The third Satire may perhaps have been written in the reign of
Domitian, and may refer to the general departure of men of worth from
Rome, when Domitian expelled the philosophers, A.
Domitian, and may refer to the general departure of men of worth from
Rome, when Domitian expelled the philosophers, A.
Satires
»
| | | |
| | | |The _coins_ of Trajan of this year bear the words,
| | | |"GERMANICUS, DACICUS. " vi. 205, "_Dacicus_, et scripto
| | | |radiat _Germanicus_ auro. "
| | | |
| | 112| 865|Hadrian Archon at Athens.
| | | |
|223| 113| 866|The column of Trajan erected (cf. Dio, lxviii. 16), to
| | | |which some think there is an allusion in the line, x.
| | | |136, "Summo tristis captivus in arcu. "
| | | |
| | 114| 867|Trajan's expedition to the East, against the Armenians
| | | |and Parthians. He proceeds in the autumn through Athens
| | | |and Seleucia to Antioch.
| | | |
| | 115| 868|Earthquake at Antioch, in January or February, in which
| | | |the consul, M. Vergilianus Pedo, perished. Dio, lxviii.
| | | |24, 25.
| | | |
| | | |In the spring Trajan marches to Armenia. Sat. vi. 411,
| | | |"Nutare urbes, subsidere terram. "
| | | |
| | | |«Martyrdom of S. Ignatius. »
| | | |
| | 116| 869|Trajan enters Ctesiphon, and takes the title of
| | | |"Parthicus. " Sat. vi. 407, "Instantem regi Armenio
| | | |Parthoque. "
| | | |
|224| 117| 870|Trajan reaches Selinus in Cilicia, and dies in August,
| | | |in his 63d year.
| | | |
| | | |Hadrian, at Antioch, succeeds, in consequence of a
| | | |fictitious adoption managed by Plotina. Cf. Gibbon,
| | | |vol. i. p. 130. To this there is supposed to be
| | | |an allusion in Sat. i. 40, "Optima summi Nunc via
| | | |processus vetulæ vesica beatæ. "
| | | |
| | 118| 871|Hadrian comes to Rome.
| | | |
| | | |This is sixty years after the consulship of Fonteius.
| | | |Cf. A. D. 59. The thirteenth Satire was therefore
| | | |probably written this year. l. 17, "Stupet hæc qui jam
| | | |post terga reliquit Sexaginta annos, Fonteio consule
| | | |natus. " The common story is, that Calvinus, to whom
| | | |this Satire is addressed, was _three years_ Juvenal's
| | | |senior.
| | | |
| | | |Probably the lines in Satire iii. , from 60-113, are
| | | |an interpolation at a period subsequent to the first
| | | |composition of the Satire, and refer to this period.
| | | |Hadrian brought with him from _Antioch_ to Rome many
| | | |foreigners of all professions. Cf. iii. 62, "Jampridem
| | | |Syrus in Tiberim defluxit _Orontes_. " Among these
| | | |he particularly favored Epictetus of Hierapolis in
| | | |Phrygia, Favorinus of Arelate in Gaul, and Dionysius
| | | |of Miletus. To one of these Juvenal may refer in
| | | |Sat. iii. 75, "Quemvis hominem secum attulit ad nos
| | | |Grammaticus, Rhetor, Geometres, Pictor, Aliptes, Augur,
| | | |Schœnobates, Medicus, Magus, omnia novit, Ad summum
| | | |non Maurus erat nec Sarmata nec Thrax," _et seq. _
| | | |Cf. Spartian. Hadrian, c. 5, and especially c. 16,
| | | |where he says, "In summâ familiaritate Epictetum et
| | | |Heliodorum, philosophos, et _grammaticos, Rhetores_,
| | | |musicos, _Geometras, pictores_, astrologos habuit:
| | | |præ cæteris eminente Favorino," where the order is
| | | |rather remarkable. Dionysius of Miletus, moreover,
| | | |was a disciple of Isæus (cf. A. D. 101), l. 73,
| | | |"Ingenium velox audacia perdita, sermo Promptus et Isæo
| | | |torrentior. "
| | | |
| | | |Hadrian, after a four months' consulship, proceeded to
| | | |Campania, and thence to Gaul, Germany, and Britain:
| | | |Juvenal therefore might safely publish this in the
| | | |emperor's absence.
| | | |
| | 119| 872|Hadrian consul with Junius Rusticus.
| | | |
| | | |This is most probably the Junius mentioned Sat. xv.
| | | |27, "Nuper Consule Junio gesta. " Cf. Salmas. , Plin.
| | | |Exercit. p. 320.
| | | |
| | 120| 873|Hadrian's progress through the provinces.
| | | |
| | | |He builds the wall in Britain: "Compositis in Britanniâ
| | | |rebus, transgressus in Galliam. " Spartian. c. 10. This
| | | |may be alluded to, Sat. ii. 160, 161. Cf. Sat. xv. 111.
| | | |
| | | |«Plutarch, æt. 74. »
| | | |
|225| 121| 874|Birth of M. Aurelius.
| | | |
| | 122| 875|Hadrian at Athens.
| | | |
| | | |Artemidorus Capito, the physician, in great repute with
| | | |Hadrian. It is not impossible that he may be alluded to
| | | |under the name of "Heliodorus. " Cf. Sat. vi. 373.
| | | |
| | 124| 877|The eleventh Satire may perhaps be assigned to about
| | | |this date. It was written when Juvenal was advanced in
| | | |years. l. 203, "Nostra bibat vernum contracta cuticula
| | | |solem. "
| | | |
| | | |The excitement about the games in the circus (cf.
| | | |Gibbon, chap. xl. ) was as great as in the days of
| | | |Domitian; and the "green" appears at this time to have
| | | |been a victorious color. Compare Sat. xi. 195, "Totam
| | | |hodie Romam circus capit, et fragor aurem Percutit,
| | | |eventum _viridis_ quo colligo _panni_;" with the
| | | |inscription in Gruter, quoted in Clinton (in ann. ),
| | | |"Primum agitavit in factione _prasinâ_. " «Cf. Mart.
| | | |xiv. Ep. cxxxi. , written long after Domitian's time. »
| | | |
| | 126| 879|Birth of Pertinax.
| | | |
| | | |«Dionysius of Halicarnassus flourishes. »
| | | |
| | 128| 881|Hadrian takes the title of "Pater Patriæ. "
| | | |
|227| 129| 882|Julius Fronto mentioned, as commanding the "Classis
| | | |Prætoria Misenensis. " Cf. A. D. 100.
| | | |
| | 130| 883|In the autumn of this year Hadrian is in Egypt.
| | | |«Compare the Greek inscription quoted by Clinton from
| | | |Eckhel with Sat. xv. 5. »
| | | |
| | | |While on the Nile he lost his favorite Antinous, and
| | | |built a city to his memory, which he called after him.
| | | |It is very probable that the lines, Sat. i. 60, _seq. _,
| | | |referring primarily to Nero and Sporus, may have a
| | | |secondary allusion to Hadrian and Antinous.
| | | |
| | | |«Appian flourished. Galen born. »
| | | |
| | 138| 891|Death of Hadrian in his 63d year.
| | | |
L. E.
APPENDIX, ON THE DATE OF JUVENAL'S SATIRES.
