Five thousand
non-professional theatres are run by clubs and collective farms
for amateur performers.
non-professional theatres are run by clubs and collective farms
for amateur performers.
Soviet Union - 1944 - Meet the Soviet Russians
Walter Duranty in an article in the magazine section of the New
York Times for July 30, 1944, stated:
"Three years of war have clearly and tremendously hastened and em-
phasized Russia's progression toward nationalism and patriotic unity,
and its apparent retrogression from the original principles of com-
munism or Marxist socialism. " In another part of the same article,
Mr. Duranty says: '"Russia has definitely, if not Wholly successfully,
adopted a socialist or collective system. "
Read the whole article from which these quotations are taken, and
write an explanation of the apparent contradictions in these two state-
ments.
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? 50 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
D. Provision for Social Welfare
Article 120 of the Constitution of 1936 provides for free medi-
cal services for the working people. Practically all nurses and
doctors are civil servants. Special provisions of the labor code
protect women workers, and special grants are made for the care
of mother and child. Social insurance is provided for in Article
120. It includes compensation because of illness or injury, and
provision for old-age pensions. Funds are set aside by the en-
terprise where the worker is employed, and are not built up
by deductions from wages or salaries. These funds are admin-
istered by the trade unions. Group and individual insurance
to cover other hazards may be bought. Rest homes are provided
where workers may rest under medical supervision, although
the number of these is not yet adequate to serve all workers.
Special aid is being provided for the rehabilitation of war veter-
ans, and for the care of veterans' families.
The Soviets claim that neuroses and mental disorders have de-
creased sharply because of the provision of economic security.
They cite figures to show that their proportion of mental dis-
orders is lower than that of the western countries. This is due,
they say, to the removal of worry over loss of employment, over
a poverty-stricken old age, and over the inability to provide
medical and hospital care in case of illness. The number of
mental disorders in the army has been lower than in World
War I. This is attributed to the better conditioning of the
nervous systems of the people and the strengthening of morale
by an understanding of the issues of the war. The death rate in
the Soviet Union has been reduced by forty per cent in compari-
son with Tsarist Russia.
The remarkable success of the health program has been dem-
onstrated by the war. In spite of the terrific problems involved
in the care of the wounded, the evacuation of large numbers of
people eastward, longer working hours for everyone, and an
inadequate food supply, not one disease has reached epidemic
proportions. In 1941, at the height of the German attack, the
infant mortality rate in Moscow was less than ten per cent,
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 51
whereas in 1914 in that city the rate was twenty-three per cent.
Although this is a remarkable advance, the figure is still about
double the infant mortality rate in the United States. Soviet
medical research has contributed many new practices, only one
of which is the blood bank now being generally used.
References on Social Welfare:
Kingsbury, John, "Soviet Health Lines Ahead," Survey Graphic, Feb-
ruary, 1944.
Maurer, Rose, "Soviet Health Care in Peace and War," American Rus-
sian Institute pamphlet.
Sigerist, Henry E. , Socialized Medicine in the Soviet Union.
Webb, Beatrice and Webb, Sidney, Soviet Communism: A New Civili-
zation? Part II, pp. 805-862.
Some Suggested Activities on Social Welfare:
1. An American visitor to the Soviet Union developed a cough and she
decided to buy some cod liver oil at a drug store. She was told that
she must have a doctor's prescription, and when she had secured it,
the cod liver oil was given to her free of charge.
Several of you may like to study the subject of health protection in the
Soviet Union, and present a discussion to the class. For this presenta-
tion, be sure that group members present both the favorable and
unfavorable aspects of the program.
s. Arrange for a showing of the Russian film, "The Road to Life. " This
film depicts the problem of homeless children in the Soviet Union
in the period after the dvil war. You will need to preview the film
and also find some material on this topic in reference books. Tell the
class something in advance about the problem of the "wild boys. " After
the film has been shown, conduct a class discussion on it. Do you
know what the Soviets are doing now to try to prevent a recurrence of
the problem of homeless children?
3. Read We Didn't Ask Utopia by Harry and Rebecca Timbres to get
an idea of one man's experience in the medical profession in Russia.
Write a brief discussion of the things in this book which interested
you most. Would you recommend it to other members of the class?
Why, or why not?
E. Cultural Life
1. Education
The Soviet Government has placed particular emphasis upon
public education and the development of schools. It has been
anxious to introduce universal, free, compulsory education
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? 5* MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
throughout the Soviet Union as rapidly as possible. Elementary
education is compulsory for everyone, and among all peoples.
Until the war interfered, plans were well under way for making
education compulsory for everyone up to the age of eighteen.
Soviet education aims primarily to give all the people of the
U. S. S. R. a many-sided individual development, an understand-
ing of socialism, and preparation for taking their places in a
collective society. Education is for the whole population, and
every institution is utilized to that end. Educational opportuni-
ties of many kinds are provided by the factory and by the farm.
Illiteracy has been reduced from seventy per cent in Tsarist
Russia to nineteen per cent in the Soviet Union. It is especially
important to note the growth of literacy among the peoples in
the northern and eastern regions, and among women. One of
the most important measures for the establishment of equal
rights for women has been the opening of all types of education
to them.
