Next, the three aspects ofground, path, and
fruition
will be discussed in detail in the following chapters.
Khenchen-Thrangu-Rinpoche-The-Spiritual-Song-of-Lodro-Thaye
The many siddhas ofthefour great and eight lesser lineages 33.
Gained the essential power o fMahamudra
34. And couldn't help but reach Buddhahood.
The line "in the holy places of body, speech, and mind centers" refers to the three main seats begun by Dusum Khyenpa (the first Karmapa) where the Karma Kagyu teachings flourished. The
? ? THE IMPORTANCE OF THE LINEAGE LAMAS 41
monasteries referred to are Gampo (body), Karma Gon (speech), and Tsurphu (mind) monasteries. These are the three sources or three original seats o f the Karma Kagyu teachings which Jamgon Kongtrul says are like the purified aspects of the chakras of body, speech, and mind, and that many siddhas arose from these centers.
Gampopa had many disciples and in these places ofbody, speech, and mind arose the four greater and eight lesser lineages ofthe Kagyu tradition. He gave some teachings to some disciples and other teachings to other disciples. He had twelve main disciples each of whom in turn completely passed on the special instructions they had received. In this way, they developed an unbroken lineage o f the four greater and the eight lesser Kagyu schools. 7
So in this way all the way down to one's root lama there have been unimaginable siddhas. All these various lamas of the Kagyu lineage are like siddhas or Buddhas because they practiced and mastered the Mahamudra. There was no way for them not to attain Buddhahood.
35. Expert in the attracting power through bodhichitta, 36. They couldn't help but bring benefit to beings.
These lineage lamas were able to benefit an unimaginable number ofbeings. Each one had many, many disciples who were very special individuals who were naturally drawn to them. The reason that they had these many disciples and were able to spread their teachings so widely was that they had bodhichitta. They had the aspiration to attain enlightenment which came from their desire to benefit beings. If one has bodhichitta, then automatically beings are drawn to one because of the bodhichitta. However, it will be very noticeable if someone with the desire to be surrounded by an entourage tries to promote him or hersel( People can usually tell if something is not
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THE SPIRITUAL SONG OF LODRO THAYE
very straightforward or honest and nobody comes. But if one has a sincere wish to help beings, then just from the power of the bodhichitta, beings gather around and there is an automatic ability to help many beings. The text says that because the lineage lamas are skilled in bodhichitta, there is no way beings will not be spontaneously or automatically helped through this bodhichitta, and there is no way not to help beings.
37. Having perfected the two accumulations, this profound attainment ofwealth,
38. They could not help but experience enjoyment.
These lineage lamas also naturally acquired a great deal ofwealth and necessities. If one thinks that there is something wrong with dharma practitioners acquiring wealth, then this is not quite a correct view. These genuine beings have no choice. These things are simply accumulated because they had completely accomplished the two accumulations of merit and wisdom. Having completed their accumulation of merit and wisdom, wealth and possessions automatically followed.
39. Developing the knowledge that "understanding one liberates all. " 40. They couldn't help but fulfill their great prophecies.
Because these lamas all had great transcendent wisdom or prajna, all had received prophecies by the Buddha. For instance, the appearance of Gampopa and Jamgon Kongtrul were predicted in the sutras. They had prophecies due to their great insight and wisdom. This did not come about through many studies and working really hard but by developing the knowledge that "understanding one liberates all. " Ifone really knows the meaning ofdharmata, the nature
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43
oftrue being, then one knows everything, so for this reason they had transcendental wisdom (Tib. yeshe).
So up to this point this spiritual song has reviewed the necessity of faith and devotion in the root and lineage lamas.
Questions
Question: What is unobstructed mind?
Rinpoche: Unobstructed means first of all unborn. If something is not born, there is no ceasing. then when you see that it is empty of essence, then there is no obstruction. If something were solid and corporeal it would be an obstruction. If at first there is emptiness, then there can be no thing to obstruct.
Mind's very nature is empty, therefore, the appearances that arrive from within that emptiness are also by nature empty, they basically have no intrinsic reality.
Question: What is mind? Is it opposed to objects?
Rinpoche: To our perception it seems that mind arises based on objects. But really, objects arise based on mind. Without investigating it, mind seems to arise in response to objects. But ifyou really examine mind when it seems to arise, you see it is empty ofessence. Therefore, it is called unborn and unceasing. Sometimes the terms "unobstructed," "unmoving," "primordially permanent" and "undemonstratable" and so forth are used. The reason is that its essential nature is non-existent. There is no way to say, "here it is," or "it is like this. "
Question: If mind is unobstructed, how does karma fit in? Rinpoche: As we discussed previously, there is the way it is and the way it is confused (or appears). Mind being permanent, unchanging,
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THE SPIRITUAL SONG OF LODRO THAYE
etc. These are statements in relation to the way it is. Karmic cause and effect are used in terms of the confusion. From the perspective ofconfusion, anything can arise. When anything arises, karma takes place. As is said, "awareness is the selfand intrinsic radiance is the effect. " There is the perception of the existence of self and outer objects, and based on that actions are accumulated, and based on that their results occur, then the essential nature is completely lost. The root ofall that, however, is the mind and in it there is not even a bit ofexistence. This is the whole point ofmeditating on the nature ofmind-it is the root ofthe whole thing.
For example, on television we can watch the news from India or Russia or anything. But when we turn off the television it is basically dumb and speechless and can't show anything at all. Like this, anything that arises does so in basic bewilderment, but if you really look at the root or source, if you meditate on the mind, you see it is empty of anything. If you just look at the turned off television nothing is there.
? ? 2
The View zn Mahamudra
IN THE PREVIOUS CHAPTER THE necessity ofthe exalted root and Iineage lamas, and the manner ofshowing faith and devotion for receiving the blessings was discussed. We will now discuss mainly the importance of enthusiastic effort, mindfulness, and awareness. Generally, the way to cultivate these is explained in the Song o fLodro Thaye as being dependent on the special qualities that have arisen due to the connection with the exceptional root and lineage lamas. So a special meditation arose in the stream of being of Jamgon Kongtrul, but it wasn't due to his own powers but to the blessings of the root and lineage lamas. It is explained by way of two examples.