The first Satire appears, from internal evidence, to have been written
subsequently to at least the larger portion of the other Satires. But
in this, as probably in many others, lines were interpolated here and
there, at a period long after the original composition of the main body
of the Satire; the cycle of events reproducing such a combination of
circumstances, that the Satirist could make his shafts come home with
two-fold pungency. For instance, the lines 60 _et seq. _, which probably
were in the first edition of the Satire directed against Nero and his
favorite Sporus, would tell with equal effect against Hadrian and
Antinous.
It is impossible, therefore, from any one given passage, to assign a
date to any of the Satires of Juvenal. All that can be done, is to
point out the allusion probably intended in the particular passages,
and by that means fix a date prior to which we may reasonably conclude
that portion could not have been written.
In those Satires whose subject is less complicated and extensive, a
nearer approximation may be obtained to the date of the composition; as
e. g. in the case of the second and eleventh Satires, and we may add
the thirteenth and fifteenth.
But in the first Satire, the allusions extend over so wide a period,
that unless we may suppose, as in the case just cited, that other
persons are intended under the names known to history, to whom his
readers would apply immediately the covert sarcasm, we can hardly
imagine that they could _all_ at any one given time serve to give point
to the shaft of the Satirist. Thus Crispinus, mentioned l. 27, was made
a senator by Nero, and lived probably under Domitian also. The barber
alluded to in l. 25 (if, as the commentators suppose, Cinnamus is the
person), must have lost all his wealth, and been reduced to poverty,
somewhere about A. D. 93, the date of Martial's seventh book of Epigrams
(who mentions the fact, and advises him to recur to his old trade, Ep.
VII. lxiv. ). Massa and Carus (l. 35, 36) are mentioned by Martial as
apparently flourishing when he wrote his twelfth book, which was sent
to Rome A. D. 104. Again, line 49 seems to refer to the condemnation of
Marius as a recent event; but this took place in A. D. 100. And in that
same year M. Cornelius Fronto was consul with Trajan; and may have been
the proprietor of the plane-groves, mentioned l. 12. But then, again,
we hear of Julius Fronto in A. D. 129, and Hadrian's conduct toward
Antinous in that and the following year, might well have given occasion
to the 60th and following lines; and if we are right in applying line
40 to Plotina's manœuvring to secure the succession to Hadrian, it will
furnish an additional argument for supposing these passages to have
been added some time after. We may therefore offer the conjecture, that
the first Satire was written shortly after the year A. D. 100, as a
preface or introduction to the book, and that a few additions were made
to it, even so late as thirty years subsequently.
The second Satire was, in all probability, the first written. The
allusion in the first line to the Sarmatæ, may perhaps be connected
with the Sarmatian war, which took place A. D. 93, and in which
Domitian engaged in person. And this date will correspond with the
other references in the Satire by which an approximation to the time
of its composition may be obtained. In A. D. 84 Domitian received the
censorship for life (l. 121), at the same time that he was carrying on
an incestuous intercourse with his own niece Julia. This connection
was continued for some years. Shortly after the death of Julia, the
Vestal virgin Cornelia was buried alive, A. D. 91. These are alluded
to as _recent_ events (l. 29, "nuper"). Agricola, too, the conqueror
of Britain, died A. D. 93 (cf. l. 160), whose campaigns are spoken of
as recent occurrences, "modo captas Orcadas. " The mention of Gracchus
also connects this with the eighth Satire, part of which at least was
probably written soon after the consulship of Lateranus in A. D. 94. We
may therefore conjecture that the Satire was composed between the years
A. D. 93 and 95.
The third Satire may perhaps have been written in the reign of
Domitian, and may refer to the general departure of men of worth from
Rome, when Domitian expelled the philosophers, A. D. 90. Umbritius,
who predicted the murder of Galba, A. D. 69, might have been alive at
that time; and, from his political views, would have been a friend of
Juvenal, who was a bitter enemy of Otho. The nightly deeds of violence
perpetrated by Nero would have been still fresh in men's memories (l.
278, _seq. _; cf. Pers. , Sat. , iv. , 49); as would the judicial murder of
Barea Soranus, and the arrogance of Fabricius Veiento (l. 116, 185).
Still there are other parts of the Satire that seem to bear evidence of
a later date. The name of Isæus would hardly have been so familiar in
Rome till ten years after this date, l. 74. It was not till A. D. 107
that Trajan undertook the draining of the Pontine marshes; to which
there is most probably an allusion in l. 32 and 307; to which nothing
of importance had been done since the days of Augustus. The great
influx of foreigners into Rome, in the train of Hadrian, at a still
later date, A. D. 118, probably gave rise to the spirited episode from
l. 58-125. (See Chronology. ) We may therefore consider it probable that
the main body of the Satire was written toward the close of the reign
of Domitian, and received additions in the commencement of the reign of
Hadrian.
The fourth Satire in all probability describes a real event; and would
have possessed but little interest after any great lapse of time,
subsequent to the fact described. We may therefore fairly assign it
to the early part of Nerva's reign, very shortly after the death of
Domitian, which is mentioned at the close of the Satire.
The fifth Satire contains nothing by which we can determine the date.
From Juvenal's hatred of Domitian, we may suppose that l. 36 was
suggested by the condemnation of Senecio, who was put to death for
writing a panegyric on Helvidius Priscus, A. D. 90. If the Aurelia
(l. 98) be the lady mentioned by Pliny (Epist. , ii. , 20), this would
strengthen the conjecture, as Pliny's second book of Epistles was
probably written very shortly before that date.