Expansion of schools has been so rapid that at times there has
been difficulty in providing adequately trained teachers. There
has been a great increase in the number of secondary schools in
country districts and in the new industrial settlements. Until
the end of 1939 tuition was free in all primary and secondary
schools and in most of the institutes for higher education, but
this provision was modified as war approached. Character de-
velopment and the development of a well-rounded personality
are emphasized as well as mastery of subject matter. Pupils are
given physical training, aesthetic training, and moral training.
The latter includes a cultivation of the love of country.
Emphasis has been placed upon adult education, rural educa-
tion, the education of minor nationalities, and upon vocational
information in its broader sense. There has been a great increase
in the number of institutions of higher learning, and an even
greater increase in vocational and apprenticeship schools. There
is constant interaction between formal education and community
work, with stress upon the education of the average citizen in
science and in machine techniques. This training of the whole
population in machine techniques and modern technical devel-
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 53
opments has been of invaluable service in the present war. The
ability of Soviet men and women to operate tanks, airplanes,
and other complicated equipment characteristic of industrial-
ized nations has surprised the world. This ability is all the more
remarkable when one recalls their relatively short acquaintance
with modern machines, the rapidity of industrialization, and the
oft-repeated stories about the ineptness of the Soviets in hand-
ling machines in the early years of industrialization.
References on Education:
Erskine, Dorothy, and Roberts, Holland, "What 36 Million Children
are Learning," Survey Graphic, February, 1944. ?
King, Beatrice, Changing Man; The Education System of the U. S. S. R.
Medynsky, Eugene, "Schools and Education in the U. S. S. R. " American
Sociological Review, June, 1944.
2. Religion and Philosophy
The Soviet attitude toward religion is rooted deep in Com-
munist philosophy, which is anti-religious and materialistic. It
teaches the evolutionary character of human and natural life,
and that nature alone is real. All belief in God, in the super-
natural, or in any type of mysticism is ruled out. The stress on
science is part of this opposition to the supernatural, and often
rulings that are thought by other countries to be primarily anti-
religious are intended to abolish peasant superstitions by edu-
cation in science. Christianity is anti-social in the eyes of the
Communists because they claim that it teaches acquiescence and
lessens man's urge to improve conditions in this life. Lenin is
said to have declared that a real Communist could not be a
Christian. Membership in the Communist Party is not open to
those who have religious affiliations. In spite of the development
of better relations between the government and the church
groups, the fundamental orientation of Communist philosophy
is away from religious belief.
On January 23, 1918, the Soviet Government issued a decree
which separated the Church and the State. All church property
was nationalized, and the church lost all control over education.
Many restrictions were placed upon the activities of the clergy.
Priests were disfranchised, and were not allowed to give religious
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? 54
MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
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? 56 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
instruction to groups of young people under eighteen years of
age. A series of persecutions followed in which many bishops
and priests were exiled or executed. In 1925 the League of
Militant Atheists was founded, and it started a propaganda cam-
paign against the church. In 1929 an amendment to the Con-
stitution proclaimed "freedom of religious worship and freedom
of anti-religious propaganda," thus preventing freedom of re-
ligious propaganda. This phrasing has been retained in the Con-
stitution of 1936, although priests, along with all other citizens,
secured the right to vote in this constitution. There is, in spite
of these activities, ample evidence of the survival of religion in
the Soviet Union, and since 1939 the Soviets have been increas-
ingly liberal in their attitude toward the Orthodox Church. This
friendly attitude brought about the reestablishment of the Patri-
archate of Moscow in September, 1943. The Soviet Cabinet
now has a Committee on Religion. The Orthodox Church is
supporting the government in its war activities.
References on Religion and Philosophy:
Anderson, Paul, People, Church and State in Modern Russia.
Iswolsky, Helen, "Spiritual Resurgence in Russia," Survey Graphic, Feb-
ruary, 1944,
Melish, William Howard, "Religious Developments in the Soviet Union,"
American Sociological Review, June, 1944.
Timasheff, N. S. , Religion in Soviet Russia.
3. Science
The Communist Party and the Soviet Government have put
their faith in science as the instrument by which man can
achieve greater control over the forces of nature. Science is
financed by the government, and dominates the whole educa-
tional system.
The All-Union Academy of Sciences directs all the scientific
work of the country. Science is not confined to the laboratories;
the interest of the masses of people has been enlisted in re-
search and invention. In the factories and on the collective
farms many thousands of workers study in science clubs. The
achievements of Soviet science have been impressive. While
critics say that science has had to operate within the confines
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 57
of socialism, Communists hold that science is stimulated by
making the discoveries accessible to all, with no fear of rival
interests securing the advantage.
References on Science:
Davies and Steiger, Soviet Asia.
Mikhailov, Nicholas, Land of the Soviets.
Williams, The Soviets, pp. 201-211.