Diligence, awareness, and mindfulness are very important for attaining experience quickly. But ifwe don't have them, everything is not just a waste of time. For instance, if a person in Halifax wants to go to Gampo Abbey, but doesn't have much mindfulness or diligence, he or she may take one step, and that is all. That person won't arrive at Gampo Abbey. In contrast, ifone has thought, "I want to meditate," eventually this thought will have a great effect. So even just visualizing the lama one time above one's head or doing one mantra will later have a very great result and is certainly not a waste of time. But if we want to attain Buddhahood right now, then we really need diligence, mindfulness and awareness. So the
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THE SPIRITUAL SONG OF LODRO THAYE
Buddha said when one takes one step with the motivation to attain enlightenment, it is very beneficial. But in the end it is not enough.
41. Children o fparents who have accumulated much wealth 42. Are naturally rich due to previous karma.
43. Offipringofthewhitelionessandofthegreatgaruda
44. Are naturally folly developed with the power o ftheir species.
There are two examples given here. A child ofa wealthy person is born with all the pleasures to enjoy him or herself. The child has not accumulated this through his own efforts but through the efforts of his father and forbearers. He or she has wealth to use and yet it wasn't through his or her own efforts but through positive karma accumulated in previous lives. The second example is of lion cubs and the garuda babies who are both very powerful animals. They are powerful from the time they are born,8 not because they have developed the strength but they inherited their strength as part of their species.
45. Thefollowers ofthe lineage ofKagyu siddhas 46. Meditate naturallyfrom the strength ofblessings.
In the same way, meditation naturally arose in the stream of being of Jamgon Kongtrul Rinpoche and the other lineage lamas regardless of whether they were diligent or not. This natural arising came through the power of blessings. The blessings were unbroken and pure starting from Tilopa right down to Jamgon Kongtrul's own lama Perna Nyingche Wangpo. It wasn't as if the lineage was good for a while and then broken later on. It was unsurpassed all the way through, not only in words and scholarship, but also in actual practice experience. Therefore, there was the power of blessings. Meditation
? ? THE VIEW IN MAHAMUDRA
47
arose from the blessing of the lineage because each and every one of the holders of the lineage starting with Tilopa obtained complete mastery and was a siddha. He then passed these same instructions on to Naropa, who not only obtained the words but went on to obtain complete mastery of the meditation ability. He then passed them on to Marpa who also became a siddha. The lineage continued to Milarepa and so on to Perna Nyingche Wangpo.
47. Boastfully counting the years o fpractice,
48. Proud about dwelling in leisure,
49. Puffed up over the exertions o fsitting,
50. Chauvinist in discriminating selfabove others,
The process of passing on the lineage is different from what
ordinary people do. Ordinary individuals might meditate diligently for many years and announce, "I meditated for nine years" or "I have been meditating for fifteen years and it looks like I must have experience and realization because I have been meditating for all these years. " But Jamgon Kongtrul did not say this because no matter how many years one meditates, if the three aspects of effort, mindfulness, and awareness are not present, it does not do any good.
Some people might develop pride about staying in retreat or alone in isolation, which should lead to great results in practice. But this pride is empty. Ifpride develops simply because ofhaving stayed in retreat, no matter how long one meditates, if there is not mindfulness, awareness, or enthusiasm, there won't be any results. In fact, just being all alone with nothing to do and with nobody around is completely meaningless and nothing to be proud about.
Arrogance and haughtiness can develop when enduring an ascetic existence saying, "I have endured so many hardships. I have persisted through many difficulties in meditation. Because I have
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THE SPIRITUAL SONG OF LODROTHAYE
gone through these many hardships and deprivations, this is practice. " However, if one misses the point of the practice, there is nothing to be arrogant about.
A feeling of superiority can develop when one distinguishes oneself from others and regards others with disdain, thinking, "I am so much better than these people. I have such and such qualities that I developed over these long years, so I am actually much better than everybody else. " Once again, ifdiligence, mindfulness, and awareness are not applied, one has missed the whole point of meditation and this feeling ofsuperiority is absolutely useless.
51. Keeping track ofone's ordinary discursive thoughts,
52. Counting them to be the actual realizations on the paths and stages:
One might believe one's ordinary thoughts are special thinking, "I have developed this spiritual quality" and being very hopeful about it. But again, without effort, mindfulness, and awareness this is useless. So the problem is thinking that, "Oh, I've been meditating, this must be a sign of good meditation. " Then one keeps score: "There's an experience, this must be a sign of attaining the first bodhisattva level or sign ofactual realization on the path. "
To summarize, these five aspects of thinking of how long one has meditated, how much one has been in retreat, how much difficulty one has gone through, how much better one is than everyone else, and then keeping track ofone's qualifications, are not beneficial at all.
53. Such are the distinctive characteristics offoolish meditators in this degenerate age.
54. No siddha can be named who would befree ofthem
55. But because ofthefine oral instructions ofthe exemplary lineage 56. The primordial wisdom ofultimate Mahamudra is seen.
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49
These are degenerate times where faith and devotion don't come easily, and there are many mistaken kinds of meditation. These are the distinguishing characteristics of this age. We do not hear of mahasiddhas who are free of these characteristics. These kind of calculating thoughts ofbeings to be spiritually realized have nothing to do with true mastery or siddhi. It is no indication of spiritual qualities at all. Even though he lived in a degenerate age, Jamgon Kongtrul through the lineage received the true, profound instructions and practiced according to these instructions. Based on these special instructions of the lineage, the meaning, the result, the fruition of these instructions was seeing the transcendent wisdom of Mahamudra. Through the arising of this wisdom, the ground, path, and fruition Mahamudra is understood.
57. Foundation Mahamudra is understanding the nature, the view. 58. Path Mahamudra is experiencing it, the meditation.
59. Fruition Mahamudra is the realization ofBuddhahood in one's mind.
In this text Mahamudra is divided into three parts: ground or foundation Mahamudra, path Mahamudra, and fruition Mahamudra. These three parts basically constitute the rest of the text. Of these three, the foundation has to do with the nature of things as they are, the nature oftruth. Jamgon Kongtrul intellectually understood the nature of the view of Mahamudra, ground Mahamudra. The path ofMahamudra is meditation and what arises in meditation, that is, experience. Finally, the fruition of that experience arising in one's being is ultimately realizing that the Buddha is not outside of oneself, but within one. One's mind is the state of Buddha. These three aspects of ground, path, and fruition were fully understood by Jamgon Kongtrul.
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THE SPIRITUAL SONG OF LODRO THAYE
60. I am unworthy, but my guru is excellent.
61. Even though born in the degenerate age, I have goodfortune. 62. In spite o flittle perseverance, the instructions are profound.