There is little doubt that considerable portions of the sixth Satire
were written in the reign of Trajan. 1. The lines 407-411 describe
exactly the events which took place at Antioch, in A. D. 115, when
Trajan was entering on his Armenian and Parthian campaigns. 2. The
coins of Trajan of the year A. D. 110, have the legend Dacicus and
Germanicus, cf. l. 205; and although Domitian triumphed over the
Dacians and Germans, none of his extant coins bear that inscription;
the general title being Augustus Germanicus simply. 3. Again, l.
502 describes a kind of headdress, very common on the coins of the
reigns of Trajan and Hadrian, representing Plotina the wife of Trajan,
Marciana his sister, and Sabina the wife of Hadrian, and others: and
this fashion was a very short-lived one. Beginning with the court, it
probably soon descended to the ladies of inferior rank; but like its
unnatural antitype, the towering, powdered, and plastered rolls of our
own countrywomen, in the degraded days of the two first Georges, it was
too unnatural and disfiguring to remain long in vogue with that sex,
to whom "tanta est quærendi cura decoris tanquam famæ discrimen agatur
aut animæ. " 4. The subject itself also affords an additional reason
for supposing that the Satire was composed when the poet was advanced
in life. The vices of women are hardly a topic for a young writer to
select; but the vigorous manner in which he handles the lash, rather
marks the state of mind of the man who has outgrown the passions of
early manhood, and from "the high heaven of his philosophy" looks down
with cold austerity on the desires, and with bitter indignation at the
vices, of those whose feelings he has long since ceased to share.
Juvenal was, as Hodgson says, "an impenetrable bachelor," and if, as
he conjectures, he was jilted in his early youth, this fact would give
additional bitterness to the rancor which in old age he would feel
toward the sex by whom his personal happiness had been embittered, as
well as the ruin of his native country precipitated. 5. If we are right
in supposing that by Heliodorus, Juvenal meant Artemidorus Capito (and
the change in the name is both simple and readily suggested), this
would also bring down the date of this Satire to Juvenal's later years,
as about A. D. 122 was the time when this court-physician of Hadrian had
attained his greatest reputation. 6. In line 320, Saufeia is spoken of
in similar terms to those employed in the eleventh Satire, which was
confessedly the work of his later years. 7. Compare also the mention
of Archigenes (l. 236) with the 98th line of the thirteenth Satire,
written A. D. 118. 8. The allusions to the importation of foreigners,
with their exotic vices, would also refer to the same date. See Chron. ,
A. D. 118.
The date of the seventh Satire will depend mainly on the question, Whom
does Juvenal intend to panegyrize in his 1st line?
"Et spes et ratio studiorum in Cæsare tantum. "
Gifford pronounces unhesitatingly in favor of Domitian, and his
argument is very plausible. "The Satire," he says, "would appear to
have been written in the early part of Domitian's reign; and Juvenal,
by giving the emperor '_one honest line_' of praise, probably meant to
stimulate him to extend his patronage. He did not think very ill of him
at the time, and augured happily for the future. " Juvenal's subsequent
hatred of Domitian was caused, he thinks, by his bitter mortification
at finding, in a few years, this "sole patron of literature" changed
into a ferocious and bloody persecutor of all the arts. This opinion
he supports by some references to contemporary writers, and by the
evidence of coins of Domitian existing with a head of Pallas on the
reverse, to symbolize his royal patronage of poetry and literary
pursuits. But in almost every instance Gifford errs in assigning too
early a date to the Satires; and one or two points in this clearly
show that we must bring it down to a much later period. Domitian
succeeded to the throne A. D. 81, and it could only have been in the
_earlier_ years of his reign that even his most servile flatterers
could have complimented him upon his patronage of learning. Now,
1. It was not till about ten years after this that the actor Paris
acquired his influence and his wealth; and even allowing the very
problematical story of the banishment of Juvenal having been caused by
the offense given to the favorite by the famous lines (85-92) to be
true, this would bring it down to a time subsequent to the banishment
of philosophers from Rome; after which act Juvenal, certainly, would
not have written the first line on Domitian. 2. Again, in A. D. 90,
Quintilian was teaching in a public school at Rome, and receiving a
salary from the imperial treasury; it could hardly therefore be so
early as this date that he had acquired the fortune and estates alluded
to in l. 189. 3. In l. 82, the Thebaid of Statius is mentioned. This
poem was finished A. D. 94; and though it is true that Statius might,
most probably, have publicly recited portions of it _during its
progress_, it would have hardly earned the great reputation implied in
Juvenal's lines, at a sufficiently early date to allow us to assign it
to the first two or three years of Domitian's reign.
I should, therefore, rather suppose that by Cæsar we are to understand
Nerva. The praise of Domitian is incompatible with Juvenal's universal
hatred and execration of him. The opening of the reign of the mild and
excellent Nerva might well inspire hopes of the revival of a taste for
literature and the arts; and I would conjecture the close of A. D. 96 as
the date of the Satire. Before the end of the year Statius was dead;
but Juvenal's words seem to imply that he was still living. Again,
Matho the lawyer has failed, and is in great poverty (l. 129), to which
Martial alludes in lib. xi. , Ep. , part of which book was evidently
written shortly before A. D. 97. But if we are right in supposing the
first Satire to have been written about A. D. 100, the intervening
years will have given Matho ample time to retrieve his fortune by his
infamous trade of informing, and reappear as the luxurious character
described Sat. , i. , 32.
Of the eighth Satire, if "Lateranus" be the true reading (l. 147), or
if he be intended by "Damasippus," as I believe, we may assume the year
A. D. 101 or 102 as the probable date: Lateranus had been consul A. D.
94, and in the year A. D. 101 Trajan for the first time extended the
arms of Rome beyond the Danube. Cf. l. 169.
The plunder of his province of Africa, by Marius Priscus, was a recent
event (l. 120 "nuper"); but, as we have said above, he was impeached by
Pliny and Tacitus in the year A. D. 100. Ponticus, to whom the Satire
is addressed, may be the person to whom Martial refers in his twelfth
book, which was written A. D. 104.
There are two allusions by which we may form a conjecture as to the
date of the ninth Satire. Crepereius Pollio is mentioned as nearly in
the same circumstances of profligate poverty (l. 6, 7) as is described
in the eleventh Satire (l. 43), which was undoubtedly written in
Juvenal's later years; and he alludes (l. 117) to Saufeia, in very much
the same terms in which he speaks of her in the sixth Satire (l. 320),
which we suppose to have been written in his old age.