4. The Arts
The Soviet government considers art to be an important part
of everyday life, and subsidizes the arts in many ways. Great
recognition is given to creative artists, and cultural workers are
among the highest paid of all workers. The Soviets make wide
use of art galleries and museums, not just as repositories for
valuable collections but as a means of arousing the conscious-
ness of the people to their rich cultural heritage. Theatres have
been as much a part of the Five-Year plans as have been dams
and steel mills; drama and opera are performed in sixty differ-
ent languages; and over a hundred children's theatres have been
opened. The arts are not limited to professionals.
Five thousand
non-professional theatres are run by clubs and collective farms
for amateur performers. The best amateur musicians and dancers
come to Moscow from all over the Soviet Union to compete in
the Moscow Olympiads of Music.
In architecture the revolt against the past has produced a
style that features rather severe, straight lines. No great dis-
tinction has been won by Russians in sculpture or painting, ex-
cept for the early icons. The work of pictorial and graphic
artists has attracted considerable attention. While the Soviets
hold the literary man in high regard, little has been produced
by Soviet writers which is comparable to the work of the great
masters of the past. Until 1932 the work of writers was hampered
by the rulings of the Russian Association of Proletarian Writers.
Hostile critics say that Soviet artists are serving propaganda pur-
poses. The Communists admit the truth of the statement, but
hold that artists always do reflect the point of view of the ruling
class from which they earn most of their living.
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? 58 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
References on the Arts:
Vernadsky, A History of Russia, Chapter 19.
Williams, The Soviets, Sections 71-76.
5. Publications and the Radio
Since the masses have acquired the ability to read, their appe-
tite for learning is tremendous. The supplying of enough books
and papers to satisfy the demand has become a problem. At the
end of the First Five-Year Plan, book production exceeded that
of England, France, and Germany combined. One publishing
house alone in Moscow publishes books in eighty-five languages.
This interest in reading has brought about a great cultural
awakening. While more titles are published each year than in
any other country, and editions are quickly exhausted, the paper
is inferior in quality, and the books are for the most part paper
bound.
Newspapers and weekly and monthly periodicals are even more
widely read in the Soviet Union than in the United States. This is
in spite of the fact that Soviet newspapers omit many of the
features which we consider essential in order to secure a wide
circulation. Soviet papers are wholly occupied with public
affairs. The function of the press is to carry on educational and
propaganda campaigns in order to organize the support of read-
ers behind government policies. Most important papers are
Communist Party organs, and an agent of the censorship sits in
every printing establishment. No publication which attacks the
ideals or general policies of the Party is allowed. This does not
mean that no criticism is possible. Newspapers furnish the chief
means of "self-criticism. " Correspondence from the people is
invited and thousands of letters are sent in criticizing officials
for the inefficiency of management. Informal wall-newspapers
are published in institutions as a means of securing criticisms
from the workers.
Radio broadcasts are made in sixty languages. Programs are
centrally planned, and are "official" in the same sense as applies
to the press. Many facilities for group listening are provided
on collective farms, in factories, apartments, schools, and in
other public places.
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 59
References on Publications and the Radio:
Harper, The Government of the Soviet Union, pp. 73-76.
Webb, Sidney and Beatrice, Soviet Communism; A New Civilisation?
p. 1026.
Williams, Albert Rhys, The Soviets, Section 73.
6. Recreation and Sports
The recreation and sports program is intended to supplement
other features of the public health program. Its purpose is to
produce a more healthy, vigorous race. Factories, clubs, and
collective farms provide places wherein workers may study,
relax, and enjoy themselves. Music, games, and folk dancing
are available for public participation. While in Tsarist Russia
the masses of the people had no form of physical culture, now
the whole population takes part in sports and exercises more
and more. As long as a person is physically capable he or she
is apt to take part in some form of athletics, usually until well
past middle age. Cities provide Parks of Culture and Rest for
recreation and entertainment. Here are libraries, lectures, con-
certs, and exhibitions. Anyone who wishes may exercise in the
parks, or may join a sports club. In these ways the Soviet Union
tries to develop a strong, healthy population. Some observers
think the training provided by the sports program is one thing
that has enabled the Red Army to do such a good job in the war.
References on Recreation and Sports:
Life magazine, March, 1944, "Russians Like Athletics. "
Sigerist, Henry E. , Socialized Medicine in the Soviet Union, pp. 167-189.
Williams, Albert Rhys, The Soviets, pp. 313-316.
Some Suggested Activities on Cultural Life:
1. Read the article "100,000,000 Have Learned to Read and Write" in
Life magazine for January 11, 1943. Write a brief summary of the
ways in which this has been achieved. You will find additional mate-
rial in the Survey Graphic for February, 1944.
2. You probably recall that Peter the Great tried to "westernize" Russia.
If you do not recall it, review his work by referring to some history
text. Why have the Soviets been able to accomplish much more in
the way of cultural transformation than Peter the Great was able to
do in his life time? Put your reasons down on paper so that you will
have them for ready reference. A class discussion will be held on this
topic
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? 60 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
3. A visitor to the Soviet Union heard a woman say, "I liquidated my
illiteracy in 1934. " What did she mean? Construct two bar graphs,
showing on one the percentage o? illiteracy in 1914, and on the other
the percentage of illiteracy in 1939. (See Life magazine, March, 1943. )
The abolition of illiteracy is one of the aims of the Soviet Govern-
ment. What methods are being used to bring this about?