How is it that Jamgon Kongtrul has understood the foundation Mahamudra, experienced the path, and realized the fruition Mahamudra? It is not just from himself for he says he has no power to engender these kinds of qualities or great wisdom and diligence. However, he did have the advantage that his lama was good. Also, even though he lived in a degenerate age where he could not even meet the Buddha or bodhisattvas, Jamgon Kongtrul was personally very fortunate, which was the second advantage that he had. Finally, he says that he had very little perseverance but he was fortunate in having received the profound teachings. Through these advantages: having a great lama, having great fortune, and having the profound teachings, he was able to realize the Mahamudra.
For these reasons Jamgon Kongtrul could compose this song, and his understanding and experience of Mahamudra make it worthwhile to study and practice.
Next, the three aspects ofground, path, and fruition will be discussed in detail in the following chapters.
? ? 3 Ground Mahamudra
I. GROUND MAHAMUDRA
63. What isfoundation Mahamudra?
Mahamudra (Tib. chakgya chenpo} is Sanskrit, the word maha corresponding in Tibetan to chenpo which means "great. " Mudra actually is the word gya in Tibetan, more commonly called tise, which means "seal" as in the seals a king stamps on his edicts. The Tibetan translators then added the word chak which is the honorific form for "hand," and is not actually in the Sanskrit word. Gya indicates the all-pervasive quality ofMahamudra. For instance, a king creates laws and edicts and may issue an edict with many minor points on it. He doesn't have to put his seal on every single point, but can just apply it once to indicate that all ofthese laws came from him. In the same way, when we meditate and recognize the true nature ofmind, which is Mahamudra, it pervades all aspects of experience. Everything is possible, everything has this seal on it. So we don't have to meditate to clear away all our desire, then start again to eliminate aggression, then start again to remove ignorance, and so on. One realization, that of Mahamudra, removes all these different obscurations and develops all the good qualities.
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So gya with this meaning of pervasiveness should be understood as intrinsic awareness (Skt. jnana Tib. yeshe). A tise is used mainly by a king on his edicts, and awareness is "stamped" on the general essence as well as the manifestations of all phenomena. Chak was needed because the natural essence of intrinsic awareness is emptiness. The luminosity and emptiness of phenomena are inseparable. Awareness and space (Tib. ying) are united. So the chak (hand), represents emptiness, because a hand with nothing in it, by itself, is also empty. The emptiness or space is chak and the clarity or pervasive awareness is gya. Awareness realizes emptiness, emptiness is the essence of awareness; and the two are inseparable.
In brief, how we are to understand chak gya chen po is that our mind stream or nature has awakened awareness (Skt. buddhajnana, Tib. sang gye yeshe). This awakened awareness is not like the "self" posited by other religious traditions, but its essential true nature is empty. This awareness, inseparable from dharmakaya, is present in all beings with sentience, and becomes manifest at the time of attaining the state ofa Buddha.
In the Buddhist tradition, the goal of practice is to attain the state ofa Buddha. But this state is not newly attained, but one that is manifested or realized. The Shakyamuni Buddha demonstrated that we already have this quality. Therefore, in Mahamudra this is called the ground or foundation Mahamudra, meaning we have it already. But because we do not experience it that way, then we need the path Mahamudra. Based on the path, what one already possesses can be actualized, and that's called fruition Mahamudra. So these are the ground, path, and fruition of Mahamudra.
The view is like this. Generally our whole experience consists of two kinds of grasping. All appearance occurs to us because of the objective grasping to object and subjective grasping of mind. Even though this is our experience, it is not actually the real state of
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53
phenomena, but an illusion or bewilderment. Mahamudra is the realization of the true nature without bewilderment. From the point of view of Madhyamaka the true state of phenomena is emptiness. But everything is not just empty because there is also a clear or luminous aspect to it which we call awareness or jnana. That is why we talk about indivisibility or the union of space and awareness. This union ofspace and awareness is the view ofground Mahamudra. We need to intellectually understand this fact and then the actual experience of it is path Mahamudra. When this understanding and experience is complete, then one has achieved fruition Mahamudra.
There is an example in the Uttaratantra illustrating the relationship of ground, path, and fruition Mahamudra. It is as if a person lost a large bag of gold by throwing it out with the garbage and this gold became buried under the refuse. Eventually it became completely covered with dirt and sand and may have become tarnished. But the gold never lost any of its value because its qualities are inherent within the gold. Many thousands ofyears pass but the gold still keeps all of its value. Then a very poor man comes along and builds a shack on this spot not knowing that there is gold under it. He is very poor, not having clothes or food and all the time he is sitting on top of this incredibly valuable treasure. But the treasure does him no good because he does not know about it. Then a person with clairvoyance comes along and sees this person who is starving right on top of a huge treasure of gold. All he would need to do is say, you don't need to be so poor, just dig a few feet under the ground and you will have all this gold. So the poor man digs down a little bit and there is all this gold. Similarly, we say we have the nature of Mahamudra, but we don't know it. The Buddha comes along and says that we are Mahamudra and all you have to do is find it. The ground Mahamudra is the gold right underneath our feet. The poor man's effort to scrape away a litde dirt to get at it is like the path
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THE SPIRITUAL SONG OF LODRO THAYE
Mahamudra. If we don't make some effort, then we can't get the gold. Fruition Mahamudra is like when the poor man finds the gold and completely casts away his poverty.
64. It exists in two ways: the natural state and the state ofconfusion.
Ground Mahamudra exists in two ways: "the natural state and the state of confusion. " That is, the natural way we are and the confusion that occurs from not having recognized that. In this example, the way it is (the nature) is that this poor man is sitting right on top ofa lot ofgold. We have Mahamudra; we have Buddha- nature (Skt. tathagatagarbha). However, the poor man is dwelling in poverty because he has no idea what he is sitting on. That is the confusion. Nevertheless in both cases the gold is there.
Within Mahamudra we possess Buddha-nature, we are Mahamudra, which is the true nature of things or the way they are (Tib. ne lug). We are confused because we simply don't recognize our true nature. That is the confused aspect (Tib. trullug). We need to know why we are confused and where the confusion comes from. So in ground Mahamudra we need to deal with our nature (ne lug) and the way we are confused (trullug).
65. It cannot be divided into samsara or nirvana,
66. And it is devoid ofthe extremes ofadding on or taking away.
The next verses explain Mahamudra first as the nature of the way it is. First of all, Mahamudra does not fall into the category of being samsara or nirvana, of being good or bad. Samsara is without substantial reality to begin with, so nirvana or passing beyond suffering is also not something separate from that. Samsara and nirvana are not separate substantial things.