The internal evidence, supplied by the sustained majesty and dignified
flow of language of the tenth (as well as of the fourteenth) Satire,
without taking into consideration the philosophical nature of the
subject of both, is quite sufficient to prove that they must have been
the finished productions of a late period of a thoughtful life. We are
therefore quite prepared to admit the conjecture that the allusion in
line 136 is to the column of Trajan, erected in the year A. D. 113. The
repetition of the line (226) also connects this with the first Satire,
which it probably preceded only by a short interval.
The 203d line of the eleventh Satire fixes its date to the later
years of Juvenal's life. It breathes, besides, throughout the spirit
of a calm and philosophic enjoyment of the blessings of life, that
tells of declining age; cheered by a chastened appreciation of the
comforts by which it is surrounded, but far removed from all extraneous
or meretricious excitement, and utterly abhorrent of all noisy or
exuberant hilarity. An additional argument is mentioned in the
Chronology for referring it to the date A. D. 124.
The twelfth Satire contains nothing by which we can fix its date with
any certainty. If, however, as the commentators suppose, the wife of
Fuscus, in the 45th line, be Saufeia, it will be connected with the
sixth, ninth, and eleventh Satires, and may probably be considered the
work of his advanced age.
The thirteenth Satire is fixed by line 17 to the year A. D. 118, the
60th after the consulship of L. Fonteius Capito. This is the only
Satire to which Mr. Clinton has assigned a date.
The argument applied to the tenth Satire will apply with nearly equal
force to the fourteenth. We are therefore prepared to admit the
plausibility of the conjecture, that l. 196 refers to the progress of
Hadrian through Britain, which would fix the date to A. D. 120; a very
short time previous to the composition of the following Satire.
The event recorded in the fifteenth Satire occurred shortly after the
consulship of Junius, l. 27, "nuper consule Junio gesta. " This was, in
all probability, Junius Rusticus, who was consul with Hadrian A. D. 119.
The 110th line also probably refers to the influx of Greeks and other
foreigners into Rome, in the train of Hadrian (to which we have alluded
in discussing the date of the third Satire), which took place in the
preceding year.
The sixteenth Satire may have either been the draft of a longer poem,
commenced in early life (as l. 3 _may_ imply), which the poet never
cared to finish; or an outline for a more perfect composition, which he
never lived to elaborate. The mention of Fucus may connect it with the
twelfth Satire. But though there is quite enough remaining to warrant
us in unhesitatingly ascribing the authorship to Juvenal, there is too
little left to enable us to form even a probable conjecture as to the
date of its composition.
It is hardly necessary to add, that, after a careful examination
of the foregoing Chronology, it must be evident to every novice in
scholarship, that the whole life of Juvenal, as usually given, is
a mere myth, to which one can not even apply, as in many legendary
biographies, the epithet of poetical.
L. E.
ARGUMENTS OF THE SATIRES OF JUVENAL.
SATIRE I.
This Satire seems, from several incidental circumstances to have been
produced subsequently to most of them; and was probably drawn up after
the author had determined to collect and publish his works, as a kind
of Introduction.
He abruptly breaks silence with an impassioned complaint of the
importunity of bad writers, and a resolution of retaliating upon them;
and after ridiculing their frivolous taste in the choice of their
subjects, declares his own intention to devote himself to Satire. After
exposing the corruption of men, the profligacy of women, the luxury of
courtiers, the baseness of informers and fortune-hunters, the treachery
of guardians, and the peculation of officers of state, he censures the
general passion for gambling, the servile rapacity of the patricians,
the avarice and gluttony of the rich, and the miserable poverty and
subjection of their dependents; and after some bitter reflections on
the danger of satirizing living villainy, concludes with a resolution
to attack it under the mask of departed names.
SATIRE II.
This Satire contains an animated attack upon the hypocrisy of the
philosophers and reformers of the day, whose ignorance, profligacy, and
impiety it exposes with just severity.
Domitian is here the object; his vices are alluded to under every
different name; and it gives us a high opinion of the intrepid spirit
of the man who could venture to circulate, even in private, so faithful
a representation of that blood-thirsty tyrant.
SATIRE III.
Umbritius, an Aruspex and friend of the author, disgusted at the
prevalence of vice and the disregard of unassuming virtue, is on the
point of quitting Rome; and when a little way from the city stops
short to acquaint the poet, who has accompanied him, with the causes
of his retirement. These may be arranged under the following heads:
That Flattery and Vice are the only thriving arts at Rome; in these,
especially the first, foreigners have a manifest superiority over
the natives, and consequently engross all favor--that the poor are
universally exposed to scorn and insult--that the general habits of
extravagance render it difficult for them to subsist--that the want
of a well-regulated police subjects them to numberless miseries and
inconveniences, aggravated by the crowded state of the capital, from
all which a country life is happily free: on the tranquillity and
security of which he dilates with great beauty.
SATIRE IV.
In this Satire Juvenal indulges his honest spleen against Crispinus,
already noticed, and Domitian, the constant object of his scorn
and abhorrence. The introduction of the tyrant is excellent; the
mock solemnity with which the anecdote of the Turbot is introduced,
the procession of the affrighted counselors to the palace, and the
ridiculous debate which terminates in as ridiculous a decision, show a
masterly hand. The whole concludes with an indignant and high-spirited
apostrophe.
SATIRE V.
Under pretense of advising one Trebius to abstain from the table of
Virro, a man of rank and fortune, Juvenal takes occasion to give a
spirited detail of the insults and mortifications to which the poor
were subjected by the rich, at those entertainments to which, on
account of the political connection subsisting between patrons and
clients, it was sometimes thought necessary to invite them.
SATIRE VI.
The whole of this Satire, not only the longest, but the most complete
of the author's works, is directed against the female sex. It may
be distributed under the following heads: Lust variously modified,
imperiousness of disposition, fickleness, gallantry, attachment to
improper pursuits, litigiousness, drunkenness, unnatural passions,
fondness for singers, dancers, etc. ; gossiping, cruelty, ill manners;
outrageous pretensions to criticism, grammar, and philosophy;
superstitious and unbounded credulity in diviners and fortune-tellers;
introducing supposititious children; poisoning their step-sons to
possess their fortunes; and, lastly, murdering their husbands.
SATIRE VII.
This Satire contains an animated account of the general discouragement
under which literature labored at Rome. Beginning with poetry, it
proceeds through the various departments of history, law, oratory,
rhetoric, and grammar; interspersing many curious anecdotes, and
enlivening each different head with such satirical, humorous, and
sentimental remarks as naturally flow from the subject.