4. You are a Soviet citizen, twenty years of age. Write a careful account
of the educational training you have had to date, and tell what plans
you have for continuing your education. You will find material in
Beatrice King's book, Changing Man: The Education System of the
U. SS. R.
5. Lunacharsky, Commissar of Education in the Soviet Union, after lead-
ing the attack on the church, made the following remark: "Religion is
like a nail, the harder you hit it the deeper it goes into the wood. "
Review the persecution of the early Christians by the Romans, and
study the effects of the persecution of religion by the Soviets. This
topic is discussed in the books by Pares, Timasheff, Anderson, and in
Margaret Bourke-White's Shooting the Russian War. Write a brief
summary of your conclusions about the effects of religious persecutions
in each of these two instances.
6. You may be interested in the official correspondence between President
Roosevelt and Maxim Litvinoff at the time of our recognition of the
U. S. S. R. You will find this exchange of letters on pages 31-33 of the
American Quarterly on the Soviet Union for November, 1940. Pre-
pare a list of the rights respecting religious freedoms which the U. S. S. R.
agreed to guarantee.
7. In Life magazine for January 11, 1943 you will find an article by
Walter Graebner, who had just returned from a four months' stay in
Moscow. The article is entitled "Moscow Today. " Study the pictures
and read the article. Select a few of the dramatic highlights of the
article to tell to the class.
8. Paul B. Anderson, in his book, People, Church and State in Modem
Russia, says, "It has become abundantly clear that the Church and
the believers generally are wholeheartedly behind the Red Army
and its Commander-in-Chief, Stalin. . . . "
Make a list of the items of evidence you are able to find in support
of this statement. Refer to the books by Anderson, Timasheff, Pares,
or others.
9. In Survey Graphic, February, 1944, is an article entitled, "Cannon Have
Not Silenced the Muses. " Read this article and make a report to the
class on how the arts are being used in time of war.
10. If you are interested in photography, you will no doubt be interested
in Margaret Bourke-White's book, Shooting the Russian War. After
some other students have read it, hold a group discussion with those
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 61
who are interested. Let the group decide whether or not to make a
brief report to the class on it.
11. Read the pamphlet entitled Drama in Wartime Russia by Henry Wads-
worth Longfellow Dana. Give a brief report to the class on the way
the Soviets are using drama to help win the war.
12. In the magazine, Art News, for May 15, 1942, is an article describing
an exhibition of Russian icons at the Baltimore Museum of Art. Study
the pictures of icons, and read the article. Would you care to study
this topic further and write a brief report on it? Perhaps you can
include a sketch of an icon that you liked especially.
13. Arrange to play a recording of a piece of modern Russian music which
you like. Find out what you can about the composer and tell the
class before you play the record.
14. Soviet scientists have "caused rain to fall in Ashkhabad, the dryest
spot in the country by sprinkling passing clouds with chemicals from
airplanes. " Many other interesting developments of Soviet science
are described in Chapter 45 of Albert Rhys Williams' book, The
Soviets. Read this chapter and any other interesting material you find
on this subject, and answer the following questions in writing:
a. How do the Soviets attempt to enlist all citizens in "storm-
ing the fortress of science"?
b. List some of the unusual achievements of Soviet science in
the following fields: synthetic products, weather control, devel-
opment of new plant life.
15. The Soviets believe that science is their ally in building a new life
for themselves. Science was assigned definite duties in the Five-Year
Plans. List the ten key problems assigned to the Academy of Science
in the Third Five-Year Plan. Prepare to explain to the class one of
these problems which interests you. (See Albert Rhys Williams, The
Soviets. )
16. Read H. P. Smolka's book, 40,000 Against the Arctic, or Ivan Papanin's
Adrift on an Ice Floe, to get a picture of the Soviet Arctic. After sev-
eral of you have read one or the other of these books, get together for
a discussion.
17. "We must not wait for the favors of nature," Michurin, Soviet scien-
tist, said in 1922. "We must wrest them from her. " To what extent
has the Soviet Union struggled against nature in: (a) the Arctic;
(b) desert areas; (c) adapting vegetation to the climate; (d) adapting
the climate to vegetation. Prepare an oral or written report on one of
these. See the chapter on science in Albert Rhys Williams, The Soviets.
18. "An empty futile amusement," said Nicholas II, the last of the Tsars,
in speaking of the cinema (motion pictures). "Only an abnormal per-
son would put this vulgar circus on a par with art. "
Lenin said, "For us the cinema is the most important of the arts. "
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? 62 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
Consult the available references and see what you can find about the
cinema in the Soviet Union, and the Soviet "Hollywood. "
Write a few generalizations on how films have been used in the Soviet
Union.
19. Have you ever seen a Soviet-made film? If so, what was it? Write a
paragraph or two giving your reaction to it.