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55
Furthermore, Mahamudra is completely without any elaboration or exaggeration, nor is it anything to be subtracted from or denigrated. You can't add qualities saying Mahamudra has such and such qualities. You also can't say Mahamudra has no qualities or characteristics and thus diminish it. All kinds of elaboration or embellishment, all kind of projections or conceptualization about Mahamudra are not possible. It is essentially free from all extremes of existence, nonexistence and so forth.
67. Not created by a cause, not altered by conditions, 68. Confusion does not make it worse.
69. Realization does not improve it.
Mahamudra also did not originate as a new phenomena and it did not result from any cause and it is not changed by any external conditions. Mahamudra has existed from the beginning of time and is present in all beings. The essence ofMahamudra never changes. It is unborn and unchangeable and immutable. In the example of the treasure, when the gold is in the ground, its essence is completely unchanged. The fact that it is covered with rubbish doesn't make it any worse or any better, because in essence it is gold. When the poor man digs it up, shines it up, and cleans away the dirt, the essence is still the same. It is not changed by the conditions of anyone doing anything with it. In this way, Mahamudra in the state ofbewilderment ofsamsara is not any worse or any different from Mahamudra when it is recognized through the yogi's meditation, it also is not any better because it is unchanging.
In the Buddhist tradition the teachings ofthe Buddha are divided into the sutras and tantras. In the surra tradition, in the philosophy called Middle-way, there are two ways of thinking about emptiness which are called the Rangtong or "Self-emptiness" school and the
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THE SPIRITUAL SONG OF LODRO THAYE
Shentong or the "Other-emptiness" school. The Middle-way Rangtong school emphasizes the concept of dharmadhatu. The principal nature of Mahamudra is emptiness, and this is called dharmadhatu or the realm of reality. The Middle-way Shentong school, on the other hand, focuses on the aspect of awareness (Skt.
jnana) and emphasizes the concept of tathagatagarbha or literally, "the essence ofthe tathagatas" (Buddhas), often called Buddha-nature or Buddha essence. In meaning however, these two concepts are essentially the same. In the tantras, based on actual meditation practice there is the emphasis on introduction or transmission which reveals the essence or nature of the mind, which we call Mahamudra. This mind's essence is basically the same as the Middle-way concepts of the sutra tradition. That is why Rangjung Dorje said that "Middle- way" and "Mahamudra," and "Dzogchen" all apply to the same thing.
70. Confusion is not experienced, nor is it liberation.
71. Since its essence cannot be established in any way,
72. Its expression is unimpeded and can appear in any way.
In Mahamudra, essentially there is no experience o f bewilderment or confusion or liberation. Just as the gold underneath the earth has the same essence whether covered by earth or not, whether taken out or cleaned, it still retains the same essence, meaning it is the same material. This essence, furthermore, has no substantial reality. Since in essence it is identical with dharmadhatu, it's essentially, by nature, empty.
Although the essence ofMahamudra is non-existent, at the same time, its manifestation is completely unobstructed. For instance, we can say our mind is empty because when we look for it, it is nowhere to be found. However, when we don't look, it manifests as anything. It is completely unobstructed in its nature. In the same way,
? ? GROUND MAHAMUDRA
57
Mahamudra does not actually exist as an object, it is dharmadhatu, but from the luminosity aspect it is unobstructed and can manifest in any way whatsoever. It can manifest as awareness (Tib. yeshe) on the level of Buddha or manifest as consciousness (Tib. namshe) on the level of ordinary beings. 9 It arises unimpeded as all positive or negative manifestations.
73. Encompassing all ofsamsara and nirvana, it is like space.
Mahamudra pervades everywhere, samsara as well as nirvana. When wandering in samsara, it is completely there in essence. Similarly, when going beyond suffering to a state of nirvana, it also is completely pervasive like the sky. Just as the sky is everywhere we go, so Mahamudra is completely all-pervasive.
74. Confusion or liberation, it is the basis ofall,
75. Self-illuminating, knowing, capable ofmanifestation.
Ground or foundation Mahamudra is divided into two parts: the way things are and the way things are confused. The way things are concerns the essential quality of emptiness, the nature of luminosity (Tib. salwa) and the unimaginable qualities ofawakening and how these qualities manifest. Now we will discuss the methods for realization of this true nature.
Mahamudra is also the foundation ofeverything, the foundation of all confusion and bewilderment, as well as the foundation of liberation. Mahamudra is the foundation of confusion in samsara because in samsara one's confusion is taking place in the space of Mahamudra. Similarly, one's liberation in nirvana is taking place in the space ofMahamudra. So Mahamudra is the ground ofeverything. Since it is the ground, apprehension of its own clarity can occur.
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THE SPIRITUAL SONG OF LODRO THAYE
Due to Mahamudra having clarity (or luminosity), it is also possible for mind to arise in that space.
One could meditate directly on Mahamudra right from the beginning with diligence and attain Buddhahood. But it has been discovered that most ofus need a tremendous amount ofeffort to do that and lose enthusiasm just doing the same thing all the time. Therefore, various skillful methods were devised to help us along in our Mahamudra practice. It is like having a big meal of plain rice with nothing on it. We can eat it once, but we can't keep eating it. We need to put a little salt and some soy sauce; then we are able to eat more and keep on eating rice. Ifwe eat just plain rice, we lose our appetite when faced with a huge bowl of rice. So the yidam practices were developed as a skillful means to develop the mental faculties to focus the mind, to clarify the mind and to develop the sharpness of mind. These methods help us maintain our diligence in the practice of Mahamudra. These yidam practices are divided into the creation stage (Skt. uppatti-krama) and the completion stage (Skt. sampanna- krama). In the creation stage, the mind becomes very clear, very focused and free from distraction. The completion stage of yidam practice is no different from Mahamudra.
From the point ofview ofphilosophy, there are two major schools ofthought concerned here: the Mind-only (Skt. Chittamatra) school and the Middle-way (Skt. Madhyamaka) school. The Mind-only view is that all external appearances have no real existence but are just mind. The Middle-way school holds that the mind also has no real existence and is essentially empty. For those ofus who do Mahamudra practice we must first understand that all external appearances or phenomena are actually mind and then realize the mind is empty to be able to establish the true view of Mahamudra.