SATIRE VIII.
| | | |
| | | |The _coins_ of Trajan of this year bear the words,
| | | |"GERMANICUS, DACICUS. " vi. 205, "_Dacicus_, et scripto
| | | |radiat _Germanicus_ auro. "
| | | |
| | 112| 865|Hadrian Archon at Athens.
| | | |
|223| 113| 866|The column of Trajan erected (cf. Dio, lxviii. 16), to
| | | |which some think there is an allusion in the line, x.
| | | |136, "Summo tristis captivus in arcu. "
| | | |
| | 114| 867|Trajan's expedition to the East, against the Armenians
| | | |and Parthians. He proceeds in the autumn through Athens
| | | |and Seleucia to Antioch.
| | | |
| | 115| 868|Earthquake at Antioch, in January or February, in which
| | | |the consul, M. Vergilianus Pedo, perished. Dio, lxviii.
| | | |24, 25.
| | | |
| | | |In the spring Trajan marches to Armenia. Sat. vi. 411,
| | | |"Nutare urbes, subsidere terram. "
| | | |
| | | |«Martyrdom of S. Ignatius. »
| | | |
| | 116| 869|Trajan enters Ctesiphon, and takes the title of
| | | |"Parthicus. " Sat. vi. 407, "Instantem regi Armenio
| | | |Parthoque. "
| | | |
|224| 117| 870|Trajan reaches Selinus in Cilicia, and dies in August,
| | | |in his 63d year.
| | | |
| | | |Hadrian, at Antioch, succeeds, in consequence of a
| | | |fictitious adoption managed by Plotina. Cf. Gibbon,
| | | |vol. i. p. 130. To this there is supposed to be
| | | |an allusion in Sat. i. 40, "Optima summi Nunc via
| | | |processus vetulæ vesica beatæ. "
| | | |
| | 118| 871|Hadrian comes to Rome.
| | | |
| | | |This is sixty years after the consulship of Fonteius.
| | | |Cf. A. D. 59. The thirteenth Satire was therefore
| | | |probably written this year. l. 17, "Stupet hæc qui jam
| | | |post terga reliquit Sexaginta annos, Fonteio consule
| | | |natus. " The common story is, that Calvinus, to whom
| | | |this Satire is addressed, was _three years_ Juvenal's
| | | |senior.
| | | |
| | | |Probably the lines in Satire iii. , from 60-113, are
| | | |an interpolation at a period subsequent to the first
| | | |composition of the Satire, and refer to this period.
| | | |Hadrian brought with him from _Antioch_ to Rome many
| | | |foreigners of all professions. Cf. iii. 62, "Jampridem
| | | |Syrus in Tiberim defluxit _Orontes_. " Among these
| | | |he particularly favored Epictetus of Hierapolis in
| | | |Phrygia, Favorinus of Arelate in Gaul, and Dionysius
| | | |of Miletus. To one of these Juvenal may refer in
| | | |Sat. iii. 75, "Quemvis hominem secum attulit ad nos
| | | |Grammaticus, Rhetor, Geometres, Pictor, Aliptes, Augur,
| | | |Schœnobates, Medicus, Magus, omnia novit, Ad summum
| | | |non Maurus erat nec Sarmata nec Thrax," _et seq. _
| | | |Cf. Spartian. Hadrian, c. 5, and especially c. 16,
| | | |where he says, "In summâ familiaritate Epictetum et
| | | |Heliodorum, philosophos, et _grammaticos, Rhetores_,
| | | |musicos, _Geometras, pictores_, astrologos habuit:
| | | |præ cæteris eminente Favorino," where the order is
| | | |rather remarkable. Dionysius of Miletus, moreover,
| | | |was a disciple of Isæus (cf. A. D. 101), l. 73,
| | | |"Ingenium velox audacia perdita, sermo Promptus et Isæo
| | | |torrentior. "
| | | |
| | | |Hadrian, after a four months' consulship, proceeded to
| | | |Campania, and thence to Gaul, Germany, and Britain:
| | | |Juvenal therefore might safely publish this in the
| | | |emperor's absence.
| | | |
| | 119| 872|Hadrian consul with Junius Rusticus.
| | | |
| | | |This is most probably the Junius mentioned Sat. xv.
| | | |27, "Nuper Consule Junio gesta. " Cf. Salmas. , Plin.
| | | |Exercit. p. 320.
| | | |
| | 120| 873|Hadrian's progress through the provinces.
| | | |
| | | |He builds the wall in Britain: "Compositis in Britanniâ
| | | |rebus, transgressus in Galliam. " Spartian. c. 10. This
| | | |may be alluded to, Sat. ii. 160, 161. Cf. Sat. xv. 111.
| | | |
| | | |«Plutarch, æt. 74. »
| | | |
|225| 121| 874|Birth of M. Aurelius.
| | | |
| | 122| 875|Hadrian at Athens.
| | | |
| | | |Artemidorus Capito, the physician, in great repute with
| | | |Hadrian. It is not impossible that he may be alluded to
| | | |under the name of "Heliodorus. " Cf. Sat. vi. 373.
| | | |
| | 124| 877|The eleventh Satire may perhaps be assigned to about
| | | |this date. It was written when Juvenal was advanced in
| | | |years. l. 203, "Nostra bibat vernum contracta cuticula
| | | |solem. "
| | | |
| | | |The excitement about the games in the circus (cf.
| | | |Gibbon, chap. xl. ) was as great as in the days of
| | | |Domitian; and the "green" appears at this time to have
| | | |been a victorious color. Compare Sat. xi. 195, "Totam
| | | |hodie Romam circus capit, et fragor aurem Percutit,
| | | |eventum _viridis_ quo colligo _panni_;" with the
| | | |inscription in Gruter, quoted in Clinton (in ann. ),
| | | |"Primum agitavit in factione _prasinâ_. " «Cf. Mart.
| | | |xiv. Ep. cxxxi. , written long after Domitian's time. »
| | | |
| | 126| 879|Birth of Pertinax.
| | | |
| | | |«Dionysius of Halicarnassus flourishes. »
| | | |
| | 128| 881|Hadrian takes the title of "Pater Patriæ. "
| | | |
|227| 129| 882|Julius Fronto mentioned, as commanding the "Classis
| | | |Prætoria Misenensis. " Cf. A. D. 100.
| | | |
| | 130| 883|In the autumn of this year Hadrian is in Egypt.
| | | |«Compare the Greek inscription quoted by Clinton from
| | | |Eckhel with Sat. xv. 5. »
| | | |
| | | |While on the Nile he lost his favorite Antinous, and
| | | |built a city to his memory, which he called after him.
| | | |It is very probable that the lines, Sat. i. 60, _seq. _,
| | | |referring primarily to Nero and Sporus, may have a
| | | |secondary allusion to Hadrian and Antinous.
| | | |
| | | |«Appian flourished. Galen born. »
| | | |
| | 138| 891|Death of Hadrian in his 63d year.
| | | |
L. E.
APPENDIX, ON THE DATE OF JUVENAL'S SATIRES.