20. In the violent phase of the Bolshevik Revolution, Lunacharsky, a great
Bolshevik art critic, was so upset by rumors of the demolition of the
famous Basil Cathedral that he became ill.
York Times for July 30, 1944, stated:
"Three years of war have clearly and tremendously hastened and em-
phasized Russia's progression toward nationalism and patriotic unity,
and its apparent retrogression from the original principles of com-
munism or Marxist socialism. " In another part of the same article,
Mr. Duranty says: '"Russia has definitely, if not Wholly successfully,
adopted a socialist or collective system. "
Read the whole article from which these quotations are taken, and
write an explanation of the apparent contradictions in these two state-
ments.
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? 50 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
D. Provision for Social Welfare
Article 120 of the Constitution of 1936 provides for free medi-
cal services for the working people. Practically all nurses and
doctors are civil servants. Special provisions of the labor code
protect women workers, and special grants are made for the care
of mother and child. Social insurance is provided for in Article
120. It includes compensation because of illness or injury, and
provision for old-age pensions. Funds are set aside by the en-
terprise where the worker is employed, and are not built up
by deductions from wages or salaries. These funds are admin-
istered by the trade unions. Group and individual insurance
to cover other hazards may be bought. Rest homes are provided
where workers may rest under medical supervision, although
the number of these is not yet adequate to serve all workers.
Special aid is being provided for the rehabilitation of war veter-
ans, and for the care of veterans' families.
The Soviets claim that neuroses and mental disorders have de-
creased sharply because of the provision of economic security.
They cite figures to show that their proportion of mental dis-
orders is lower than that of the western countries. This is due,
they say, to the removal of worry over loss of employment, over
a poverty-stricken old age, and over the inability to provide
medical and hospital care in case of illness. The number of
mental disorders in the army has been lower than in World
War I. This is attributed to the better conditioning of the
nervous systems of the people and the strengthening of morale
by an understanding of the issues of the war. The death rate in
the Soviet Union has been reduced by forty per cent in compari-
son with Tsarist Russia.
The remarkable success of the health program has been dem-
onstrated by the war. In spite of the terrific problems involved
in the care of the wounded, the evacuation of large numbers of
people eastward, longer working hours for everyone, and an
inadequate food supply, not one disease has reached epidemic
proportions. In 1941, at the height of the German attack, the
infant mortality rate in Moscow was less than ten per cent,
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 51
whereas in 1914 in that city the rate was twenty-three per cent.
Although this is a remarkable advance, the figure is still about
double the infant mortality rate in the United States. Soviet
medical research has contributed many new practices, only one
of which is the blood bank now being generally used.
References on Social Welfare:
Kingsbury, John, "Soviet Health Lines Ahead," Survey Graphic, Feb-
ruary, 1944.
Maurer, Rose, "Soviet Health Care in Peace and War," American Rus-
sian Institute pamphlet.
Sigerist, Henry E. , Socialized Medicine in the Soviet Union.
Webb, Beatrice and Webb, Sidney, Soviet Communism: A New Civili-
zation? Part II, pp. 805-862.
Some Suggested Activities on Social Welfare:
1. An American visitor to the Soviet Union developed a cough and she
decided to buy some cod liver oil at a drug store. She was told that
she must have a doctor's prescription, and when she had secured it,
the cod liver oil was given to her free of charge.
Several of you may like to study the subject of health protection in the
Soviet Union, and present a discussion to the class. For this presenta-
tion, be sure that group members present both the favorable and
unfavorable aspects of the program.
s. Arrange for a showing of the Russian film, "The Road to Life. " This
film depicts the problem of homeless children in the Soviet Union
in the period after the dvil war. You will need to preview the film
and also find some material on this topic in reference books. Tell the
class something in advance about the problem of the "wild boys. " After
the film has been shown, conduct a class discussion on it. Do you
know what the Soviets are doing now to try to prevent a recurrence of
the problem of homeless children?
3. Read We Didn't Ask Utopia by Harry and Rebecca Timbres to get
an idea of one man's experience in the medical profession in Russia.
Write a brief discussion of the things in this book which interested
you most. Would you recommend it to other members of the class?
Why, or why not?
E. Cultural Life
1. Education
The Soviet Government has placed particular emphasis upon
public education and the development of schools. It has been
anxious to introduce universal, free, compulsory education
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? 5* MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
throughout the Soviet Union as rapidly as possible. Elementary
education is compulsory for everyone, and among all peoples.
Until the war interfered, plans were well under way for making
education compulsory for everyone up to the age of eighteen.
Soviet education aims primarily to give all the people of the
U. S. S. R. a many-sided individual development, an understand-
ing of socialism, and preparation for taking their places in a
collective society. Education is for the whole population, and
every institution is utilized to that end. Educational opportuni-
ties of many kinds are provided by the factory and by the farm.
Illiteracy has been reduced from seventy per cent in Tsarist
Russia to nineteen per cent in the Soviet Union. It is especially
important to note the growth of literacy among the peoples in
the northern and eastern regions, and among women. One of
the most important measures for the establishment of equal
rights for women has been the opening of all types of education
to them.