How is it that all appearances are mind? First of all, through examination of solid external appearances we find that they do not
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59
really exist. We simply use labels for external appearances that are made by the mind. For instance, we have the word "hand" which we apply to a hand. But ifwe examine this hand closely we find that the "hand" is actually made up offour fingers and the thumb and various joints and skin and so on. The thing we call a "hand" is actually made up of other parts and there isn't a single thing we can say is a hand. It is just a label for this collection ofthings that appear together.
34. And couldn't help but reach Buddhahood.
The line "in the holy places of body, speech, and mind centers" refers to the three main seats begun by Dusum Khyenpa (the first Karmapa) where the Karma Kagyu teachings flourished. The
? ? THE IMPORTANCE OF THE LINEAGE LAMAS 41
monasteries referred to are Gampo (body), Karma Gon (speech), and Tsurphu (mind) monasteries. These are the three sources or three original seats o f the Karma Kagyu teachings which Jamgon Kongtrul says are like the purified aspects of the chakras of body, speech, and mind, and that many siddhas arose from these centers.
Gampopa had many disciples and in these places ofbody, speech, and mind arose the four greater and eight lesser lineages ofthe Kagyu tradition. He gave some teachings to some disciples and other teachings to other disciples. He had twelve main disciples each of whom in turn completely passed on the special instructions they had received. In this way, they developed an unbroken lineage o f the four greater and the eight lesser Kagyu schools. 7
So in this way all the way down to one's root lama there have been unimaginable siddhas. All these various lamas of the Kagyu lineage are like siddhas or Buddhas because they practiced and mastered the Mahamudra. There was no way for them not to attain Buddhahood.
35. Expert in the attracting power through bodhichitta, 36. They couldn't help but bring benefit to beings.
These lineage lamas were able to benefit an unimaginable number ofbeings. Each one had many, many disciples who were very special individuals who were naturally drawn to them. The reason that they had these many disciples and were able to spread their teachings so widely was that they had bodhichitta. They had the aspiration to attain enlightenment which came from their desire to benefit beings. If one has bodhichitta, then automatically beings are drawn to one because of the bodhichitta. However, it will be very noticeable if someone with the desire to be surrounded by an entourage tries to promote him or hersel( People can usually tell if something is not
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THE SPIRITUAL SONG OF LODRO THAYE
very straightforward or honest and nobody comes. But if one has a sincere wish to help beings, then just from the power of the bodhichitta, beings gather around and there is an automatic ability to help many beings. The text says that because the lineage lamas are skilled in bodhichitta, there is no way beings will not be spontaneously or automatically helped through this bodhichitta, and there is no way not to help beings.
37. Having perfected the two accumulations, this profound attainment ofwealth,
38. They could not help but experience enjoyment.
These lineage lamas also naturally acquired a great deal ofwealth and necessities. If one thinks that there is something wrong with dharma practitioners acquiring wealth, then this is not quite a correct view. These genuine beings have no choice. These things are simply accumulated because they had completely accomplished the two accumulations of merit and wisdom. Having completed their accumulation of merit and wisdom, wealth and possessions automatically followed.
39. Developing the knowledge that "understanding one liberates all. " 40. They couldn't help but fulfill their great prophecies.
Because these lamas all had great transcendent wisdom or prajna, all had received prophecies by the Buddha. For instance, the appearance of Gampopa and Jamgon Kongtrul were predicted in the sutras. They had prophecies due to their great insight and wisdom. This did not come about through many studies and working really hard but by developing the knowledge that "understanding one liberates all. " Ifone really knows the meaning ofdharmata, the nature
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oftrue being, then one knows everything, so for this reason they had transcendental wisdom (Tib. yeshe).
So up to this point this spiritual song has reviewed the necessity of faith and devotion in the root and lineage lamas.
Questions
Question: What is unobstructed mind?
Rinpoche: Unobstructed means first of all unborn. If something is not born, there is no ceasing. then when you see that it is empty of essence, then there is no obstruction. If something were solid and corporeal it would be an obstruction. If at first there is emptiness, then there can be no thing to obstruct.
Mind's very nature is empty, therefore, the appearances that arrive from within that emptiness are also by nature empty, they basically have no intrinsic reality.
Question: What is mind? Is it opposed to objects?
Rinpoche: To our perception it seems that mind arises based on objects. But really, objects arise based on mind. Without investigating it, mind seems to arise in response to objects. But ifyou really examine mind when it seems to arise, you see it is empty ofessence. Therefore, it is called unborn and unceasing. Sometimes the terms "unobstructed," "unmoving," "primordially permanent" and "undemonstratable" and so forth are used. The reason is that its essential nature is non-existent. There is no way to say, "here it is," or "it is like this. "
Question: If mind is unobstructed, how does karma fit in? Rinpoche: As we discussed previously, there is the way it is and the way it is confused (or appears). Mind being permanent, unchanging,
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etc. These are statements in relation to the way it is. Karmic cause and effect are used in terms of the confusion. From the perspective ofconfusion, anything can arise. When anything arises, karma takes place. As is said, "awareness is the selfand intrinsic radiance is the effect. " There is the perception of the existence of self and outer objects, and based on that actions are accumulated, and based on that their results occur, then the essential nature is completely lost. The root ofall that, however, is the mind and in it there is not even a bit ofexistence. This is the whole point ofmeditating on the nature ofmind-it is the root ofthe whole thing.
For example, on television we can watch the news from India or Russia or anything. But when we turn off the television it is basically dumb and speechless and can't show anything at all. Like this, anything that arises does so in basic bewilderment, but if you really look at the root or source, if you meditate on the mind, you see it is empty of anything. If you just look at the turned off television nothing is there.
? ? 2
The View zn Mahamudra
IN THE PREVIOUS CHAPTER THE necessity ofthe exalted root and Iineage lamas, and the manner ofshowing faith and devotion for receiving the blessings was discussed. We will now discuss mainly the importance of enthusiastic effort, mindfulness, and awareness. Generally, the way to cultivate these is explained in the Song o fLodro Thaye as being dependent on the special qualities that have arisen due to the connection with the exceptional root and lineage lamas. So a special meditation arose in the stream of being of Jamgon Kongtrul, but it wasn't due to his own powers but to the blessings of the root and lineage lamas. It is explained by way of two examples.