The first Satire appears, from internal evidence, to have been written
subsequently to at least the larger portion of the other Satires. But
in this, as probably in many others, lines were interpolated here and
there, at a period long after the original composition of the main body
of the Satire; the cycle of events reproducing such a combination of
circumstances, that the Satirist could make his shafts come home with
two-fold pungency. For instance, the lines 60 _et seq. _, which probably
were in the first edition of the Satire directed against Nero and his
favorite Sporus, would tell with equal effect against Hadrian and
Antinous.
It is impossible, therefore, from any one given passage, to assign a
date to any of the Satires of Juvenal. All that can be done, is to
point out the allusion probably intended in the particular passages,
and by that means fix a date prior to which we may reasonably conclude
that portion could not have been written.
In those Satires whose subject is less complicated and extensive, a
nearer approximation may be obtained to the date of the composition; as
e. g. in the case of the second and eleventh Satires, and we may add
the thirteenth and fifteenth.
But in the first Satire, the allusions extend over so wide a period,
that unless we may suppose, as in the case just cited, that other
persons are intended under the names known to history, to whom his
readers would apply immediately the covert sarcasm, we can hardly
imagine that they could _all_ at any one given time serve to give point
to the shaft of the Satirist. Thus Crispinus, mentioned l. 27, was made
a senator by Nero, and lived probably under Domitian also. The barber
alluded to in l. 25 (if, as the commentators suppose, Cinnamus is the
person), must have lost all his wealth, and been reduced to poverty,
somewhere about A. D. 93, the date of Martial's seventh book of Epigrams
(who mentions the fact, and advises him to recur to his old trade, Ep.
VII. lxiv. ). Massa and Carus (l. 35, 36) are mentioned by Martial as
apparently flourishing when he wrote his twelfth book, which was sent
to Rome A. D. 104. Again, line 49 seems to refer to the condemnation of
Marius as a recent event; but this took place in A. D. 100. And in that
same year M. Cornelius Fronto was consul with Trajan; and may have been
the proprietor of the plane-groves, mentioned l. 12. But then, again,
we hear of Julius Fronto in A. D. 129, and Hadrian's conduct toward
Antinous in that and the following year, might well have given occasion
to the 60th and following lines; and if we are right in applying line
40 to Plotina's manœuvring to secure the succession to Hadrian, it will
furnish an additional argument for supposing these passages to have
been added some time after. We may therefore offer the conjecture, that
the first Satire was written shortly after the year A. D. 100, as a
preface or introduction to the book, and that a few additions were made
to it, even so late as thirty years subsequently.
The second Satire was, in all probability, the first written. The
allusion in the first line to the Sarmatæ, may perhaps be connected
with the Sarmatian war, which took place A. D. 93, and in which
Domitian engaged in person. And this date will correspond with the
other references in the Satire by which an approximation to the time
of its composition may be obtained. In A. D. 84 Domitian received the
censorship for life (l. 121), at the same time that he was carrying on
an incestuous intercourse with his own niece Julia. This connection
was continued for some years. Shortly after the death of Julia, the
Vestal virgin Cornelia was buried alive, A. D. 91. These are alluded
to as _recent_ events (l. 29, "nuper"). Agricola, too, the conqueror
of Britain, died A. D. 93 (cf. l. 160), whose campaigns are spoken of
as recent occurrences, "modo captas Orcadas. " The mention of Gracchus
also connects this with the eighth Satire, part of which at least was
probably written soon after the consulship of Lateranus in A. D. 94. We
may therefore conjecture that the Satire was composed between the years
A. D. 93 and 95.
The third Satire may perhaps have been written in the reign of
Domitian, and may refer to the general departure of men of worth from
Rome, when Domitian expelled the philosophers, A. D. 90. Umbritius,
who predicted the murder of Galba, A. D. 69, might have been alive at
that time; and, from his political views, would have been a friend of
Juvenal, who was a bitter enemy of Otho. The nightly deeds of violence
perpetrated by Nero would have been still fresh in men's memories (l.
278, _seq. _; cf. Pers. , Sat. , iv. , 49); as would the judicial murder of
Barea Soranus, and the arrogance of Fabricius Veiento (l. 116, 185).
Still there are other parts of the Satire that seem to bear evidence of
a later date. The name of Isæus would hardly have been so familiar in
Rome till ten years after this date, l. 74. It was not till A. D. 107
that Trajan undertook the draining of the Pontine marshes; to which
there is most probably an allusion in l. 32 and 307; to which nothing
of importance had been done since the days of Augustus. The great
influx of foreigners into Rome, in the train of Hadrian, at a still
later date, A. D. 118, probably gave rise to the spirited episode from
l. 58-125. (See Chronology. ) We may therefore consider it probable that
the main body of the Satire was written toward the close of the reign
of Domitian, and received additions in the commencement of the reign of
Hadrian.
The fourth Satire in all probability describes a real event; and would
have possessed but little interest after any great lapse of time,
subsequent to the fact described. We may therefore fairly assign it
to the early part of Nerva's reign, very shortly after the death of
Domitian, which is mentioned at the close of the Satire.
The fifth Satire contains nothing by which we can determine the date.
From Juvenal's hatred of Domitian, we may suppose that l. 36 was
suggested by the condemnation of Senecio, who was put to death for
writing a panegyric on Helvidius Priscus, A. D. 90. If the Aurelia
(l. 98) be the lady mentioned by Pliny (Epist. , ii. , 20), this would
strengthen the conjecture, as Pliny's second book of Epistles was
probably written very shortly before that date.
