Frederick would have been starved out in 1759.
On July 25th his army was defeated by the Rus-
sians at Kay, and on August 12th he saw his army
utterly routed by the combined Austrians and
Russians at Kunersdorf, He lost Dresden by
surrender on September 24th, and on November
23d Finck and his army of 12,000 men laid down
their arms at Maxen.
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? Introduction 21
In the western field things had gone better.
Ferdinand of Brunswick had driven the French
army across the Rhine on June 23, 1758, at
Crefeld, and though the French took Frankfurt
on January 2, 1759, and won a battle at Bergen
on April 13, 1759, they were severely defeated
at Minden, August i, 1759.
On June 23, 1760, a Prussian corps was anni-
hilated at Landeshut and Glatz capitulated on
July 22d. But Frederick won a great victory
over the Austrians under Laudon at Liegnitz on
August 15th, and a hotly contested battle against
the Austrians under Daun at Torgau on Novem-
ber 3d, though Laudon had surprised and captured
the great fortress of Schweidnitz on October ist.
The condition of Prussia at the end of this year
appeared hopeless ; the army had declined to sixty
thousand men, and even more in quality than in
numbers. But on January 5, 1762, the Czarina
Elizabeth of Russia died, and was succeeded by her
nephew, Peter III, the husband of the great
Catherine, who was an idolatrous admirer of
Frederick and at once recalled the Russian army.
Prussia and Russia signed a peace on May 5th,
and an offensive and defensive alliance on June
8th, and Sweden made peace with Prussia at
Hamburg on May 22d.
But in the interval the elder Pitt had been
replaced as Prime Minister of England by the
feeble Bute, who had but one desire -- to terminate
the war as soon as possible, and six months after
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? 22 Introduction
Peter Ill's succession the whole of Russia became
so disgusted with him that on July 9, 1762, he
was deposed by his wife, and a few days later
strangled by her lover, Alexis Orloff. On July
21, 1762, Frederick won a battle over the Aus-
trians at Burkersdorf, and in October captured
Schweidnitz, Before the end of the year a truce
was made which proved to be the end of the Seven
Years' War -- the Peace of Hubertusburg being
signed on February 5, 1763.
Neither Frederick nor the Austrians gained an
inch of territory in the Seven Years' War, but
Austria failed in her object, which was to form a
coalition to crush Frederick, and from this time for-
wards Prussia and Austria were equals and rivals.
It took Frederick twenty-three years, exactly
half his reign, to arrive at this. The other half
was spent almost entirely in peace, though there
was a campaign, and gave Frederick the oppor-
tunity to show his powers of organizing agricul-
tural and commercial enterprises and an economic
system.
The principal events of the latter half of Freder-
ick's reign were the Partition of Poland, the Bava-
rian Succession War, and the foundation of the
League of Princes. In 1772, Frederick persuaded
Austria and Russia to join him in the first Partition
of Poland. His share was of great value to him,
because until he obtained possession of Prussian
Poland, East Prussia was detached from the rest
of the kingdom.
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? Introduction 23
Maria Theresa was only with great difficulty
persuaded by her ambitious son to come into the
arrangement. She complained that they had
aimed at two incompatible objects at once, "to
act in the Prussian fashion, and at the same time to
preserve the semblance of honesty," to which
Frederick sneeringly repUed : ' ' She is always weep-
ing but always annexing. "
The War of the Bavarian Succession in 1778 led
to very little fighting. The main armies were
unable to attack each other, and when the Czarina
threatened to interfere on the Prussian side,
Austria came to terms and made the Peace of
Teschen, May 13, 1779. A year and a half later
Maria Theresa died, leaving the restless Joseph
without any steadying influence. To counter his
attempts to increase the Imperial authority,
Frederick gradually worked up not only the Pro-
testant Princes of the Empire, but even the Cath-
olic ecclesiastical States, to form the League of
Princes (Furstenbund) , which was signed in the
first instance by Brandenburg, Hanover, and
Saxony only, on July 23, 1785. About a year
afterwards, on August 17, 1786, Frederick died
at the age of seventy -foiir.
This Filrstenhund was a fitting conclusion to his
career, for it coincides approximately with the new
German Empire.
Frederick found Prussia the smallest and weak-
est of the Great Powers, and left her equal to any
of them. That should be his epitaph.
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? 24 Introduction
TREITSCHKE's study of FREDERICK THE GREAT
Treitschke's study of Frederick would be inter-
esting if it were only as a tour de force of character
analysis. I think he overestimates the value of
Frederick's Anti-Machiavel and his Letters on
Patriotism, which are practically dead as far as
the foreign reader is concerned; but in other re-
spects his delineation of Frederick is compara-
tively free from the advocate's partisanship which
depreciates Treitschke's value as an historian.
Whether Treitschke would have treated Freder-
ick so impartially if he had been alive now is
doubtful. To give an instance: a couple of pages
after his magnificent summing-up of Frederick's
greatness, he has a paragraph which is about the
strongest condemnation of the present war which
ever came from a German pen :
The love of peace of the House of HohenzoUern
remained alive even in its greatest war-princes.
Frederick valued power, but only as a means for the
well-being and civilization of the nations; that it
should be an end in itself, that the struggle for power
as such should bestow historic fame, seemed to him
as an insult to the honour of a sovereign. Therefore
he wrote his passionate polemic-treatise against
Machiavelli. Therefore, in his writings, he returned
again and again to the terrible warning of Charles XII
of Sweden. He might have felt secretly that iii his
own breast were working irresistible forces, which
might lead him to similar errors, and was never tired
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? Introduction 25
of portraying the hoUowness of objectless military
fame . . . . Already in his impetuous youth he had
made up his mind about the moral objects of power:
"This State must become strong," he wrote at that
time, "that it may play the lofty rdle of preserving
peace only from love of justice, and not from fear.