Diligence, awareness, and mindfulness are very important for attaining experience quickly. But ifwe don't have them, everything is not just a waste of time. For instance, if a person in Halifax wants to go to Gampo Abbey, but doesn't have much mindfulness or diligence, he or she may take one step, and that is all. That person won't arrive at Gampo Abbey. In contrast, ifone has thought, "I want to meditate," eventually this thought will have a great effect. So even just visualizing the lama one time above one's head or doing one mantra will later have a very great result and is certainly not a waste of time. But if we want to attain Buddhahood right now, then we really need diligence, mindfulness and awareness. So the
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Buddha said when one takes one step with the motivation to attain enlightenment, it is very beneficial. But in the end it is not enough.
41. Children o fparents who have accumulated much wealth 42. Are naturally rich due to previous karma.
43. Offipringofthewhitelionessandofthegreatgaruda
44. Are naturally folly developed with the power o ftheir species.
There are two examples given here. A child ofa wealthy person is born with all the pleasures to enjoy him or herself. The child has not accumulated this through his own efforts but through the efforts of his father and forbearers. He or she has wealth to use and yet it wasn't through his or her own efforts but through positive karma accumulated in previous lives. The second example is of lion cubs and the garuda babies who are both very powerful animals. They are powerful from the time they are born,8 not because they have developed the strength but they inherited their strength as part of their species.
45. Thefollowers ofthe lineage ofKagyu siddhas 46. Meditate naturallyfrom the strength ofblessings.
In the same way, meditation naturally arose in the stream of being of Jamgon Kongtrul Rinpoche and the other lineage lamas regardless of whether they were diligent or not. This natural arising came through the power of blessings. The blessings were unbroken and pure starting from Tilopa right down to Jamgon Kongtrul's own lama Perna Nyingche Wangpo. It wasn't as if the lineage was good for a while and then broken later on. It was unsurpassed all the way through, not only in words and scholarship, but also in actual practice experience. Therefore, there was the power of blessings. Meditation
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arose from the blessing of the lineage because each and every one of the holders of the lineage starting with Tilopa obtained complete mastery and was a siddha. He then passed these same instructions on to Naropa, who not only obtained the words but went on to obtain complete mastery of the meditation ability. He then passed them on to Marpa who also became a siddha. The lineage continued to Milarepa and so on to Perna Nyingche Wangpo.
47. Boastfully counting the years o fpractice,
48. Proud about dwelling in leisure,
49. Puffed up over the exertions o fsitting,
50. Chauvinist in discriminating selfabove others,
The process of passing on the lineage is different from what
ordinary people do. Ordinary individuals might meditate diligently for many years and announce, "I meditated for nine years" or "I have been meditating for fifteen years and it looks like I must have experience and realization because I have been meditating for all these years. " But Jamgon Kongtrul did not say this because no matter how many years one meditates, if the three aspects of effort, mindfulness, and awareness are not present, it does not do any good.
Some people might develop pride about staying in retreat or alone in isolation, which should lead to great results in practice. But this pride is empty. Ifpride develops simply because ofhaving stayed in retreat, no matter how long one meditates, if there is not mindfulness, awareness, or enthusiasm, there won't be any results. In fact, just being all alone with nothing to do and with nobody around is completely meaningless and nothing to be proud about.
Arrogance and haughtiness can develop when enduring an ascetic existence saying, "I have endured so many hardships. I have persisted through many difficulties in meditation. Because I have
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gone through these many hardships and deprivations, this is practice. " However, if one misses the point of the practice, there is nothing to be arrogant about.
A feeling of superiority can develop when one distinguishes oneself from others and regards others with disdain, thinking, "I am so much better than these people. I have such and such qualities that I developed over these long years, so I am actually much better than everybody else. " Once again, ifdiligence, mindfulness, and awareness are not applied, one has missed the whole point of meditation and this feeling ofsuperiority is absolutely useless.
51. Keeping track ofone's ordinary discursive thoughts,
52. Counting them to be the actual realizations on the paths and stages:
One might believe one's ordinary thoughts are special thinking, "I have developed this spiritual quality" and being very hopeful about it. But again, without effort, mindfulness, and awareness this is useless. So the problem is thinking that, "Oh, I've been meditating, this must be a sign of good meditation. " Then one keeps score: "There's an experience, this must be a sign of attaining the first bodhisattva level or sign ofactual realization on the path. "
To summarize, these five aspects of thinking of how long one has meditated, how much one has been in retreat, how much difficulty one has gone through, how much better one is than everyone else, and then keeping track ofone's qualifications, are not beneficial at all.
53. Such are the distinctive characteristics offoolish meditators in this degenerate age.
54. No siddha can be named who would befree ofthem
55. But because ofthefine oral instructions ofthe exemplary lineage 56. The primordial wisdom ofultimate Mahamudra is seen.
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These are degenerate times where faith and devotion don't come easily, and there are many mistaken kinds of meditation. These are the distinguishing characteristics of this age. We do not hear of mahasiddhas who are free of these characteristics. These kind of calculating thoughts ofbeings to be spiritually realized have nothing to do with true mastery or siddhi. It is no indication of spiritual qualities at all. Even though he lived in a degenerate age, Jamgon Kongtrul through the lineage received the true, profound instructions and practiced according to these instructions. Based on these special instructions of the lineage, the meaning, the result, the fruition of these instructions was seeing the transcendent wisdom of Mahamudra. Through the arising of this wisdom, the ground, path, and fruition Mahamudra is understood.
57. Foundation Mahamudra is understanding the nature, the view. 58. Path Mahamudra is experiencing it, the meditation.
59. Fruition Mahamudra is the realization ofBuddhahood in one's mind.
In this text Mahamudra is divided into three parts: ground or foundation Mahamudra, path Mahamudra, and fruition Mahamudra. These three parts basically constitute the rest of the text. Of these three, the foundation has to do with the nature of things as they are, the nature oftruth. Jamgon Kongtrul intellectually understood the nature of the view of Mahamudra, ground Mahamudra. The path ofMahamudra is meditation and what arises in meditation, that is, experience. Finally, the fruition of that experience arising in one's being is ultimately realizing that the Buddha is not outside of oneself, but within one. One's mind is the state of Buddha. These three aspects of ground, path, and fruition were fully understood by Jamgon Kongtrul.
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60. I am unworthy, but my guru is excellent.
61. Even though born in the degenerate age, I have goodfortune. 62. In spite o flittle perseverance, the instructions are profound.