There is little doubt that considerable portions of the sixth Satire
were written in the reign of Trajan. 1. The lines 407-411 describe
exactly the events which took place at Antioch, in A. D. 115, when
Trajan was entering on his Armenian and Parthian campaigns. 2. The
coins of Trajan of the year A. D. 110, have the legend Dacicus and
Germanicus, cf. l. 205; and although Domitian triumphed over the
Dacians and Germans, none of his extant coins bear that inscription;
the general title being Augustus Germanicus simply. 3. Again, l.
502 describes a kind of headdress, very common on the coins of the
reigns of Trajan and Hadrian, representing Plotina the wife of Trajan,
Marciana his sister, and Sabina the wife of Hadrian, and others: and
this fashion was a very short-lived one. Beginning with the court, it
probably soon descended to the ladies of inferior rank; but like its
unnatural antitype, the towering, powdered, and plastered rolls of our
own countrywomen, in the degraded days of the two first Georges, it was
too unnatural and disfiguring to remain long in vogue with that sex,
to whom "tanta est quærendi cura decoris tanquam famæ discrimen agatur
aut animæ. " 4. The subject itself also affords an additional reason
for supposing that the Satire was composed when the poet was advanced
in life. The vices of women are hardly a topic for a young writer to
select; but the vigorous manner in which he handles the lash, rather
marks the state of mind of the man who has outgrown the passions of
early manhood, and from "the high heaven of his philosophy" looks down
with cold austerity on the desires, and with bitter indignation at the
vices, of those whose feelings he has long since ceased to share.
Juvenal was, as Hodgson says, "an impenetrable bachelor," and if, as
he conjectures, he was jilted in his early youth, this fact would give
additional bitterness to the rancor which in old age he would feel
toward the sex by whom his personal happiness had been embittered, as
well as the ruin of his native country precipitated. 5. If we are right
in supposing that by Heliodorus, Juvenal meant Artemidorus Capito (and
the change in the name is both simple and readily suggested), this
would also bring down the date of this Satire to Juvenal's later years,
as about A. D. 122 was the time when this court-physician of Hadrian had
attained his greatest reputation. 6. In line 320, Saufeia is spoken of
in similar terms to those employed in the eleventh Satire, which was
confessedly the work of his later years. 7. Compare also the mention
of Archigenes (l. 236) with the 98th line of the thirteenth Satire,
written A. D. 118. 8. The allusions to the importation of foreigners,
with their exotic vices, would also refer to the same date. See Chron. ,
A. D. 118.
The date of the seventh Satire will depend mainly on the question, Whom
does Juvenal intend to panegyrize in his 1st line?
"Et spes et ratio studiorum in Cæsare tantum. "
Gifford pronounces unhesitatingly in favor of Domitian, and his
argument is very plausible. "The Satire," he says, "would appear to
have been written in the early part of Domitian's reign; and Juvenal,
by giving the emperor '_one honest line_' of praise, probably meant to
stimulate him to extend his patronage. He did not think very ill of him
at the time, and augured happily for the future. " Juvenal's subsequent
hatred of Domitian was caused, he thinks, by his bitter mortification
at finding, in a few years, this "sole patron of literature" changed
into a ferocious and bloody persecutor of all the arts. This opinion
he supports by some references to contemporary writers, and by the
evidence of coins of Domitian existing with a head of Pallas on the
reverse, to symbolize his royal patronage of poetry and literary
pursuits. But in almost every instance Gifford errs in assigning too
early a date to the Satires; and one or two points in this clearly
show that we must bring it down to a much later period. Domitian
succeeded to the throne A. D. 81, and it could only have been in the
_earlier_ years of his reign that even his most servile flatterers
could have complimented him upon his patronage of learning. Now,
1. It was not till about ten years after this that the actor Paris
acquired his influence and his wealth; and even allowing the very
problematical story of the banishment of Juvenal having been caused by
the offense given to the favorite by the famous lines (85-92) to be
true, this would bring it down to a time subsequent to the banishment
of philosophers from Rome; after which act Juvenal, certainly, would
not have written the first line on Domitian. 2. Again, in A. D. 90,
Quintilian was teaching in a public school at Rome, and receiving a
salary from the imperial treasury; it could hardly therefore be so
early as this date that he had acquired the fortune and estates alluded
to in l. 189. 3. In l. 82, the Thebaid of Statius is mentioned. This
poem was finished A. D. 94; and though it is true that Statius might,
most probably, have publicly recited portions of it _during its
progress_, it would have hardly earned the great reputation implied in
Juvenal's lines, at a sufficiently early date to allow us to assign it
to the first two or three years of Domitian's reign.
I should, therefore, rather suppose that by Cæsar we are to understand
Nerva. The praise of Domitian is incompatible with Juvenal's universal
hatred and execration of him. The opening of the reign of the mild and
excellent Nerva might well inspire hopes of the revival of a taste for
literature and the arts; and I would conjecture the close of A. D. 96 as
the date of the Satire. Before the end of the year Statius was dead;
but Juvenal's words seem to imply that he was still living. Again,
Matho the lawyer has failed, and is in great poverty (l. 129), to which
Martial alludes in lib. xi. , Ep. , part of which book was evidently
written shortly before A. D. 97. But if we are right in supposing the
first Satire to have been written about A. D. 100, the intervening
years will have given Matho ample time to retrieve his fortune by his
infamous trade of informing, and reappear as the luxurious character
described Sat. , i. , 32.
Of the eighth Satire, if "Lateranus" be the true reading (l. 147), or
if he be intended by "Damasippus," as I believe, we may assume the year
A. D. 101 or 102 as the probable date: Lateranus had been consul A. D.
94, and in the year A. D. 101 Trajan for the first time extended the
arms of Rome beyond the Danube. Cf. l. 169.
The plunder of his province of Africa, by Marius Priscus, was a recent
event (l. 120 "nuper"); but, as we have said above, he was impeached by
Pliny and Tacitus in the year A. D. 100. Ponticus, to whom the Satire
is addressed, may be the person to whom Martial refers in his twelfth
book, which was written A. D. 104.
There are two allusions by which we may form a conjecture as to the
date of the ninth Satire. Crepereius Pollio is mentioned as nearly in
the same circumstances of profligate poverty (l. 6, 7) as is described
in the eleventh Satire (l. 43), which was undoubtedly written in
Juvenal's later years; and he alludes (l. 117) to Saufeia, in very much
the same terms in which he speaks of her in the sixth Satire (l. 320),
which we suppose to have been written in his old age.