Expansion of schools has been so rapid that at times there has
been difficulty in providing adequately trained teachers. There
has been a great increase in the number of secondary schools in
country districts and in the new industrial settlements. Until
the end of 1939 tuition was free in all primary and secondary
schools and in most of the institutes for higher education, but
this provision was modified as war approached. Character de-
velopment and the development of a well-rounded personality
are emphasized as well as mastery of subject matter. Pupils are
given physical training, aesthetic training, and moral training.
The latter includes a cultivation of the love of country.
Emphasis has been placed upon adult education, rural educa-
tion, the education of minor nationalities, and upon vocational
information in its broader sense. There has been a great increase
in the number of institutions of higher learning, and an even
greater increase in vocational and apprenticeship schools. There
is constant interaction between formal education and community
work, with stress upon the education of the average citizen in
science and in machine techniques. This training of the whole
population in machine techniques and modern technical devel-
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 53
opments has been of invaluable service in the present war. The
ability of Soviet men and women to operate tanks, airplanes,
and other complicated equipment characteristic of industrial-
ized nations has surprised the world. This ability is all the more
remarkable when one recalls their relatively short acquaintance
with modern machines, the rapidity of industrialization, and the
oft-repeated stories about the ineptness of the Soviets in hand-
ling machines in the early years of industrialization.
References on Education:
Erskine, Dorothy, and Roberts, Holland, "What 36 Million Children
are Learning," Survey Graphic, February, 1944. ?
King, Beatrice, Changing Man; The Education System of the U. S. S. R.
Medynsky, Eugene, "Schools and Education in the U. S. S. R. " American
Sociological Review, June, 1944.
2. Religion and Philosophy
The Soviet attitude toward religion is rooted deep in Com-
munist philosophy, which is anti-religious and materialistic. It
teaches the evolutionary character of human and natural life,
and that nature alone is real. All belief in God, in the super-
natural, or in any type of mysticism is ruled out. The stress on
science is part of this opposition to the supernatural, and often
rulings that are thought by other countries to be primarily anti-
religious are intended to abolish peasant superstitions by edu-
cation in science. Christianity is anti-social in the eyes of the
Communists because they claim that it teaches acquiescence and
lessens man's urge to improve conditions in this life. Lenin is
said to have declared that a real Communist could not be a
Christian. Membership in the Communist Party is not open to
those who have religious affiliations. In spite of the development
of better relations between the government and the church
groups, the fundamental orientation of Communist philosophy
is away from religious belief.
On January 23, 1918, the Soviet Government issued a decree
which separated the Church and the State. All church property
was nationalized, and the church lost all control over education.
Many restrictions were placed upon the activities of the clergy.
Priests were disfranchised, and were not allowed to give religious
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? 54
MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
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? 56 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
instruction to groups of young people under eighteen years of
age. A series of persecutions followed in which many bishops
and priests were exiled or executed. In 1925 the League of
Militant Atheists was founded, and it started a propaganda cam-
paign against the church. In 1929 an amendment to the Con-
stitution proclaimed "freedom of religious worship and freedom
of anti-religious propaganda," thus preventing freedom of re-
ligious propaganda. This phrasing has been retained in the Con-
stitution of 1936, although priests, along with all other citizens,
secured the right to vote in this constitution. There is, in spite
of these activities, ample evidence of the survival of religion in
the Soviet Union, and since 1939 the Soviets have been increas-
ingly liberal in their attitude toward the Orthodox Church. This
friendly attitude brought about the reestablishment of the Patri-
archate of Moscow in September, 1943. The Soviet Cabinet
now has a Committee on Religion. The Orthodox Church is
supporting the government in its war activities.
References on Religion and Philosophy:
Anderson, Paul, People, Church and State in Modern Russia.
Iswolsky, Helen, "Spiritual Resurgence in Russia," Survey Graphic, Feb-
ruary, 1944,
Melish, William Howard, "Religious Developments in the Soviet Union,"
American Sociological Review, June, 1944.
Timasheff, N. S. , Religion in Soviet Russia.
3. Science
The Communist Party and the Soviet Government have put
their faith in science as the instrument by which man can
achieve greater control over the forces of nature. Science is
financed by the government, and dominates the whole educa-
tional system.
The All-Union Academy of Sciences directs all the scientific
work of the country. Science is not confined to the laboratories;
the interest of the masses of people has been enlisted in re-
search and invention. In the factories and on the collective
farms many thousands of workers study in science clubs. The
achievements of Soviet science have been impressive. While
critics say that science has had to operate within the confines
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 57
of socialism, Communists hold that science is stimulated by
making the discoveries accessible to all, with no fear of rival
interests securing the advantage.
References on Science:
Davies and Steiger, Soviet Asia.
Mikhailov, Nicholas, Land of the Soviets.
Williams, The Soviets, pp. 201-211.