How is it that Jamgon Kongtrul has understood the foundation Mahamudra, experienced the path, and realized the fruition Mahamudra? It is not just from himself for he says he has no power to engender these kinds of qualities or great wisdom and diligence. However, he did have the advantage that his lama was good. Also, even though he lived in a degenerate age where he could not even meet the Buddha or bodhisattvas, Jamgon Kongtrul was personally very fortunate, which was the second advantage that he had. Finally, he says that he had very little perseverance but he was fortunate in having received the profound teachings. Through these advantages: having a great lama, having great fortune, and having the profound teachings, he was able to realize the Mahamudra.
For these reasons Jamgon Kongtrul could compose this song, and his understanding and experience of Mahamudra make it worthwhile to study and practice.
Next, the three aspects ofground, path, and fruition will be discussed in detail in the following chapters.
? ? 3 Ground Mahamudra
I. GROUND MAHAMUDRA
63. What isfoundation Mahamudra?
Mahamudra (Tib. chakgya chenpo} is Sanskrit, the word maha corresponding in Tibetan to chenpo which means "great. " Mudra actually is the word gya in Tibetan, more commonly called tise, which means "seal" as in the seals a king stamps on his edicts. The Tibetan translators then added the word chak which is the honorific form for "hand," and is not actually in the Sanskrit word. Gya indicates the all-pervasive quality ofMahamudra. For instance, a king creates laws and edicts and may issue an edict with many minor points on it. He doesn't have to put his seal on every single point, but can just apply it once to indicate that all ofthese laws came from him. In the same way, when we meditate and recognize the true nature ofmind, which is Mahamudra, it pervades all aspects of experience. Everything is possible, everything has this seal on it. So we don't have to meditate to clear away all our desire, then start again to eliminate aggression, then start again to remove ignorance, and so on. One realization, that of Mahamudra, removes all these different obscurations and develops all the good qualities.
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So gya with this meaning of pervasiveness should be understood as intrinsic awareness (Skt. jnana Tib. yeshe). A tise is used mainly by a king on his edicts, and awareness is "stamped" on the general essence as well as the manifestations of all phenomena. Chak was needed because the natural essence of intrinsic awareness is emptiness. The luminosity and emptiness of phenomena are inseparable. Awareness and space (Tib. ying) are united. So the chak (hand), represents emptiness, because a hand with nothing in it, by itself, is also empty. The emptiness or space is chak and the clarity or pervasive awareness is gya. Awareness realizes emptiness, emptiness is the essence of awareness; and the two are inseparable.
In brief, how we are to understand chak gya chen po is that our mind stream or nature has awakened awareness (Skt. buddhajnana, Tib. sang gye yeshe). This awakened awareness is not like the "self" posited by other religious traditions, but its essential true nature is empty. This awareness, inseparable from dharmakaya, is present in all beings with sentience, and becomes manifest at the time of attaining the state ofa Buddha.
In the Buddhist tradition, the goal of practice is to attain the state ofa Buddha. But this state is not newly attained, but one that is manifested or realized. The Shakyamuni Buddha demonstrated that we already have this quality. Therefore, in Mahamudra this is called the ground or foundation Mahamudra, meaning we have it already. But because we do not experience it that way, then we need the path Mahamudra. Based on the path, what one already possesses can be actualized, and that's called fruition Mahamudra. So these are the ground, path, and fruition of Mahamudra.
The view is like this. Generally our whole experience consists of two kinds of grasping. All appearance occurs to us because of the objective grasping to object and subjective grasping of mind. Even though this is our experience, it is not actually the real state of
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phenomena, but an illusion or bewilderment. Mahamudra is the realization of the true nature without bewilderment. From the point of view of Madhyamaka the true state of phenomena is emptiness. But everything is not just empty because there is also a clear or luminous aspect to it which we call awareness or jnana. That is why we talk about indivisibility or the union of space and awareness. This union ofspace and awareness is the view ofground Mahamudra. We need to intellectually understand this fact and then the actual experience of it is path Mahamudra. When this understanding and experience is complete, then one has achieved fruition Mahamudra.
There is an example in the Uttaratantra illustrating the relationship of ground, path, and fruition Mahamudra. It is as if a person lost a large bag of gold by throwing it out with the garbage and this gold became buried under the refuse. Eventually it became completely covered with dirt and sand and may have become tarnished. But the gold never lost any of its value because its qualities are inherent within the gold. Many thousands ofyears pass but the gold still keeps all of its value. Then a very poor man comes along and builds a shack on this spot not knowing that there is gold under it. He is very poor, not having clothes or food and all the time he is sitting on top of this incredibly valuable treasure. But the treasure does him no good because he does not know about it. Then a person with clairvoyance comes along and sees this person who is starving right on top of a huge treasure of gold. All he would need to do is say, you don't need to be so poor, just dig a few feet under the ground and you will have all this gold. So the poor man digs down a little bit and there is all this gold. Similarly, we say we have the nature of Mahamudra, but we don't know it. The Buddha comes along and says that we are Mahamudra and all you have to do is find it. The ground Mahamudra is the gold right underneath our feet. The poor man's effort to scrape away a litde dirt to get at it is like the path
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Mahamudra. If we don't make some effort, then we can't get the gold. Fruition Mahamudra is like when the poor man finds the gold and completely casts away his poverty.
64. It exists in two ways: the natural state and the state ofconfusion.
Ground Mahamudra exists in two ways: "the natural state and the state of confusion. " That is, the natural way we are and the confusion that occurs from not having recognized that. In this example, the way it is (the nature) is that this poor man is sitting right on top ofa lot ofgold. We have Mahamudra; we have Buddha- nature (Skt. tathagatagarbha). However, the poor man is dwelling in poverty because he has no idea what he is sitting on. That is the confusion. Nevertheless in both cases the gold is there.
Within Mahamudra we possess Buddha-nature, we are Mahamudra, which is the true nature of things or the way they are (Tib. ne lug). We are confused because we simply don't recognize our true nature. That is the confused aspect (Tib. trullug). We need to know why we are confused and where the confusion comes from. So in ground Mahamudra we need to deal with our nature (ne lug) and the way we are confused (trullug).
65. It cannot be divided into samsara or nirvana,
66. And it is devoid ofthe extremes ofadding on or taking away.
The next verses explain Mahamudra first as the nature of the way it is. First of all, Mahamudra does not fall into the category of being samsara or nirvana, of being good or bad. Samsara is without substantial reality to begin with, so nirvana or passing beyond suffering is also not something separate from that. Samsara and nirvana are not separate substantial things.