The internal evidence, supplied by the sustained majesty and dignified
flow of language of the tenth (as well as of the fourteenth) Satire,
without taking into consideration the philosophical nature of the
subject of both, is quite sufficient to prove that they must have been
the finished productions of a late period of a thoughtful life. We are
therefore quite prepared to admit the conjecture that the allusion in
line 136 is to the column of Trajan, erected in the year A. D. 113. The
repetition of the line (226) also connects this with the first Satire,
which it probably preceded only by a short interval.
The 203d line of the eleventh Satire fixes its date to the later
years of Juvenal's life. It breathes, besides, throughout the spirit
of a calm and philosophic enjoyment of the blessings of life, that
tells of declining age; cheered by a chastened appreciation of the
comforts by which it is surrounded, but far removed from all extraneous
or meretricious excitement, and utterly abhorrent of all noisy or
exuberant hilarity. An additional argument is mentioned in the
Chronology for referring it to the date A. D. 124.
The twelfth Satire contains nothing by which we can fix its date with
any certainty. If, however, as the commentators suppose, the wife of
Fuscus, in the 45th line, be Saufeia, it will be connected with the
sixth, ninth, and eleventh Satires, and may probably be considered the
work of his advanced age.
The thirteenth Satire is fixed by line 17 to the year A. D. 118, the
60th after the consulship of L. Fonteius Capito. This is the only
Satire to which Mr. Clinton has assigned a date.
The argument applied to the tenth Satire will apply with nearly equal
force to the fourteenth. We are therefore prepared to admit the
plausibility of the conjecture, that l. 196 refers to the progress of
Hadrian through Britain, which would fix the date to A. D. 120; a very
short time previous to the composition of the following Satire.
The event recorded in the fifteenth Satire occurred shortly after the
consulship of Junius, l. 27, "nuper consule Junio gesta. " This was, in
all probability, Junius Rusticus, who was consul with Hadrian A. D. 119.
The 110th line also probably refers to the influx of Greeks and other
foreigners into Rome, in the train of Hadrian (to which we have alluded
in discussing the date of the third Satire), which took place in the
preceding year.
The sixteenth Satire may have either been the draft of a longer poem,
commenced in early life (as l. 3 _may_ imply), which the poet never
cared to finish; or an outline for a more perfect composition, which he
never lived to elaborate. The mention of Fucus may connect it with the
twelfth Satire. But though there is quite enough remaining to warrant
us in unhesitatingly ascribing the authorship to Juvenal, there is too
little left to enable us to form even a probable conjecture as to the
date of its composition.
It is hardly necessary to add, that, after a careful examination
of the foregoing Chronology, it must be evident to every novice in
scholarship, that the whole life of Juvenal, as usually given, is
a mere myth, to which one can not even apply, as in many legendary
biographies, the epithet of poetical.
L. E.
ARGUMENTS OF THE SATIRES OF JUVENAL.
SATIRE I.
This Satire seems, from several incidental circumstances to have been
produced subsequently to most of them; and was probably drawn up after
the author had determined to collect and publish his works, as a kind
of Introduction.
He abruptly breaks silence with an impassioned complaint of the
importunity of bad writers, and a resolution of retaliating upon them;
and after ridiculing their frivolous taste in the choice of their
subjects, declares his own intention to devote himself to Satire. After
exposing the corruption of men, the profligacy of women, the luxury of
courtiers, the baseness of informers and fortune-hunters, the treachery
of guardians, and the peculation of officers of state, he censures the
general passion for gambling, the servile rapacity of the patricians,
the avarice and gluttony of the rich, and the miserable poverty and
subjection of their dependents; and after some bitter reflections on
the danger of satirizing living villainy, concludes with a resolution
to attack it under the mask of departed names.
SATIRE II.
This Satire contains an animated attack upon the hypocrisy of the
philosophers and reformers of the day, whose ignorance, profligacy, and
impiety it exposes with just severity.
Domitian is here the object; his vices are alluded to under every
different name; and it gives us a high opinion of the intrepid spirit
of the man who could venture to circulate, even in private, so faithful
a representation of that blood-thirsty tyrant.
SATIRE III.
Umbritius, an Aruspex and friend of the author, disgusted at the
prevalence of vice and the disregard of unassuming virtue, is on the
point of quitting Rome; and when a little way from the city stops
short to acquaint the poet, who has accompanied him, with the causes
of his retirement. These may be arranged under the following heads:
That Flattery and Vice are the only thriving arts at Rome; in these,
especially the first, foreigners have a manifest superiority over
the natives, and consequently engross all favor--that the poor are
universally exposed to scorn and insult--that the general habits of
extravagance render it difficult for them to subsist--that the want
of a well-regulated police subjects them to numberless miseries and
inconveniences, aggravated by the crowded state of the capital, from
all which a country life is happily free: on the tranquillity and
security of which he dilates with great beauty.
SATIRE IV.
In this Satire Juvenal indulges his honest spleen against Crispinus,
already noticed, and Domitian, the constant object of his scorn
and abhorrence. The introduction of the tyrant is excellent; the
mock solemnity with which the anecdote of the Turbot is introduced,
the procession of the affrighted counselors to the palace, and the
ridiculous debate which terminates in as ridiculous a decision, show a
masterly hand. The whole concludes with an indignant and high-spirited
apostrophe.
SATIRE V.
Under pretense of advising one Trebius to abstain from the table of
Virro, a man of rank and fortune, Juvenal takes occasion to give a
spirited detail of the insults and mortifications to which the poor
were subjected by the rich, at those entertainments to which, on
account of the political connection subsisting between patrons and
clients, it was sometimes thought necessary to invite them.
SATIRE VI.
The whole of this Satire, not only the longest, but the most complete
of the author's works, is directed against the female sex. It may
be distributed under the following heads: Lust variously modified,
imperiousness of disposition, fickleness, gallantry, attachment to
improper pursuits, litigiousness, drunkenness, unnatural passions,
fondness for singers, dancers, etc. ; gossiping, cruelty, ill manners;
outrageous pretensions to criticism, grammar, and philosophy;
superstitious and unbounded credulity in diviners and fortune-tellers;
introducing supposititious children; poisoning their step-sons to
possess their fortunes; and, lastly, murdering their husbands.
SATIRE VII.
This Satire contains an animated account of the general discouragement
under which literature labored at Rome. Beginning with poetry, it
proceeds through the various departments of history, law, oratory,
rhetoric, and grammar; interspersing many curious anecdotes, and
enlivening each different head with such satirical, humorous, and
sentimental remarks as naturally flow from the subject.
SATIRE VIII.