4. The Arts
The Soviet government considers art to be an important part
of everyday life, and subsidizes the arts in many ways. Great
recognition is given to creative artists, and cultural workers are
among the highest paid of all workers. The Soviets make wide
use of art galleries and museums, not just as repositories for
valuable collections but as a means of arousing the conscious-
ness of the people to their rich cultural heritage. Theatres have
been as much a part of the Five-Year plans as have been dams
and steel mills; drama and opera are performed in sixty differ-
ent languages; and over a hundred children's theatres have been
opened. The arts are not limited to professionals.
Five thousand
non-professional theatres are run by clubs and collective farms
for amateur performers. The best amateur musicians and dancers
come to Moscow from all over the Soviet Union to compete in
the Moscow Olympiads of Music.
In architecture the revolt against the past has produced a
style that features rather severe, straight lines. No great dis-
tinction has been won by Russians in sculpture or painting, ex-
cept for the early icons. The work of pictorial and graphic
artists has attracted considerable attention. While the Soviets
hold the literary man in high regard, little has been produced
by Soviet writers which is comparable to the work of the great
masters of the past. Until 1932 the work of writers was hampered
by the rulings of the Russian Association of Proletarian Writers.
Hostile critics say that Soviet artists are serving propaganda pur-
poses. The Communists admit the truth of the statement, but
hold that artists always do reflect the point of view of the ruling
class from which they earn most of their living.
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? 58 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
References on the Arts:
Vernadsky, A History of Russia, Chapter 19.
Williams, The Soviets, Sections 71-76.
5. Publications and the Radio
Since the masses have acquired the ability to read, their appe-
tite for learning is tremendous. The supplying of enough books
and papers to satisfy the demand has become a problem. At the
end of the First Five-Year Plan, book production exceeded that
of England, France, and Germany combined. One publishing
house alone in Moscow publishes books in eighty-five languages.
This interest in reading has brought about a great cultural
awakening. While more titles are published each year than in
any other country, and editions are quickly exhausted, the paper
is inferior in quality, and the books are for the most part paper
bound.
Newspapers and weekly and monthly periodicals are even more
widely read in the Soviet Union than in the United States. This is
in spite of the fact that Soviet newspapers omit many of the
features which we consider essential in order to secure a wide
circulation. Soviet papers are wholly occupied with public
affairs. The function of the press is to carry on educational and
propaganda campaigns in order to organize the support of read-
ers behind government policies. Most important papers are
Communist Party organs, and an agent of the censorship sits in
every printing establishment. No publication which attacks the
ideals or general policies of the Party is allowed. This does not
mean that no criticism is possible. Newspapers furnish the chief
means of "self-criticism. " Correspondence from the people is
invited and thousands of letters are sent in criticizing officials
for the inefficiency of management. Informal wall-newspapers
are published in institutions as a means of securing criticisms
from the workers.
Radio broadcasts are made in sixty languages. Programs are
centrally planned, and are "official" in the same sense as applies
to the press. Many facilities for group listening are provided
on collective farms, in factories, apartments, schools, and in
other public places.
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 59
References on Publications and the Radio:
Harper, The Government of the Soviet Union, pp. 73-76.
Webb, Sidney and Beatrice, Soviet Communism; A New Civilisation?
p. 1026.
Williams, Albert Rhys, The Soviets, Section 73.
6. Recreation and Sports
The recreation and sports program is intended to supplement
other features of the public health program. Its purpose is to
produce a more healthy, vigorous race. Factories, clubs, and
collective farms provide places wherein workers may study,
relax, and enjoy themselves. Music, games, and folk dancing
are available for public participation. While in Tsarist Russia
the masses of the people had no form of physical culture, now
the whole population takes part in sports and exercises more
and more. As long as a person is physically capable he or she
is apt to take part in some form of athletics, usually until well
past middle age. Cities provide Parks of Culture and Rest for
recreation and entertainment. Here are libraries, lectures, con-
certs, and exhibitions. Anyone who wishes may exercise in the
parks, or may join a sports club. In these ways the Soviet Union
tries to develop a strong, healthy population. Some observers
think the training provided by the sports program is one thing
that has enabled the Red Army to do such a good job in the war.
References on Recreation and Sports:
Life magazine, March, 1944, "Russians Like Athletics. "
Sigerist, Henry E. , Socialized Medicine in the Soviet Union, pp. 167-189.
Williams, Albert Rhys, The Soviets, pp. 313-316.
Some Suggested Activities on Cultural Life:
1. Read the article "100,000,000 Have Learned to Read and Write" in
Life magazine for January 11, 1943. Write a brief summary of the
ways in which this has been achieved. You will find additional mate-
rial in the Survey Graphic for February, 1944.
2. You probably recall that Peter the Great tried to "westernize" Russia.
If you do not recall it, review his work by referring to some history
text. Why have the Soviets been able to accomplish much more in
the way of cultural transformation than Peter the Great was able to
do in his life time? Put your reasons down on paper so that you will
have them for ready reference. A class discussion will be held on this
topic
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? 60 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
3. A visitor to the Soviet Union heard a woman say, "I liquidated my
illiteracy in 1934. " What did she mean? Construct two bar graphs,
showing on one the percentage o? illiteracy in 1914, and on the other
the percentage of illiteracy in 1939. (See Life magazine, March, 1943. )
The abolition of illiteracy is one of the aims of the Soviet Govern-
ment. What methods are being used to bring this about?