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Furthermore, Mahamudra is completely without any elaboration or exaggeration, nor is it anything to be subtracted from or denigrated. You can't add qualities saying Mahamudra has such and such qualities. You also can't say Mahamudra has no qualities or characteristics and thus diminish it. All kinds of elaboration or embellishment, all kind of projections or conceptualization about Mahamudra are not possible. It is essentially free from all extremes of existence, nonexistence and so forth.
67. Not created by a cause, not altered by conditions, 68. Confusion does not make it worse.
69. Realization does not improve it.
Mahamudra also did not originate as a new phenomena and it did not result from any cause and it is not changed by any external conditions. Mahamudra has existed from the beginning of time and is present in all beings. The essence ofMahamudra never changes. It is unborn and unchangeable and immutable. In the example of the treasure, when the gold is in the ground, its essence is completely unchanged. The fact that it is covered with rubbish doesn't make it any worse or any better, because in essence it is gold. When the poor man digs it up, shines it up, and cleans away the dirt, the essence is still the same. It is not changed by the conditions of anyone doing anything with it. In this way, Mahamudra in the state ofbewilderment ofsamsara is not any worse or any different from Mahamudra when it is recognized through the yogi's meditation, it also is not any better because it is unchanging.
In the Buddhist tradition the teachings ofthe Buddha are divided into the sutras and tantras. In the surra tradition, in the philosophy called Middle-way, there are two ways of thinking about emptiness which are called the Rangtong or "Self-emptiness" school and the
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Shentong or the "Other-emptiness" school. The Middle-way Rangtong school emphasizes the concept of dharmadhatu. The principal nature of Mahamudra is emptiness, and this is called dharmadhatu or the realm of reality. The Middle-way Shentong school, on the other hand, focuses on the aspect of awareness (Skt.
jnana) and emphasizes the concept of tathagatagarbha or literally, "the essence ofthe tathagatas" (Buddhas), often called Buddha-nature or Buddha essence. In meaning however, these two concepts are essentially the same. In the tantras, based on actual meditation practice there is the emphasis on introduction or transmission which reveals the essence or nature of the mind, which we call Mahamudra. This mind's essence is basically the same as the Middle-way concepts of the sutra tradition. That is why Rangjung Dorje said that "Middle- way" and "Mahamudra," and "Dzogchen" all apply to the same thing.
70. Confusion is not experienced, nor is it liberation.
71. Since its essence cannot be established in any way,
72. Its expression is unimpeded and can appear in any way.
In Mahamudra, essentially there is no experience o f bewilderment or confusion or liberation. Just as the gold underneath the earth has the same essence whether covered by earth or not, whether taken out or cleaned, it still retains the same essence, meaning it is the same material. This essence, furthermore, has no substantial reality. Since in essence it is identical with dharmadhatu, it's essentially, by nature, empty.
Although the essence ofMahamudra is non-existent, at the same time, its manifestation is completely unobstructed. For instance, we can say our mind is empty because when we look for it, it is nowhere to be found. However, when we don't look, it manifests as anything. It is completely unobstructed in its nature. In the same way,
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Mahamudra does not actually exist as an object, it is dharmadhatu, but from the luminosity aspect it is unobstructed and can manifest in any way whatsoever. It can manifest as awareness (Tib. yeshe) on the level of Buddha or manifest as consciousness (Tib. namshe) on the level of ordinary beings. 9 It arises unimpeded as all positive or negative manifestations.
73. Encompassing all ofsamsara and nirvana, it is like space.
Mahamudra pervades everywhere, samsara as well as nirvana. When wandering in samsara, it is completely there in essence. Similarly, when going beyond suffering to a state of nirvana, it also is completely pervasive like the sky. Just as the sky is everywhere we go, so Mahamudra is completely all-pervasive.
74. Confusion or liberation, it is the basis ofall,
75. Self-illuminating, knowing, capable ofmanifestation.
Ground or foundation Mahamudra is divided into two parts: the way things are and the way things are confused. The way things are concerns the essential quality of emptiness, the nature of luminosity (Tib. salwa) and the unimaginable qualities ofawakening and how these qualities manifest. Now we will discuss the methods for realization of this true nature.
Mahamudra is also the foundation ofeverything, the foundation of all confusion and bewilderment, as well as the foundation of liberation. Mahamudra is the foundation of confusion in samsara because in samsara one's confusion is taking place in the space of Mahamudra. Similarly, one's liberation in nirvana is taking place in the space ofMahamudra. So Mahamudra is the ground ofeverything. Since it is the ground, apprehension of its own clarity can occur.
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Due to Mahamudra having clarity (or luminosity), it is also possible for mind to arise in that space.
One could meditate directly on Mahamudra right from the beginning with diligence and attain Buddhahood. But it has been discovered that most ofus need a tremendous amount ofeffort to do that and lose enthusiasm just doing the same thing all the time. Therefore, various skillful methods were devised to help us along in our Mahamudra practice. It is like having a big meal of plain rice with nothing on it. We can eat it once, but we can't keep eating it. We need to put a little salt and some soy sauce; then we are able to eat more and keep on eating rice. Ifwe eat just plain rice, we lose our appetite when faced with a huge bowl of rice. So the yidam practices were developed as a skillful means to develop the mental faculties to focus the mind, to clarify the mind and to develop the sharpness of mind. These methods help us maintain our diligence in the practice of Mahamudra. These yidam practices are divided into the creation stage (Skt. uppatti-krama) and the completion stage (Skt. sampanna- krama). In the creation stage, the mind becomes very clear, very focused and free from distraction. The completion stage of yidam practice is no different from Mahamudra.
From the point ofview ofphilosophy, there are two major schools ofthought concerned here: the Mind-only (Skt. Chittamatra) school and the Middle-way (Skt. Madhyamaka) school. The Mind-only view is that all external appearances have no real existence but are just mind. The Middle-way school holds that the mind also has no real existence and is essentially empty. For those ofus who do Mahamudra practice we must first understand that all external appearances or phenomena are actually mind and then realize the mind is empty to be able to establish the true view of Mahamudra.
How is it that all appearances are mind? First of all, through examination of solid external appearances we find that they do not
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really exist. We simply use labels for external appearances that are made by the mind. For instance, we have the word "hand" which we apply to a hand. But ifwe examine this hand closely we find that the "hand" is actually made up offour fingers and the thumb and various joints and skin and so on. The thing we call a "hand" is actually made up of other parts and there isn't a single thing we can say is a hand. It is just a label for this collection ofthings that appear together.