But if ever injustice, bias, and vice gain the upper hand
in Prussia, then I wish the House of Brandenburg
a speedy downfall. That says all. "
To show how different from this is the undiluted
Treitschke, one may quote a passage which has
inspired numberless passages in von Bemhardi:
The educational power of war awakened again
in these North-German races above all that rough
pride which once inspirited the invaders of Italy
(Romfahrer) and the conquerors of the Slavs in the
Middle Ages.
And a few sentences later on he talks of the
"descendants of those heroic nations, the Vandals
and the Goths," in the same way as the present
Emperor bade his soldiers emulate the Huns in
an unfortunate speech which has given, through
newspaper-headings, a severe blow to the German
cause in America.
Yet Treitschke, like von Bemhardi, was, when
he was not crusading, very sane and fair. He
writes, for instance: "The alert self-reliance of the
Prussians contrasted strongly with the inoffensive
kindly modesty of the other Germans, " just as the
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? 26 Introduction
war news of to-day often contrasts the Saxons' or
Bavarians' behaviour in Belgium or France with
that of the Prussians. And a Httle lower down
he says: "It was betrayed now in confident brag-
ging, in the thousand satirical anecdotes of Im-
perial stupidity and Prussian Hussar strategisms. "
For which von Hindenburg's name will probably
supply dictionaries with a new word.
Yet you can see in Frederick many signs of the
anticipation of modern Prussian ideas which
make him one of the most interesting figures in
history, as he is one of the greatest figures at the
present time. For in many ways the Prussia of
to-day is the Prussia of Frederick's time come to
life again. It was Frederick who said :
With such soldiers there is no risk : a General who in
other armies would be considered foolhardy, is only
considered with us as doing his duty. [And again he
says :] It seems that Heaven has appointed the King
to make all preparations which wise precautions
before the beginning of a war demand. Who knows,
if Providence has not reserved it for me to make a
glorious use of these war means at some future time,
and to convert them to the realization of the plans for
which the foresight of my fathers intended them?
But I do not agree with Treitschke when he
writes: "It was Frederick's work that . . . a
third tendency should arise, a policy which was
only Prussian, and nothing further: to it Ger-
many's future belonged. " And he writes later
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? Introduction 27
on: "Dohm concluded a clever pamphlet with
these words: 'German and Prussian interests can
never stand in one another's way. ' The discern-
ing mind of the old King was not moved by such
dreams. "
And we know how widely spread the distrust of
Prussia was in Frederick's day, because Goethe,
quoted by Treitschke, tells us that: "Even the
humblest and weakest of the allied States, Weimar
and Dessau, secretly discussed how they could
protect themselves against their Prussian protect-
or's lust of power. "
When Treitschke talks of the moral justification
of the treacherous seizure of Silesia, one is irresist-
ibly reminded of the justification of the present
war by von Bemhardi and others, for the benefi-
cent results likely to happen from the spread of
Prussian Kultur -- the culture which it would be
more reasonable to call the Prussian vulture,
Treitschke damns Frederick's excuses for seizing
Silesia with faint apologies:
He wished to spare Austria, and contented himself
with bringing forward the most important of the
carefully pondered pretensions of his House. Alone,
without vouchsafing one word to the foreign Powers
on the watch, with an overwhelming invading force,
he broke into Silesia. Germany, used to the solemn
reflections and cross-reflections of her Imperial law-
yers, received with astonishment and indignation the
doctrine that the rights of States were only to be
maintained by active power.
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? 28 Introduction
Elsewhere in this book it will be seen how
Frederick excelled himself on this occasion by
ordering Podewils to find excuses because he had
already given orders to his troops. The doctrine
of the active power has been exploited for all it is
worth by von Bernhardi in his Germany and the
Next War.
Treitschke is not very convincing upon the
subject of Poland. His complaints of "the Poles'
horrible outrages in the Weichsel district, with
that insolent disregard of the rights of others and
the nationality of others which distinguishes the
Poles above all the nations of Europe," leaves us
cold, when our paper every morning brings news
of fresh devastation in Poland. And the sentence
in which Treitschke complains that: "Others re-
peated credulously what Poland's old confederates,
the French, invented to stigmatize the partitioning
Powers," simply kills Treitschke 's reputation as
an impartial historian. The world of honest men
has never ceased to condemn the Partition of
Poland, and hailed with almost religious delight
Russia's proclamation that the ancient nation of
the Poles should be reconstituted as a practically
autonomous people under the shield of the Lion
of the East, the great protector of Slav nationality.
Any criticism, which Germany might have to make
on the subject, is discounted by the fact that she
at once proceeded to suggest a German parody of
the movement, a highly improved province to
embrace Russian Poland as well as Prussian Po-
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? Introduction 29
land. And any advantages, which may have been
latent in this suggestion, are rendered difficult of
realization by the Belging of Russian Poland.
The question of the Balance of Power, which is
handled so destructively by von Bernhardi, comes
up a good deal in Treitschke's life of Frederick
the Great. I think von Bernhardi was right, but
I arrive at my conclusions from a standpoint which
he would hardly share. The European balance
of power for many years has been like a wooden
garden fence, whose bottom under the soil has
rotted. From time to time -- the last time was
during and after the Balkan War against Turkey
-- Europe has been on the verge of a conflagration
like the present because Austria has resisted any
intelUgent solution of the Balkan question.