4. You are a Soviet citizen, twenty years of age. Write a careful account
of the educational training you have had to date, and tell what plans
you have for continuing your education. You will find material in
Beatrice King's book, Changing Man: The Education System of the
U. SS. R.
5. Lunacharsky, Commissar of Education in the Soviet Union, after lead-
ing the attack on the church, made the following remark: "Religion is
like a nail, the harder you hit it the deeper it goes into the wood. "
Review the persecution of the early Christians by the Romans, and
study the effects of the persecution of religion by the Soviets. This
topic is discussed in the books by Pares, Timasheff, Anderson, and in
Margaret Bourke-White's Shooting the Russian War. Write a brief
summary of your conclusions about the effects of religious persecutions
in each of these two instances.
6. You may be interested in the official correspondence between President
Roosevelt and Maxim Litvinoff at the time of our recognition of the
U. S. S. R. You will find this exchange of letters on pages 31-33 of the
American Quarterly on the Soviet Union for November, 1940. Pre-
pare a list of the rights respecting religious freedoms which the U. S. S. R.
agreed to guarantee.
7. In Life magazine for January 11, 1943 you will find an article by
Walter Graebner, who had just returned from a four months' stay in
Moscow. The article is entitled "Moscow Today. " Study the pictures
and read the article. Select a few of the dramatic highlights of the
article to tell to the class.
8. Paul B. Anderson, in his book, People, Church and State in Modem
Russia, says, "It has become abundantly clear that the Church and
the believers generally are wholeheartedly behind the Red Army
and its Commander-in-Chief, Stalin. . . . "
Make a list of the items of evidence you are able to find in support
of this statement. Refer to the books by Anderson, Timasheff, Pares,
or others.
9. In Survey Graphic, February, 1944, is an article entitled, "Cannon Have
Not Silenced the Muses. " Read this article and make a report to the
class on how the arts are being used in time of war.
10. If you are interested in photography, you will no doubt be interested
in Margaret Bourke-White's book, Shooting the Russian War. After
some other students have read it, hold a group discussion with those
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 61
who are interested. Let the group decide whether or not to make a
brief report to the class on it.
11. Read the pamphlet entitled Drama in Wartime Russia by Henry Wads-
worth Longfellow Dana. Give a brief report to the class on the way
the Soviets are using drama to help win the war.
12. In the magazine, Art News, for May 15, 1942, is an article describing
an exhibition of Russian icons at the Baltimore Museum of Art. Study
the pictures of icons, and read the article. Would you care to study
this topic further and write a brief report on it? Perhaps you can
include a sketch of an icon that you liked especially.
13. Arrange to play a recording of a piece of modern Russian music which
you like. Find out what you can about the composer and tell the
class before you play the record.
14. Soviet scientists have "caused rain to fall in Ashkhabad, the dryest
spot in the country by sprinkling passing clouds with chemicals from
airplanes. " Many other interesting developments of Soviet science
are described in Chapter 45 of Albert Rhys Williams' book, The
Soviets. Read this chapter and any other interesting material you find
on this subject, and answer the following questions in writing:
a. How do the Soviets attempt to enlist all citizens in "storm-
ing the fortress of science"?
b. List some of the unusual achievements of Soviet science in
the following fields: synthetic products, weather control, devel-
opment of new plant life.
15. The Soviets believe that science is their ally in building a new life
for themselves. Science was assigned definite duties in the Five-Year
Plans. List the ten key problems assigned to the Academy of Science
in the Third Five-Year Plan. Prepare to explain to the class one of
these problems which interests you. (See Albert Rhys Williams, The
Soviets. )
16. Read H. P. Smolka's book, 40,000 Against the Arctic, or Ivan Papanin's
Adrift on an Ice Floe, to get a picture of the Soviet Arctic. After sev-
eral of you have read one or the other of these books, get together for
a discussion.
17. "We must not wait for the favors of nature," Michurin, Soviet scien-
tist, said in 1922. "We must wrest them from her. " To what extent
has the Soviet Union struggled against nature in: (a) the Arctic;
(b) desert areas; (c) adapting vegetation to the climate; (d) adapting
the climate to vegetation. Prepare an oral or written report on one of
these. See the chapter on science in Albert Rhys Williams, The Soviets.
18. "An empty futile amusement," said Nicholas II, the last of the Tsars,
in speaking of the cinema (motion pictures). "Only an abnormal per-
son would put this vulgar circus on a par with art. "
Lenin said, "For us the cinema is the most important of the arts. "
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? 62 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
Consult the available references and see what you can find about the
cinema in the Soviet Union, and the Soviet "Hollywood. "
Write a few generalizations on how films have been used in the Soviet
Union.
19. Have you ever seen a Soviet-made film? If so, what was it? Write a
paragraph or two giving your reaction to it.
20. In the violent phase of the Bolshevik Revolution, Lunacharsky, a great
Bolshevik art critic, was so upset by rumors of the demolition of the
famous Basil Cathedral that he became ill.
